COURSE CODE- PSY 403

COURSE TITLE- PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR 1

STATUS-COMPULSORY

COURSE OUTLINE

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Meaning of Psychobiology
Divisions in Psychobiology
The subject matter of neuroscience: The main systems and their parts
Brain and Behaviour
Brain-Behaviour Relationship Mechanism
Hormone and behaviour
Specific Clinical Condition; i. Prosopagnosia ii. Parkinson’s Disease iii. Huntington’s
Disease- meaning, psychological and biological processes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this course, you should be able to have a good understanding of the following;

explain the nature and scope of Psychobiology;

meaning of psychobiology
describe the different divisions of psychobiology;
concepts of neuroscience and its main systems
the psychological and biological processes of specific clinical conditions that was
identified.
 INTRODUCTION

Most of us are familiar with the image and pictures of human brain. The human brain is the
seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller
of behaviour. the brain is the source of all qualities that defines our humanity. Though not
very attractive, it resembles a wrinkled walnut. The appearance of the human brain is far
from impressive. The human brain is a squishy, wrinkled, walnut-shaped hunk of tissue
weighing only about 1.3 kilograms, but consists of infinite neural connections (neurons-
cells that receive and transmit electrochemical signals) which control all our behaviours. The
human brain is highly complicated. It is an organ that is responsible for so many varied tasks
and activities ranging from simple to complex, and still, it is the least understood organ of
our body.

The human brain at birth weighs about 350 grams. The development is rapid and areas of
the brain that are inactive at birth approach adult patterns of activity within 7 to 8 months.
The brain weighs 1000 grams at the ends of the first year. The brain develops partly by the
expansion of old units and partly by the addition of new units. The brain contains more than
90% of the body’s neurons. These are interconnected neurons that pass information
between themselves. The brain has plasticity, that is, it can be physically and chemically
altered by experience. In a pioneering study of the influence of the environment on the
brain, researchers found that rats that had been raised in a stimulating environment had
some synaptic connections than rats that had been raised in cages that offered them no
opportunities.

Neuroscience is the branch of science that studies the brain, the spinal cord, the nerves
extending from them, and the rest of the nervous systems including the synapses, etc.
Recall that neurons, or nerve cells, are the biological cells that make up the nervous system,
and the nervous system is the complex network of connections between those cells. In this
connection, it may involve itself with the cellular and molecular bases of the nervous system
as well as the systems responsible for sensory and motor activities of the body. It also deals
with the physical bases of mental processes of all levels, including emotions and cognitive
elements. Thus, it concerns itself with issues such as thoughts, mental activities, behaviors,
the brain and the spinal cord, functions of nerves, neural disorders, etc. It wrestles with
questions such as What is consciousness? How and why do beings have mental activities?
What are the physical bases for the variety of neural and mental illnesses, etc. Neuroscience
is summarily referred to as (the scientific study of the nervous system). Neuroscience
comprises several related disciplines. A closely related field of the neuroscience is
Psychobiology, which draws information from it to study human and animal behaviour. It is
also known as biopsychology, behavioural biology, or behavioural neuroscience. In this
discussion, we will discuss about this related branch of neuroscience, that is psychobiology.
Major divisions of psychobiology and the divisions of psychobiology so on.

MEANING OF PSYCHOLOBIOLOGY

Psychobiology is the scientific study of the biology of behaviour. Psychobiology is a branch

of psychology that analyses how the brain, neurotransmitters, and other aspect of our
biology influences our behaviours, thoughts and feelings. The psychobiologist often look at
how biological processes interact with emotions, cognitions and other mental processes.
The psychobiologist try to investigate scientifically how biological processes interact with
cognition, emotions and other psychological processes. Psychology commands center stage
in this text. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior—the scientific study of all overt
activities of the organism as well as all the internal processes that are presumed to underlie
them (e.g., learning, memory, motivation, perception, and emotion). We can trace a long
history of the study of biology of behavior. But biopsychology as a separate discipline of
neuroscience, emerged in the 20th century, through D. O. Hebbs' a (Canadian psychologist)
seminar publication. The Organization of Behaviour in 1949, in the field of psychology and
neuroscience, paved the way for future investigation of neural foundations of behavior.
What Hebb proposed in 1949, is being applied in the present times in the fields of
engineering, robotics, psychology, neuroscience, and neurophysiology, in summary, D. O.
Hebb played a key role in its emergence.

Psychobiology is an integrative discipline, Psychobiology, thus, draws information from

neurosciences and uses the information to study human and animal behavior. It may be
better understood as that neuroscience is a team effort and psychobiologist is a part of this
team. A A psychobiologist may draw information from other disciplines of neuroscience and
apply it to the study of behavior.
In identifying the sub-branches within neuroscience, there are quite a few ways of doing so.
However, here we will follow the lead of the Society for Neuroscience which identifies the
following five branches: Neuro-anatomy, Developmental Neuroscience, Cognitive
Neuroscience, Behavioral Neuroscience, and Neurology. Of these, neuroanatomy concerns
itself mainly with the issue of structures and parts of the nervous system. In this discipline,
the scientists employ special dyeing techniques in identifying neurotransmitters and in
understanding the specific functions of the nerves and nerve centers. Neurotransmitters are
chemicals released between neurons for transmission of signals. When a neuron
communicates with its neighboring cells, it releases neurotransmitters and its neighbors
receive them. In developmental neuroscience, the scientists look into the phases and
processes of development of nervous system, the changes they undergo after they have
matured, and their eventual degeneration. In this regard, the scientists also investigate the
ways neurons go about seeking connection with other neurons, how they establish the
connection, and how they maintain the connection and what chemical changes and
processes they have to undergo for these activities. Neurons make connections to form
networks, and the different patterns of connectivity support different functions. Patterns of
connectivity can change over different time scales, such as developmental changes over a
lifetime from infancy to old age, but also in the short term such as learning a new concept.
Neuroplasticity is the term that describes the capacity of the brain to change in response to
stimulation or even damage: it is not a static organ, but is highly adaptable. In cognitive
neuroscience, they study the functions of behaviors, perceptions, and memories, etc. By
making use of non-invasive methods such as the PTE and MRI technologies that allow us to
take detailed pictures of the brain without opening the skull, they look into the neural
pathways activated during engagement in language, solutions, and other activities.
Cognitive neuroscience studies the mind-body relationship by discovering the neural
correlates to mental and behavioral phenomena. Behavioral neuroscience looks into the
underpinning processes of human and animal behaviors. Using electrodes, they measure the
neural electrical activities occurring alongside our actions such as visual perception,
language use, and generating memories. Through fMRI scan techniques, another technology
that allows us to take detailed motion pictures of brain activity over time without opening
the skull, they strive to arrive at closer understanding of the brain parts in real time. Finally,
neurology makes use of the fundamental research findings of the other disciplines in
understanding the neural and neuronal disorders and strives to explore new innovative
ways of detecting, preventing, and treating these disorders.

So, it may be rightly said that the field of Psychobiology is diverse and it is one of the
branches that contributes to neuroscience. The research conducted in psychobiology is also
from varied perspectives. Psychobiological research is conducted on human or non-human
participants. The most common non-human research participants are mice, rats, followed
by cats and dogs. There are three (3) advantages/merits in conducting research on non-
human participants. The first being, that the brain and behavior of non-human participants
is less complex as compared to human participants. Thus, the basic fundamental brain-
behaviour interactions may be revealed. Secondly, conducting research on such a group
leads to a comparative approach where biological processes of different species maybe
compared. Thirdly, it is easy to conduct research on laboratory animals rather than human
participants due to ethical reasons, that is there are fewer ethical constraints while we
conduct research on animals. Though, the research in Psychology and its branches, are all
governed by strict ethical guidelines framed by organizations, like American Psychological
Association (Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Nonhuman Animals in
Research. Research in psychobiology may be a pure research or applied research, and the
study is based on empirical investigations with applications for the society. The research
can be done using an experimental approach or non-experimental approach or case
studies. The scope is to understand the basis of behavior. Behaviour changes are primarily
due to disruptions in various brain regions and neural circuits. This may happen because of
head injury. Secondly, learning, exercise, etc, also changes the neural structures. So, how it
produces a corresponding change in behavioral functions can be studied with the help of
various research methods that are used to understand the functioning of the mental
processes by examining the biological systems.

Psychobiology also aims to understand aspects like, the evolution of brain and its influence
on behavior, the development of the nervous system across the life span, which areas of
the brain are involved in sensation, perception, memory, movement, the role of brain in
emotional expression and regulation, language and cognition, and how the behavioral
change occurs after brain damage or trauma. It also seeks to understand the role of
genetics and endocrine system in maintenance of homeostasis, and enhancing health and
wellbeing of people suffering from various neurological disorders. There has been some
very significant research related to brain-behaviour interactions that have been awarded
Nobel Prize! You must have read about Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, in the course
Introduction to Psychology (refer to Classical Conditioning). Pavlov was Nobel prize winner
in 1904 for his research on physiology of digestion.

THE SUBJECT MATTER OF NEUROSCIENCE: THE MAIN SYSTEMS AND THEIR PARTS

The field of neuroscience is the nervous system of animals in general and of humans in
particular. In the case of humans, its nervous system has two main components: the
central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS
comprises of the brain and the spinal cord. Their functions involve processing and
interpreting the information received from the senses, skin, muscles, etc. and giving
responses that direct and dictate specific actions such as particular movements by
different parts of the body. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all the rest of
the nervous system aside from the central nervous system. This means that it comprises
the 12 pairs of cranial nerves that originate directly from the brain and spread to different
parts of the body bypassing the spinal cord, and the 31 pairs of spinal nerves that pass
through the spinal cord and spread to different parts of the body. The 31 pairs of peripheral
spinal nerves consist of eight (8) pairs of cervical nerves, twelve (12) pairs of thoracic
nerves, five (5) pairs of lumbar nerves, five (5) pairs of sacral nerves, and one (1) pair of
coccygeal nerves. Thus, the PNS is mainly constituted of nerve.

PNS is sometimes further classified into voluntary/somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system. This is based on the fact that the nerves in the former system
are involved in making conscious movements, whereas those in the latter system make
movements over which the person does not have control. Obviously, the former category of
nerves includes those associated with the muscles of touch, smell, vision, and skeleton. The
latter includes nerves spread over muscles attached with heart beats, blood pressure,
glands, and smooth muscles.
AN EXCLUSIVE LOOK AT ‘NEURONS’, A FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF THE BRAIN AND THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neurons are the cellular units of the brain and nervous system, and are otherwise called
nerve cells. Neuron is the information processing and information-transmitting element of
the nervous system. Neurons comes in many shapes and varieties, according to the
specialised job they perform. Estimates of the number of brain neurons range from 50
billion to 500 billion, and they are not even the most numerous cells in the brain. Like
hepatocyte cells in the liver, osteocytes in bone, or erythrocytes in blood, each neuron is a
self-contained functioning unit. Its internal components, the organelles (a subcellular
structure that has one or more specific jobs to perform in the cell), include a nucleus
harboring the genetic material (DNA), energy-providing mitochondria, and protein- making
ribosomes.

For further discussion on neuron, Estimates of the number of brain neurons range from 50
billion to 500 billion, and they are not even the most numerous cells in the brain. Like
hepatocyte cells in the liver, osteocytes in bone, or erythrocytes in blood, each neuron is a
self-contained functioning unit. Most neurones have in one for or another, the following
four (4) structures or regions: (1) cell body or soma; (2) dendrites (3) axons; and (4) terminal
buttons.

Soma- the soma (cell-body) contains the nucleus and much of the machinery that provides
for the life processes of the cell. Its shapes varies considerably in different kind of neurons.

Dendrites- Dendron is the Greek word for tree, and the dendrites of the neuron looks very
much like trees. Neurons converse with one another and dendrites serves as important
recipients of the message. The message that pass from neuron to neuron are transmitted
across the synapse, a junction between the terminal button of the sending cells and a
portion of the somatic or dendrite membrane of the receiving cell. Synapse are
communication sites where neurons pass nerve impulses among themselves. The cells are
not usually in actual physical contact, but are separated by an incredibly thin gap, called the
synaptic cleft. It is a junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of
another neuron.
Axon- the axon is a long, slender/thin, cylindrical structure that convey information from
the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons. Note that the basic message it carries is called
the action potential.

Terminal Buttons- are the bud at the end of a branch of an axon, below the myelin sheath
and are responsible for sending signal on to other neurons. At the end of the terminal
button is a gap known as a synapse. Neurotransmitters carry signals across the synapse to
the other neurons. Neurotransmitter are chemicals that your body can’t do without. Their
job is to carry chemical signals (messages) from one neuron (nerve cell) to the next target
cell. The next target can be another nerve cell, a muscle cell or a gland. They deliver to
type of chemical messages. The excitatory message and the inhibitory message. There are
some common types- Acetylcholine, monoamines and so on.

Classification of neurons

There are numerous ways of classifying neurons among themselves. One of them is by the
direction that they send information. On this basis, we can classify all neurons into the
three: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. The sensory neurons are those
that send information received from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system,
whereas the motor neurons send information away from the central nervous system to
muscles or glands. The interneurons are those neurons that send information between
sensory neurons and motor neurons. Here, the sensory neurons receive information from
sensory receptors (e.g., in skin, eyes, nose, tongue, ears) and send them toward the central
nervous system. Because of this, these neurons are also called afferent neurons as they
bring informational input towards the central nervous system. Likewise, the motor neurons
bring motor information away from the central nervous system to muscles or glands, and
are thus called efferent neurons as they bring the output from the central nervous system to
the muscles or glands. Since the interneurons send information between sensory neurons
and motor neurons, thus serving as connecting links between them, they are sometimes
called internuncial neurons. This third type of neurons is mostly found in the central nervous
system.

Another way of classifying the neurons is by the number of extensions that extend from
the neuron’s cell body (soma). In accordance with this system, we have unipolar, bipolar,
and multipolar neurons. This classification takes into account the number of extensions
extending initially from the cell body of the neuron, not the overall number of extensions.
This is because there can be unipolar neurons which have more than one extensions in total.
However, what the difference here is from the other two types of neurons is that these
unipolar neurons shall have only one initial extension from the cell body. Most of the
neurons are multipolar in nature.

SUPPORTING CELLS- Neurons constitute only about half the volume of the CNS. The rest
consist of a variety of supporting cells. Because neurons have a very high rate of metabolism
but have no means of storing nutrients, they must constantly be supplied with nutrients and
oxygen or they will quickly die. Thus, the role played by the cells that support and protect
neurons is very important to our existence.

Glia- the most important supporting cells of the CNS are the neuroglia or ‘nerve glue’. The
glia (glia cells) do indeed glue the CNS together, but they much more than that. Glia cells
surround neurons and hold them in place, controlling their supply of nutients and some of
the chemicals they need to exchange messages with other neurons; they insulate neurons
from one another so that neural messages do not scrambled; and they even act as
housekeepers, destroying and removing the carcasses of neurons that are killed by disease
or injury.

There are several types of glial cells, each of which plays a special role in the CNS. The three
most important types are; astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia.

Astrocytes (or astroglia) provide physical support to neurons and cleans up debris within
the brain. They produce some chemicals that neurons need to fulfil their functions. They
help to control the chemical composition of the fluid surrounding neurons by actively taking
up or releasing substances whose concentrations must be kept within critical levels. Finally,
astrocytes are involved in providing nourishment to the neurons.

The principal function of the oligodendrocytes is to provide support to axons and to

produce the myelin sheath, which insulate most axons from one another.

As their name indicate, microglia are the smallest of the glial cells. Like the astrocytes, they
engulf and break down dead and dying neurons. In addition, they serve as one of the
representatives of the immune systems in the brain, protecting the brain from invading
microorganisms. They are primarily responsible for inflammatory reaction in response to
brain damage.

Schwann Cells- it’s also called neurilemma cell. its located in the PNS. its any cell that
produce the myelin sheath around neuronal axons. Schwann cells are named after German
physiologist Theodor Schwann, who discovered them in the 19 th century. They are
equivalent to oligodendrocyte, which occurs in the CNS.

Blood-Brain Barrier- is the protective layer that lines the inner surfaces of the blood vessels
inside your brain. It is a key part of how your brain and nervous system work. Though the
name includes the word ‘barrier’, its really more of a gatekeeper to your brain. It shields the
brain from toxic substances in the blood, supplies brain tissues with nutrients, and filters
harmful compounds from the brain back to the blood stream.

Synapses

Synapses are communication sites where neurons pass nerve impulses among themselves.
The cells are not usually in actual physical contact, but are separated by an incredibly thin
gap, called the synaptic cleft. Microanatomically, synapses are divided into types according
to the sites where the neurons almost touch. These sites include the soma, the dendrites,
the axons, and tiny narrow projections called dendritic spines found on certain kinds of
dendrites.

How signals are passed among neurons

Neurons send signals to each other across the synapses. Initially, signals enter into the cell
body of a neuron through their dendrites, and they pass down the axon until their arrival at
the axon terminals. From there, the signal is sent across to the next neuron. Starting from
the time the signal passes along the dendrites and axon, eventually reaching the axon
terminal, it consists of moving electrically charges ions, but at a synapse while making that
transition, it relies more on the structural shape of the chemical neurotransmitters.

Every two neurons are separated by a gap, called synaptic cleft, at their synaptic site. The
neuron preceding the synapse is known as pre-synaptic neuron and the one following the
synapse is known as post-synaptic neuron. When the action potential of the pre-synaptic
neuron is passed along its axon and reaches the other end of it, it causes synaptic vesicles to
fuse or merge with the membrane. This releases the neurotransmitter molecules to pass or
diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the post-synaptic membrane and slot into receptor sites.

Neurotransmitter molecules slot into the same-shaped receptor sites in the postsynaptic
membrane. A particular neurotransmitter can either excite a receiving nerve cell and
continue a nerve impulse, or inhibit it. Which of these occurs depends on the type of
membrane channel on the receiving cell.

The interaction among neurons or between a neuron and another type of body cell, all
occur due to the transfer of neurotransmitters. Thus, our body movements, mental thought
processes, as well as feelings, etc. are all dependent on the transfer of neurotransmitters.

In particular, let’s take a look into how the muscle movements happen due to the transfer of
neurotransmitter. The axons of motor neurons extend from the spinal cord to the muscle
fibers. For intending to perform any action, either of the speech or body, the command has
to originate from the brain to the spinal cord. From the spinal cord, the command has to
pass through motor neurons to the specific body parts, upon which the respective actions
will be performed. The electrical impulse released along the axon of the motor neuron
arrives at the axon terminal. Once they are there, then the neurotransmitters are secreted
to carry the signals across the synapse. The receptors in the membrane of the muscles cells
attach to the neurotransmitters and stimulate the electrically charged ions within the
muscle cells. This leads to the contraction or extension of the respective muscles.

Brain and Behaviour

Neurobiology is the study of the neural basis of behaviour, which comes down to the study
of the brain and how it functions to control behaviour. The physical basis of everything that
we are and do, both as members of the species called Homosapiens and as individuals, is to
be found in the brain. All our responses and behavioural patterns, everything that we have
learned and experienced throughout our lifetimes are in some ways coded in the brain. Our
actions and subjective experiences are but outward reflections of the patterns of physical
activity in the brain.

Our understanding of the brain will help us to understand the reasons for all aspects of
human behaviour. psychologists are continually discovering new connections between
psychological and biological events and processes, and therefore consider neurobiology of
primary interest and importance.

The Human Nervous System

The nervous system is organised into two parts viz the Central Nervous System (CNS) and
the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). The CNS consist of the Brain and the Spinal cord.
These are found housed within the skull and vertebral column respectively. The PNS, which
connects the CNS to the rest of the body, consist of the Autonomic System and Somatic
System, The ANS is further divided into two (2), which are the Sympathetic and the
Parasympathetic divisions. The Somatic division- is made up of both sensory and motor
neurons that are involved in the control of voluntary muscle group. The somatic division of
the PNS carries message forward to the CNS from the sensory organs by the sensory
(afferent) neurons while the motor (efferent) neurons carry messages from the CNS to the
skeletal muscles of the body. A reflex action occurs when an afferent message travels to the
spinal cord and an efferent message for an action immediately returns to the muscles by
passing the brain.

The Autonomic Division- the autonomic nervous system carries messages from the CNS
and the internal organs. Its responsible for the involuntary functions of the body. This is
also broken into two (2) part namely; the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions.
The sympathetic also known as the ‘fight’ or ‘flight’ branch activates the body for
emergencies while the parasympathetic relaxes and restores the body and conserves
energy.

The Human Brain

The human brain is the most complex structure in the known universe. The human central
nervous system begins to form when the embryo is about two weeks old. The dorsal surface
of the embryo first thickens, then long thin lips rise and curl, merging to form a neural tube
surrounding a fluid-filled cavity. The tube sinks under the surface of the skin and continues
to develop into both the brain (its forward end) and the spinal cord.
The human brain at birth weighs about 350 grams. The development is rapid and areas of
the brain that are inactive at birth approach adult patterns of activity within 7 to 8 months.
The brain weighs 1000 grams at the ends of the first year. The brain develops partly by the
expansion of old units and partly by the addition of new units. The brain contains more than
90% of the body’s neurons. These are interconnected neurons that pass information
between themselves. The brain has plasticity, that is, it can be physically and chemically
altered by experience. In a pioneering study of the influence of the environment on the
brain, researchers found that rats that had been raised in a stimulating environment had
some synaptic connections than rats that had been raised in cages that offered them no
opportunities.

FURTHER FACTS ABOUT HUMAN BRAIN

Brain is a complex organ generally found in vertebrates. Of all the brains, human brain is
even more complex. On average, a human brain weighs about one and a half kilogram, and
has over 100 billion neurons. Each of these neurons is connected with several other neurons
and thus, just the number of synapses (nerve cell connections) exceeds 100 trillion. The
sustenance required to keep these neurons alive is supplied by different parts of the body.
For example, 25 percent of the body total oxygen consumption is used up by the brain.
Likewise, 25 percent of the glucose produced by our food is used up by it. Of the total
amount of blood pumped out by our heart, 15 percent goes to the brain. Thus, from among
the different parts of the body, the brain is the single part that uses the most amount of
energy. The reason for this is because the brain engages itself in unceasing activity, day and
night, of interpreting data form the internal and external environment, and respond to
them. To protect this important organ from harm, it is naturally enclosed in three layers of
protection, with an additional cushioning fluid in between. These layers are, in turn,
protected with the hard covering, the skull, which is once again wound around by the skin of
the scalp.

The main function of the brain is to enhance the chance of survival of the person by proper
regulation of the body conditions based on the brain’s reading of the internal and external
environment. The way it carries out this function is by first registering the information
received and responding to them by undertaking several activities. The brain also gives rise
to inner conscious awareness alongside performing those processes. When the data,
released by the different body senses, in the form of electrical impulses uninterruptedly
arrive at the brain, the brain first of all checks their importance. When it finds them to be
either irrelevant or commonplace, then it makes them dissolve by themselves and the
concerned person doesn’t even generate an awareness of them. This is how only around 5
percent of the overall information received by the brain ever reaches our consciousness. For
the rest of the information, the brain may process them, but they never become the subject
of our consciousness. If, on the other hand, the information at hand is important or novel,
the brain increases it impulses and allows it to active all over its parts. Remaining active for
over a period of time, a conscious awareness unto this impulse is generated. Sometimes, in
the wake of generating a conscious awareness, the brain sends commands to relevant
muscles for either contraction or extension, thus making the body parts in question to
engage in certain actions.

MAJOR PARTS OF HUMAN BRAIN

Human brain is enclosed within its natural enclosures. In its normal form, it is found to be
composed of three major parts which together these parts process the incoming information
from peripheral tissues and generate commands; telling the tissues how to respond and
function. These commands tackle the most complex voluntary and involuntary human body
functions, from breathing to thinking.

Cerebrum (Telencephalon)

The cerebrum is located in the fore brain (Prosencephalon)- the largest region of the
brain. The structure of the fore brain also includes (Pituitary gland, limbic system) etc…

Of the three parts mentioned above, cerebrum is located in the uppermost position and is
also the largest in size. It takes up ¾ of the entire brain size. It is itself composed of two
brain hemispheres—the right and the left hemispheres. The two hemispheres are held
together by a bridge like part called corpus callosum, a large bundle of neurons. Most of the
brain parts belong to cerebrum, such as amygdala and hippocampus, as well as thalamus,
hypothalamus, and other associated regions. In short, of the division into forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain—in which the entirety of brain is accounted for, the cerebrum
contains the whole of forebrain
The surface area of the cerebral cortex is actually quite large, and described above, it
becomes folded to fit inside the skull. Humans are highly intelligent and creative animals not
just because of the size of our brains, but also because of the complexity of the connections
among our neurons. The folded nature of the human cortex promotes more complex
connections between areas. For example, take a piece of blank paper, and draw five dots,
one on each corner and one in the middle. Now draw lines from each dot to the other four
dots. Imagine if these five dots were buildings, and the lines you drew were roads, then it
would require more time to traverse from one corner to another corner than from one
corner to the center. But what if you fold the four corners of the paper on top of the center
of the page? Suddenly all five of those dots become immediate neighbors, and it becomes
very easy to walk from one “building” to another. The folding of the cortex has a similar
effect. Neurons make connections with their neighbors, and if folding the cortex increases
the number of neighbors each neuron has, then it also increases the complexity of the
networks that can be formed among those neurons.

The cerebrum is responsible also responsible for; memory, speech, the senses, and
emotional responses.

Cerebellum (Little Brain)

Cerebellum is located below the cerebrum and at the upper back of the brainstem. Its
name connotes its small size. Its mass is 1/10 of the whole brain. However, in terms of the
number of neurons it contains, it exceeds that of the remaining parts of the central nervous
system combined. This lump of nerve tissues, bearing the look of something cut in half,
covers most of the back of brainstem. With the help of three pairs of fibers, collectively
called cerebral peduncles, the brainstem is bound to the cerebellum. Like the cerebrum, it
also has a wrinkled surface. The cerebellum isn’t unique to humans. Evolutionarily speaking,
it’s an older portion of the brain. It’s present in animals, such as apes, that scientists believe
existed before humans. It’s a relatively small portion of the brain — about 10 percent of the
total weight — but it contains over half (and maybe as much as 80 percent) of the
brain’s neurons. Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information via electrical signals.
The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other
parts of the brain and then regulates control of movements. As of now, it has been
established that cerebellum’s main function is in coordinating the body movement.
Although, it may not initiate the movements, however it helps in the coordination and
timely performance of movements, ensuring their integrated control. It receives data from
spinal cord and other parts of the brain, and these data undergo integration and
modification, contributing to the balance and smooth functioning of the movements, and
thus helps in maintaining the equilibrium. Therefore, whenever this part of the brain is
plagued by a disorder, the person may not lose total movement, but their ability of
performing measured and steady movements is affected as also their ability to learn new
movements. Within the division of entire brain into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain—
cerebellum forms part of the hindbrain.

Although similar to the cerebrum, but has different functions from the cerebellum. The
cerebellum works directly with the structure in the cerebrum to coordinates functions
such as posture and balance; it also send signals to control the muscle movement; it plays
a vital role in most physical movement including the eye movement. Although problem
with the cerebellum can be rare.

Damage to the cerebellum, while not causing paralysis or intellectual impairment, might
lead to: lack of balance, slower movements & tremors (shaking)

The Brainstem

Brainstem is located below the cerebrum and in front of cerebellum. Its lower end connects
with the spinal cord. It is perhaps misnamed. It is not a stem leading to a separate brain
above, but an integral part of the brain itself. The brainstem is the lower part of the brain
that connects with the spinal cord. It controls functions that we don't usually think about.
They include: breathing, sneezing and coughing, swallowing and our heartbeat and blood
pressure. When brainstem is damaged, that will immediately trigger danger to life by
hindering heartbeat and respiratory processes.

The brain stem is the bottom portion of the brain; it accompanies the cerebrum in
promoting full physical and mental functions; the brain stem manages vital automatic
functions such as breathing, circulation, sleeping, digestion and swallowing; the brain
stem also controls reflexes.
Physically, the brain has three (3) more or less distinct areas: the hindbrain, the midbrain
and the forebrain.

Hind Brain (Rhombencephalon)- the hindbrain is found in even the most primitive
vertebrates. Its is protected by the thickest part of the skull. It includes structures that
together carry out the functions most basic to survival such as sleeping, waking, breathing
and cardiovascular function. It is made up of the cerebellum, the pons and the medulla.

The cerebellum, which means ‘little brain’ is located at the very back of the brain, just
above where the brain and spinal cord meet. It is divided into two (2) hemisphere and
handles certain reflexes, especially those that have to do with balance and equilibrium. It
also coordinates the muscular movements, ensuring that they are smooth and efficient. The
cerebellum act as a separate, independent processor that integrates information from the
hindbrain (and other sensory information) with input from the forebrain. Any damage to
the cerebellum can cause ataxia. Ataxia is a condition characterised by uncoordinated
movement, lack of balance and severe tremors. A person who has ataxia lacks the control
needed for even simple reaching movements. Another part of the cerebellum is involved in
the learning and remembering of motor tasks.

The Pons meaning ‘bridge’ connects the two halves of the cerebellum lying above it. It
transmits to the cerebellum information about body movements that it receives from higher
brain centres and spinal cord. It is located just above the medulla. It produces chemicals
that helps us maintain our sleep-wake cycle.

The medulla is a narrow structure nearest to the spinal cord. It is the point at which many of
the nerves from the left part of the body cross to the right side of the brain and vice versa.
The medulla controls such functions as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. The
medulla plays an important role in many autonomic activities such as circulation and
breathing. It is involved in chewing, salivation and facial movement.

Midbrain (Mesencephalon) - the midbrain lies between the hindbrain and forebrain. It is
crucial for hearing and sight. All sensory and motor information passing back and forth
between the forebrain and spinal cord go through the midbrain. The midbrain also contains
the substantia nigra, a brain region rich in dopamine neurons. When these neurons
degenerates, it is difficult for the person to walk, the hand becomes shaky as in Parkinson
disease.

The fore brain (Prosencephalon) - is the most prominent part of the brain and the most
important to psychology. It is composed of many substructures, which is referred to as
limbic system. The limbic system is a collection of several different structures that seems to
play a major role in controlling emotions. Some part of the system inhibits while other part
excite response. The fore brain of the thalamus, the hypothalamus, basal ganglia, the
cerebral cortex and others.

The thalamus- is relatively large anatomical structure located near the centre of the brain.
It’s considered ‘the great relay station of the brain’. It consists of many quite separate
clusters of neurons called nuclei. It’s through the thalamus that all auditory, visual, taste
and touch sensory signals must pass to and from specific parts of the nervous system. the
thalamus receives messages from the ears, eyes and spinal cord and then projects those
signals to the appropriate areas of the cortex. It also functions as a clearinghouse for motor
impulses that needs direction. When brain commands are sent to the various regions of the
body, it is the thalamus that sends them along the proper channels. Many of the induce
hallucinations work by disrupting normal processing in the thalamus. The thalamus also
plays a big role in sleep and consciousness.

The Hypothalamus- is a small structure, roughly the size and shape of an almond. Its located
between the thalamus and the pituitary gland. It consists of various nuclei, each with
different but complementary functions. Many of these nuclei are involved in basic survival
behaviours, such as sexual activity, drinking, eating, aggression and fear. Some nuclei in the
hypothalamus are involved in regulating the body’s internal temperature, it also regulates
the activities of the pituitary gland (which regulates hormonal secretion from other glands
throughout the body). It plays a critical role in everything from regulation of glucose levels in
the blood to the formation of new memories. The hypothalamus also governs motivation
and emotion and appears to play a role in coordinating the responses of the nervous system
in time of stress. The hypothalamus serves as the control center for many autonomic
functions through the release of hormones. This part of the brain is also responsible for
maintaining homeostasis, which is the balance of your body's systems including body
temperature and blood pressure. The hypothalamus receives a steady stream of
information about bodily functions. When the hypothalamus detects an unanticipated
imbalance, it employs a mechanism to counteract the disparity. As the main area that
regulates hormone secretion (including hormone release from the pituitary gland), the
hypothalamus has widespread effects on the body and behavior.

Basal ganglia- is a set of structures that scattered between the thalamus and the outer shell
of the brain. This set of structures include the amygdala, putamen, caudate nucleus and
Globus pallidus. The disruption of the neurochemistry of the basal ganglia leads to
disturbances in motor behaviour such as walking or drawing a picture.

The cerebral cortex- is the part of the brain that covers the rest of the brain with rough,
wrinkled appearance like the bark of a tree. The cortex makes up over two-thirds the weight
of the entire nervous system. The cerebral cortex also distinguishes us from lower
organisms. The cerebral cortex facilitates most complicated cognitive tasks like language,
problem solving, creativity and so on. It underlies logical and rational thought, and is
largely responsible for what we might call intelligent behaviour. The cerebral hemisphere
is located above the thalamus and hypothalamus, take up most of the room inside the
skull. The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres is known as the cerebral cortex. The
cerebral hemisphere are the mostly recently evolved portions the brain, and the regulates
the most complex behaviour. They are what most people think of when they think of the
brain. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided in four (4) lobes- the occipital lobe; which is
located at the back of the head. It receives and processes visual information. This lobe
processes what you can see. Secondly, the temporal lobe which is located roughly behind
the temples. Its important for the sense of smell. It also helps us perform complex visual
tasks such as recognising faces. The temporal lobe is where you process sounds and where
memories are stored. It is also responsible for processing language. Thirdly, the parietal
lobe-sits on top of the temporal and occipital lobes. The parietal lobe recognises objects in
the world and stores that knowledge. It's where you receive and process: touch, pressure
and pain. Lastly, the frontal lobes; is the part of cerebral cortex responsible for voluntary
movement and attention as well as goal-directed behaviour. The frontal lobe is important
for: speaking, planning, problem solving and even part of your personality and character.
The brain starts response messages in the motor projection areas, from which they proceed
to the muscles and glands. The frontal lobe may also be linked to emotional temperament.

These four lobes are both physically and functionally distinct. Each lobes contains areas for
specific motor sensory function as well as association areas. The association areas are areas
that are free to process all kinds of information. They make up most of the cerebral cortex
and enables the brain to produce behaviours requiring the coordination of many brain
areas.

TYPICAL TABLE DIAGRAM THAT SHOWS THE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN

Part of the brain Their functions

Hindbrain Medulla Sensory and motor nerves
crossover
Pons Regulation of sleep-wake
cycle.
Cerebellum Reflexes (e.g. balance);
coordinates movement.
Midbrain Hearing, vision relay point;
pain registered
Forebrain Thalamus Major message relay centre;
regulates higher brain
centres and peripheral
nervous system
Hypothalamus Motivation, emotion, stress
reaction
 Cerebral hemisphere
Occipital lobe Receives and processes
visual information
Temporal lobe Complex vision, smell,
hearing, balance and
equilibrium; emotions and
motivations. Some language
comprehension.
Parietal lobe Sensory projection and
association areas;
visual/spatial abilities
Frontal lobe Goal-directed behaviour,
concentration, emotional
control and temperament.
Motor projection and
association areas;
coordinate messages from
other lobes.

SUPPORT AND PROTECTION OF THE BRAIN

Protective Coverings of the Brain

The central nervous system (CNS) is crucial to the operation of the body and any
compromise of function in the brain and spinal cord can lead to severe difficulties. The brain
is protected by multiple structures. First, the bones of the skull enclose and house the brain.
Underneath the skeletal structures, the brain is protected by membranes made by connective
tissue, called meninges, that surround, support, stabilize and partition the nervous tissue.

In addition, the brain has a privileged blood supply, as suggested by the blood-brain barrier.
The function of the tissue is crucial to the survival of the organism, so the contents of the
blood cannot simply pass into the central nervous tissue. To protect this region from the
toxins and pathogens that may be traveling through the blood stream, there is strict control
over what can move out of the general systems and into the brain. Because of this privilege,
the brain needs specialized structures for the maintenance of circulation. This begins with a
unique arrangement of blood vessels carrying fresh blood into the brain and venous sinuses
carrying deoxygenated blood out of the brain. Beyond the supply of blood, the brain filters the
blood into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is then circulated through the cavities of the brain,
such as the subarachnoid space and the ventricles.

Protective structures of the brain. Superficially, the skin of the scalp and bones of the skull
create the first layer of protection. Deep to these layers, the meninges (represented by the
dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater) cover and partition the brain. Within the
meninges, blood inside blood vessels and sinuses, and cerebrospinal fluid within the
subarachnoid space and ventricles circulate to support the brain's function.

DISORDERS OF THE Central Nervous System: Strokes

The supply of blood to the brain is crucial to its ability to perform many functions. Without a
steady supply of oxygen, and to a lesser extent glucose, the nervous tissue in the brain cannot
keep up its extensive electrical activity. These nutrients get into the brain through the blood,
and if blood flow is interrupted, neurological function is compromised.

The common name for a disruption of blood supply to the brain is a stroke. It is caused by a
blockage to an artery in the brain or by blood leaking out of blood vessels (hemorrhagic
stroke), although less common. The blockage is caused by some type of embolus: a blood clot,
a fat embolus, or an air bubble. When the blood cannot travel through the artery, the
surrounding tissue that is deprived starves and dies. Strokes will often result in the loss of very
specific functions. A stroke in the lateral medulla, for example, can cause a loss in the ability to
swallow. Sometimes, seemingly unrelated functions will be lost because they are dependent
on structures in the same region. Along with the swallowing in the previous example, a stroke
in that region could affect sensory functions from the face or extremities because important
white matter pathways also pass through the lateral medulla. Loss of blood flow to specific
regions of the brain can lead to the loss of specific higher functions, from the ability to
recognize faces to the ability to move a particular region of the body. Severe or limited
memory loss can be the result of a temporal lobe stroke.

Related to strokes are transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), which can also be called “mini-
strokes.” These are events in which a physical blockage may be temporary, cutting off the
blood supply and oxygen to a region, but not to the extent that it causes cell death in that
region. While the neurons in that area are recovering from the event, neurological function
may be lost. TIAs usually resolve spontaneously by the body, that is why it is called
"transient".
Recovery from a stroke (or TIA) is strongly dependent on the speed of treatment. Often, the
person who is present and notices something is wrong must then make a decision. The
mnemonic FAST helps people remember what to look for when someone is dealing with
sudden losses of neurological function. If someone complains of feeling “funny,” check these
things quickly: Look at the person’s face. Does he or she have problems moving Face muscles
and making regular facial expressions? Ask the person to raise his or her Arms above the
head. Can the person lift one arm but not the other? Has the person’s Speech changed? Is he
or she slurring words or having trouble saying things? If any of these things have happened,
then it is Time to call for help.

Sometimes, treatment with blood-thinning drugs can alleviate the problem, and recovery is
possible. If the tissue is damaged, the amazing thing about the nervous system is that it is
adaptable. With physical, occupational, and speech therapy, victims of strokes can recover, or
more accurately relearn, functions as appropriate.

BRAIN-BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP MECHANISM

Brain is a thinking organ that learns and grows by interacting with the world through
perception and action. Mental stimulation improves brain function and actually protects
against cognitive decline.

Step back a half-billion years ago, to when the first nerve cells developed. The original need
for a nervous system was to coordinate movement, so an organism could go find food,
instead of waiting for the food to come to it. Jellyfish and sea anemone, the first animals to
create nerve cells, had a tremendous advantage over the sponges that waited brainlessly for
dinner to arrive.

After millions of generations of experimentation, nervous systems evolved some amazing

ways of going out to eat. But behind all the myriad forms of life today, the primary directive
remains. In fact, a diminished ability to move is a good measure of aging. Inflexibility heralds
death, while a flexible body and fluid mind are the hallmarks of youth.

Elastic comes from the Greek word for “drive” or “propulsion.” It is the tendency of a
material to return to its original shape after being stretched. Elasticity is the basic animal
drive that powers your muscles, giving you strength and balance – flexibility, mobility, and
grace. Plastic derives from the Greek word meaning “molded” or “formed.” It is the
tendency of the brain to shape itself according to experience. Plasticity is the basic mental
drive that networks your brain, giving you cognition and memory, fluidity, versatility, and
adaptability.

Before birth you created neurons, the brain cells that communicate with each other, at the
rate of 15 million per hour! When you emerged into the world, your 100 billion neurons
were primed to organise themselves in response to your new environment, no matter what
your culture, climate, language, or lifestyle was.

During infancy, billions of these extraordinary cells intertwined into the vast networks that
integrated your nervous system. By the time you were four or five years old, your
fundamental cerebral architecture was complete. Until your early teens, various windows of
opportunity opened when you could most easily learn language and writing, math and
music, as well as the coordinated movements used in sports and dance. But, at any age you
can and should continue to build your brain and expand your mind.

Throughout life, your neural networks reorganise and reinforce themselves in response to
new stimuli and learning experiences. This body mind interaction is what stimulates brain
cells to grow and connect with each other in complex ways. They do so by extending
branches of intricate nerve fibers called dendrites (from the Latin word for “tree”). These
are the antennas through which neurons receive communication from each other.

A healthy, well-functioning neuron can be directly linked to tens of thousands of other

neurons, creating a totality of more than a hundred trillion connections, each capable of
performing 200 calculations per second! This is the structural basis of your brain’s memory
capacity and thinking ability. As a product of its environment, your “three pound universe”
is essentially an internal map that reflects your external world. The human brain is able to
continually adapt and rewire itself and is responsible for all our behaviours, from breathing
to eating to being conscious to being alive. If it ceases to exist we will cease to exist.

Self-Assessment Questions

1. “The brain is the master organ of the body” Justify this statement

2. Cerebral Cortex is divided

into ............................., .........................., ........................................
and ............................................
 3. Discuss briefly on the brain-behaviour relationship mechanism

Selection of Behaviours

Animals such as simple worms have a limited sensory capacity and an equally limited
repertoire of behaviours. Animals such as dogs have a much more sophisticated sensory
capacity and a corresponding increase in behavioural options. Primates, including humans,
have even further developed sensory capacity and behavioural complexity.

Thus, as sensory and motor capacities increase, so does the problem of selection both of
information and of behaviour. Furthermore, as the brain expands, memory increases,
providing an internal variable in both stimulus interpretation and response selection. Finally,
as the number of sensory channels increases, the need to correlate the different inputs to
produce a single “reality” arises.

One way to consider these evolutionary changes is to posit that, as the brain expands to
increase sensorimotor capacity, so does some other process (or processes) having a role in
sensory and motor selection. One proposed process for selective awareness and response
to stimuli is attention.

The concept of attention implies that somehow we focus a “mental spotlight” on certain
sensory inputs, motor programs, memories, or internal representations. This spotlight might
be unconscious, in that we are not aware of the process, or it might be conscious, such as
when we scan our memories for someone’s name. The development of language should
increase the likelihood of conscious attention, but it is unlikely that all conscious processing
is verbal. One can speculate, for example, that the “Eureka” insight of Archimedes entailed
conscious processing that was more than just verbal.

The point is that, as sensorimotor capacities expand, so do the processes of attention and
consciousness. In broad terms, consciousness is, at a primary level, synonymous with
awareness and, at a secondary level, with awareness of awareness. The clear implication is
that consciousness is not a dichotomous phenomenon; rather, a gradual evolutionary
increase in consciousness is correlated with the ability to organise sensory and motor
capacities. The most evolved organiser is language, which implies an increased capacity for
the processes of attention.
CONSCIOUSNESS

Conscious experience is probably the most familiar mental process that we know as it
connects to our behaviours at times, yet its workings remain mysterious. Everyone has a
vague idea of what is meant by being conscious, but consciousness is easier to identify than
to define.

Definitions of consciousness range from the view that it merely refers to complex thought
processes to the more slippery implication that it is the subjective experience of awareness
or of “inner self.” Nonetheless, there is general agreement that whatever conscious
experience is, it is a process.

One of the first modern theories of consciousness was proposed by Descartes. He proposed
that being able to remember past events and being able to speak were the primary abilities
that enabled consciousness. But think if we encounter people who have lost the ability to
remember and have lost the ability to speak. We may not describe them as no longer being
conscious. In fact, consciousness is probably not a single process but a collection of many
processes, such as those associated with seeing, talking, thinking, emotion, and so on.

Consciousness is also not always the same. A person at different ages of life is not thought
to be equally conscious at each age; young children and demented adults are usually not
considered to experience the same type of consciousness as healthy adults do. Indeed, part
of the process of maturation is becoming fully conscious. And consciousness varies across
the span of a day as we pass through various states of sleep and waking.

Most definitions of consciousness exclude the conditions of simply being responsive to

sensory stimulation or simply being able to produce movement. Thus, animals whose
behaviour is simply reflexive are not conscious. Similarly, the isolated spinal cord, although a
repository for many reflexes, is not conscious.

Machines that are responsive to sensory events and are capable of complex movements are
not conscious. Many of the functions of normal humans, such as the beating of the heart,
are not conscious processes. Similarly, many processes of the nervous system, including
simple sensory processes and motor actions, are not conscious. Consciousness requires
processes that differ from all of the aforementioned.
Some people have argued that certain processes are much more important for
consciousness than others. Language is often argued to be essential to consciousness
because language makes a fundamental change in the nature of human consciousness.
Gazzaniga (2004) suggest that language acts as an interpreter, which he felt led to an
important difference between the functions of the hemispheres. People who are aphasic
are not considered to have lost conscious awareness, however; nor are people who have
their right hemispheres removed. Famous patient H. M., has a dense amnesia, yet he is
quite conscious and can engage in intelligent conversations. In sum, although language may
alter the nature of our conscious experience, it seems unlikely that any one brain structure
can be equated with consciousness. Rather, it makes more sense to view consciousness as a
product of all cortical areas, their connections, and their cognitive operations.

The Neural Basis of Consciousness

As stated earlier, consciousness must be a function of numerous interacting systems,

presumably including sensory areas, memory structures, and perhaps structures underlying
other processes such as emotion and executive functions. The problem for a theory of the
neural basis of consciousness is to explain how all these systems can be integrated.

Most investigators agree that at least four processes must take part:

1) Arousal, the waking up of the brain by nonspecific modulatory systems

2) Perception, the detection and binding of sensory features

3) Attention, the selection of a restricted sample of all available information

4) Working memory, the short-term storage of ongoing events.

Engel and Singer (2001) propose that all these processes either require or modify the
operation of an overall binding process and that binding is implemented by the transient
and precise synchronisation of neural discharges in diffuse neural networks. The general
idea is that neurons that represent the same object or event fire their action potentials in a
temporal synchrony with a precision of milliseconds. No such synchronisation should take
place between cells that are part of different cellular networks. Recall that the idea of
synchrony was proposed earlier as a mechanism of attention. Taken further, it is proposed
that without attention to an input there is no awareness of it.

Consciousness, a property of complex brains, binds diverse aspects of sensory information

into a single event that we experience as reality.

Self-Assessment Questions

1. “Brain is vital to our existence” justify this statement

2. Cerebral Cortex is divided into 4 lobes, name these lobes and give their functions?
3. How and why hypothalamus is responsible for our functioning?
4. Explain the processes that contribute to consciousness.
5. Explain briefly the neural connection of consciousness.
6. Give details of the four processes must take part in consciousness process:
i) Arousal, .......................................................................................
ii) Perception, ..................................................................................
iii) Attention, ....................................................................................
iv) Working memory, ........................................................................

Hormones and Behavior

The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances
known as hormones. Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that must
bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. However, unlike neurotransmitters, which
are released in close proximity to cells with their receptors, hormones are secreted into the
bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for
them. Thus, whereas neurotransmitters’ effects are localized, the effects of hormones are
widespread. Also, hormones are slower to take effect, and tend to be longer lasting.

The study of psychology and the endocrine system is called behavioral endocrinology, which
is the scientific study of the interaction between hormones and behavior. This interaction is
bidirectional: hormones can influence behavior, and behavior can sometimes influence
hormone concentrations. Hormones regulate behaviors such as aggression, mating, and
parenting of individuals. Hormones are involved in regulating all sorts of bodily functions,
and they are ultimately controlled through interactions between the hypothalamus (in the
central nervous system) and the pituitary gland (in the endocrine system). Imbalances in
hormones are related to a number of disorders. This section explores some of the major
glands that make up the endocrine system and the hormones secreted by these glands.

Major Glands

The pituitary gland descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in
close association with it. The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because its
messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system, although it
mostly carries out instructions from the hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones,
the pituitary also secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key
hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body.

Located in the neck, the thyroid gland releases hormones that regulate growth,
metabolism, and appetite. In hyperthyroidism, or Grave’s disease, the thyroid secretes too
much of the hormone thyroxine, causing agitation, bulging eyes, and weight loss. In
hypothyroidism, reduced hormone levels cause sufferers to experience tiredness, and they
often complain of feeling cold. Fortunately, thyroid disorders are often treatable with
medications that help re-establish a balance in the hormones secreted by the thyroid.

The adrenal glands sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress
response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
The pancreas is an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels:
insulin and glucagon. These pancreatic hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels
of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them
(glucagon). People who suffer from diabetes do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they
must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production, and they must closely
control the amount of sugars and carbohydrates they consume.

The gonads secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction, and mediate
both sexual motivation and behavior. The female gonads are the ovaries; the male gonads
are the testis. Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone, and the testes secrete
androgens, such as testosterone.