English Grammar

UNIT-1
THE SENTENCE
A sentence is a word group made up of meaningful words set
in a proper order to express a complete thought. Sentence
differ in view of structure and function .

In view of structure, there are three types of sentences. So, they

have their different kinds in view of these two aspects. In this chapter,
we shall study the three different types of sentences in view of
structure.

A .THREE TYPES OF SENTENCES

A) Observe the following sentences :
1. This story is very interesting.
2. I go for a morning walk daily.
3. The sheep are grazing on the hill-side.
1) SIMPLE SENTENCES : is a sentence which has
only one subject and only one predicate.
In these sentences;
(a) Each of these sentences has
only one subject. The three subjects are_
This story; I and the sheep.

(b) Each of these sentences has only one predicate. The three
predicate are-
Very interesting; go for a morning walk daily and are grazing on the
hill side.
Such types of sentences are known as SIMPLE SENTENCES.
B) Now observe these sentences:
1. It was Sunday and we went boating.
2. The sun rose and it was bright everywhere.
3. The clouds appeared but it did not rain.

Each of these sentences has two parts:

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 (a) It was Sunday and (b) we went boating
(a) The sun rose and (b) it was bright everywhere
(a) The clouds appeared and (b) it did not rain

2) COMPOUND SENTENCES: is a sentence which has two part or

more clauses of an equal rank (or co-ordinate clauses)

Both the parts of each sentences are independent simple sentences.

They are of an equal rank, i.e. importance. Neither of them depends
on other. Either of them can stand independently to express a
complete thought. They have been joined by conjunctions that
simply co-ordinate them. Such conjunctions are called co-ordinating
conjunctions and the simple sentences joined by them called co-ordinate
clauses.

Such sentences are called COMPOUND SENTENCES.

C) Observe the following sentences :

1. He was in bed because he had fever.
2. I do not know how I should please her
3. You are free to say what you like.

Each of these sentences has two parts:

a . He was in bed because (b) he had fever

a. I do not know how (b) I should please her

a. You are free to say what (b) you like

3) COMPLEX SENTENCES: is a sentence which has a principal

clause and one or more sub- ordinate clause.

Both the parts of each sentences are joined by a conjunction that

sub- ordinate one part to the other to get its complete sense. It cannot
stand independently. But the other part can stand independently. Both
the part are called clauses_ one is the independent or main
clause while the other is the sub- ordinate or dependent clause.

1) a . He was in bed - independent

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 b. because he had fever - dependent clause

2) a. I do not know - main clause

b. how I should please her -sub- ordinate

3) a. You are free to say – principal clause
b. what you like- sub- ordinate

Such types of sentence is called COMPLEX SENTENCES.

Observe each sentence and write the name of its type in the
blank:

1. Her hair is unkempt and dry. __________________

2. We work by day but sleep at night. _________________
3. My father is a leading lawyer of this town. ________________
4. You can do so when you grow up. ___________________
5. She could not come because she was unwell. ___________________
6. Chaltu was an an obedient son and loving brother.____________________
7. What you think is not a fact? _______________________
8. Walk carefully or you may stumble. _____________________

B. given below are a few compound sentences. sort out the co-ordinating
conjunction used in each sentence and write in the blank.

1. You can go and see him in his office. _____________

2. We work by day but we sleep at night.

_______________

3. Be fast or you will be late for school.

_______________

4. He as well as his brothers is to blame.

_________________

5.Do not live in the future nor in the past. _______________

6.The sky got cloudy and there was a heavy downpour. ________________

7.Sit still otherwise leave this place at once. ________________

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8. The gardener plucked a rose and offered it to the king.
_________________

c. given below are complex sentences. Sort out the sub- ordinate
conjunction used in each sentence and write in the blank.

1. This is the house where we used to live. _____________

2.You will be given whatever you require. _____________

3. I could not study as the radio –set was on. ________________

4. I am grateful to you, for you helped me a lot. _______________

5. A worker cannot work properly if he is low-paid. _______________

6. The shirt that she has on is very expensive. _______________

7. God helps those who help themselves. _______________

8. Those who are novel often die young. ________________

B. Conversation on sentences

A. Simple to complex
1. It being hot, I switched on the cooler. (Simple)

Because it was hot, I switched on the cooler. (Complex)

2. It is too cold to go out. (Simple)

It is so cold that one cannot go out. (Complex)

B. Simple to compound
1. We must eat to live. (Simple)

We must eat or we shall not live. (Compound)

2. The rain having stopped, we left for school. (Simple)

The rain stopped and we left for school. (Compound)

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 EXERCISE 1.1

A) Change each of these simple sentences into a

complex sentence : The first one is done
for you.

1. He looks to be quite smart. It looks that he quite smart.

2. It is too hot to go out. _________________________________________
3. The noble often die young.____________________________________
4. Despite being clever, he failed the test. ________________________
5. The sun having set, we came home. ____________________________
6. She decided to become a doctor. ________________________________
B. Change each of these complex sentences into a
simple sentence.
The first one is done for you.

1. It is a fact that he is greedy man. He is greedy man.

2.I cannot help anybody as I myself am

weak._________________________________

3. The news that he has been promoted is

true.__________________________________
4. It is fortunate that we have returned
safely._________________________________
5. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones at others.
___________________________________________________________________________
___
6.Though he is quite rich, yet he is miserly.

C. Convert each of these simple sentences into

compound sentence.
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The first one is done for you.
1. I must write fast to complete the paper in time.

I must write fast and complete the paper in time.

2. It being nightfall, we returned

home.__________________________________
3. The sun having risen, we all begun our work.
__________________________
4. Apart from being honest, she is bold.
__________________________________
5. Putting on the diving suit, the diver plunged into the river.

D. Convert each of these compound sentences into

simple sentence.
The first one is done for you.
1. The rains failed and the crops were destroyed.
The crops were destroyed by the rains.
2. This story is interesting as well as moral -giving.
________________________________________________________________
3. He is old but he is not so
weak ._______________________________________
4. She saw the tiger and begun to tremble of fear.
_________________________________________________
5.I like not only apples but grapes
also._________________________________

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 UNIT -2
THE SENTENCE: ITS FIVE KINDS
In view of function, there are five kinds of sentences.

A sentence may express:

1. An action, a fact or a happening it is called statements or

assertive sentences.
Example: The tiger killed the deer with one stroke of its paw.
(action)
They say that time is a great healer. (fact)
The storm blew away the roof of the hut. (happening)

Each of these sentences An action, a fact or a happening So, all these

sentence are called assertive sentences.

Remember:

(a) An assertive sentences may be a positive or negative

sentences.
(b) An assertive sentence that affirms a fact etc. is called a
positive (affirmative) sentences.
(c) An assertive sentence that negates a fact etc. is called a
negative sentences.
(d) An assertive sentence always ends in a full stop.

An assertive sentence is a sentence that affirms or negates an action,

a fact or a happening.

2. A questions to ask something is called question or

interrogative sentences.
Example: A) Have you ever been to Nekemte?

Do you rise early in the morning?

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 B) What made you laugh so wildly?

Why are you sobbing, my child?

Given above are two types of sentence that ask questions. The sentences
in group A begin with auxiliary verbs (is ,am are, has, have do, etc)
But sentence in group B begin with question words ( why, where, who,
how, when etc). So, all these sentence are called interrogative
sentences.

Remember: (a) There are two types of interrogative sentences:

1. Beginning with helping verbs; as sentences in A

2. Beginning with question words; as sentences in B
(b) An interrogative sentences always ends in a question mark(?).

3.Commands or imperative sentences

A) An imperative sentences expresses something that is urgent to be
done.

B) In imperative sentences, the subject is you but it remains unstated.

An imperative sentence is a sentences that expresses an order,

request, an advice or a proposal.

Example: COMMANDS: A) 1. Look sharp, we are getting late.

2. Get out of the room, at once.

REQUESTS :B) 1. Lend me your pen, please

2. Kindly give me something to eat.

ADVICE: C) 1. Always obey your teachers and parents.

2. Never tell lies. It is a sin.

PROPOSAL: D) 1. Let as go boating in the canal.

2.Let us help the blind man to cross the road.

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4.Wishes or Optative sentences: is a sentence that expresses
a wish, a prayer, a blessing or a curse.

A) An optative sentence always ends in a mark of exclamation (!)

Example: a) May you live long ! (blessing)

b) Would you that I were also rich! (wish)
c) May God bless you with all his gift! ( prayer)
d) Down with you, O tyrant ! (curse)
Each sentence expresses a wish, a prayer, a blessing or a curse.
Such sentences are called Optative sentences.

5. Exclamatory Sentence: is a sentence that express a

sudden feeling of the mind.
Remember: a) an exclamatory Sentence has an exclamation mark
after its exclaimed word or at its end.
b) The sentence following the exclaimed word always starts with
a small letter except when it’s when it starts with a proper noun.
c) The sentence following the exclaimed word may
end in a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark as per its
kinds.

Example : 1. What a lovely child it is ( wonder and joy)

2.Hagos ! we are undone. (sorrow)

3. Bravo! What a forceful hit! (praise)
4. Shut up, you wretch! ( anger)
5. Hush ! someone is coming. (warning)
6. Hello! How goes the world? (greeting)

Each of these sentences has an exclaimed word or words spoken under

the effect of some sudden strong emotion-joy, sorrow, surprise, contempt,

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praise, warning etc. So, such sentences are called exclamatory
Sentence.

Exercise 2.1

1. What is an assertive sentence (statements)? Name its two sub-kinds

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Sub- kinds: ____________________

_________________________ 2.what is an interrogative sentence? Name its
two sub-kinds

______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Sub-kinds: _________________________
________________________

3. What is an imperative sentence? Name its four sub-kinds

______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Sub-kinds: _________________________
________________________

_________________________ ________________________

4. What is an optative sentence? Name its four sub-kinds

______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Sub-kinds: _________________________
________________________

_________________________ ________________________

5. What are exclamatory sentences? Name eight emotions that they

express
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___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Emotions: _________________________

_________________________

_________________________

B. What mark is put at the end of an:

(a) An assertive sentence (statements)? …………….

(b) An imperative sentence? ………………….

(c) An exclamatory sentences? .....................

(d) An interrogative sentence? ………………

(e) An optative sentence? ………………..

C. Observe each sentence and sort it out as an

assertive, an imperative,an exclamatory, an
interrogative, an optative:
Sentences
1. How often a month do you go to the pictures?
kinds: ____________________
2. Let us go swimming in the canal.
kinds: ____________________
3. Clear off from here, you rogue!
kinds: ____________________
4. Ha! What a lovely rose!
kinds: ____________________
5. The city was destroyed in an earthquake.
kinds: ____________________
6. Go and fetch a cup of tea for me.
kinds: ____________________
7. Hurrah! We have won the match.
kinds: ____________________

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 8. The train is running on time.
kinds: ____________________
9. May the same ill fate befall you!
kinds: ____________________

10.Where do you hail from, Belete?

kinds: ____________________

UNIT-3
THE TENSE

WHAT IS TENSE?
The word tense means stretched. This word is used in respect of verbs to indicate the
limit to which a verb can be stretched to describe the action it state in view of the following
aspects:
1. At what time was the action done? (time)
2. How long did the action continue ? (continuance)
3. Whether the action was completed or not. (completeness)
So, we can define tense as below.
The tense of a verb is its form that indicates the time, the(continuance and the extent of
completeness of the action stated by the verb.

TYPES OF TENSES : THREE TENSES

In terms of the time of various actions stated by verbs, there three general divisions of
time as below:

1. The division of time going on now, i. e. the present time.

2. The division of time that has gone by, i. e. the past time.
3. The division of time that is yet to come, i. e. the future time.
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Accordingly, there are three tenses :

1. The present tense

2. The past tense
3. The future tense

The three sentences given below explain these three tenses.

1. I am going to market for shopping. ___ present tense

2. I went to market for shopping. ___ Past tense
3. I shall go to market for shopping. ____ future tense

1. THE PRESENT TENSE

A. AFFIRMATIVE FORM:
Observe the following sentences:

1. Almaz is a tall slim girl.

2. Mr.john is a famous doctor.
3. I am thankful to you for your help.
4. You are a sincere friend of mine.
5. He is a notorious rogue indeed.
6. They are our bitter enemies.

All the sentences given above are in present tense. The verbs used in them are __ is, am,
are. These three verbs are the three form of the verbs_ be_ in the present tense.

Observe the above sentences closely once again and note the following facts with care.

1. Am_ is used with I only.

2. Is_ is used with all the singular subjects except I and You.
3. Are_ is used with all the plural subjects.
4. You_ can be both singular and plural. But it always takes a plural verb (are) in the
present tense.
5. He ,she , I and all singular subjects ( I , you) are subjects of third person singular
number.

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 B . NEGATIVE FORM:

The word not is commonly used to change affirmatives sentences into negative
sentences. It is inserted after am, is or are; as_

1. Asanti is not a tall slim girl.

2. We are not in serious danger now.

Interrogative form:

In order to change a positive sentence into its Interrogative form. Its am, is or are is
shifted to the beginning of the sentence, i.e. it is placed before the subject and full-stop at
the end of the sentence is changed into a question mark; as-

1. Is the bontu a tall slim girl?

2. Am I thankful to you for this help?

2. THE PAST TENSE

A. AFFIRMATIVE FORM:

Observe the following sentences;

1. Sunita was a tall slim girl.

2. You were a sincere friend of mine.

3. I was thankful to you for your help.

4. She was a graceful charming lady.

5. They were our bitter enemies.

6. The children were at play in the park.

All the sentences given above are in past tense. The verb used in them are- was, were. The
two verbs are the forms of the verb-be –in the past tense.

Remember that__

(a) Was _ is used with all the singular subjects.

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 (b) Were_ is used with all the plural subjects.

B.NEGATIVE FORM:

In order to change a positive sentence of the past tense into its negative form. we insert
not after was or were; as

1. Sunita was not a tall slim girl.

2. We were not in serious danger them.
3. Mr. chala was not a famous doctor.
B. INTERROGATIVE FORM:

In order to change a positive sentence of the past tense into its interrogative form. We shift
its was or were to the beginning of the sentences and replace the ending full-stop by a
question mark; as-

1. Was birke a tall slim girl?

2. Were you a sincere friend of mine?
3. Was mr. megersa a famous doctor?
4. Were we in serious danger still?

3. THE FUTURE TENSE

A. AFFIRMATIVE FORM:
Observe the following sentences;

1. Sunita will be a tall slim girl.

2. You will be a sincere friend of mine.

3. I shall be thankful to you for your help.

4. She will be a graceful charming lady.

5. They will be our bitter enemies

6. The children will be at play in the park.

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All the sentences given above are in future tense. The verbs used in them are will be, shall
be. These two forms of the verb –be- in the future tense.

Remember that;

(a) Shall be is used with I, we.

(b) Will be is used with all other subjects.

B. NEGATIVE FORM:

In order to change a positive sentence of the future tense into its negative form. We insert
not after will or shall of the sentence; as-

1. Sunita will not be a tall slim girl.

2. You will not be a sincere friend of mine.

3. I shall not be thankful to you for your help.

4. She will not be a graceful charming lady.

C. INTERROGATIVE FORM:

In order to change a positive sentence of the future tense into its Interrogative form, we
shift will or shall to be beginning of the sentence and the full-stop at the end of the
sentence is replaced by a question mark; as-

1. Will Burte be a tall slim girl?

2. Will You be a sincere friend of mine?

3. Shall I be thankful to you for your help?

EXERCISE 3.1

1. What is meant by the present time?

______________________________________________________________

2. What is meant by the past time?

______________________________________________________________

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3. What is meant by the future time?
______________________________________________________________

2. Write the following forms of verbs:

(a) three forms of the verb-be- in the present tense:_______,_______,_______

(a) three forms of the verb-be- in the past tense:_______,_______,_______

(a) three forms of the verb-be- in the future tense:_______,_______,_______

B. Observe each sentence and name its tense in the given blank.

1. Honesty is the best policy, they say .

_______________

2. We shall be boating in the canal on Sunday.

_______________

3. What date was it yesterday?

_______________

4. All the ladies were dancing wildly.

_______________

5. We shall be extremely grateful to you.

_______________

6. Sweet are the uses of adversity.

________________

7. There was a long queue at the booth.

________________

8. All of you are to blame indeed.

________________

C. Complete each sentence inserting am, is, are in each blank.

1. I……………………… A student of class VI in modern school.

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 2. Our English teacher ………………. A tall slim lady.
3. Bread and butter …………………. a wholesome food.
4. A flock of sheep …………………….there on the hill-side.
5. Birds and animals …………………also God’s creatures.
6. Our motherland ………………….. the best land of all.

D. Complete each sentence inserting was, were, in each blank.

1. There ……………………… only a little milk in the milk-pot.

2. People …………………….. eager to see and hear their leader.

3. There ………................. plenty of flowers in the basket.

4. I……………………….. only sixteen years old at that time.

5. His grandfather ………………… a general in the army.

6. Habtamu ………………………. a lover of buildings and gardens.

7. mrs. Dereje ……………………..my favorite teacher at school.

E. Complete each sentence inserting Shall be, will be, in each blank.

1. We ……………………….. Playing a match against Addis public school.

2. It ………………………….be very hot and stuff tomorrow.

3………………………… not ………….. Ignorant of the real facts.

4.The children of today …………………….the citizens of tomorrow.

5. I …………………….holidaying in Awasa in may and june.

6. There …………………not………………… much rush on the roads tomorrow.

UNIT-4
THE PRESENT TENSE
Observe the following three sentences:

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 1. I brush my teeth after the meal. (simple present tense)
2. I am brushing my teeth after the meal. (present continuous tense)
3. I have brushed my teeth after the meal. (present perfect tense)
4. I have been brushing my teeth after the meal.(present perfect continuous tense)

In these sentences-

(a) Sentence 1 express an action that is done every day in the present tense. But its
exact time is not definite. So, this form of the present tense is called present in
definite tense or simple present tense.
(b) Sentence 2 an action that is being done at present. i.e. it is continuing and has not
been completed so far. So, this form of the present tense is called real present tense
or present continuous tense.
(c) Sentence 3 expresses an action which was going on for quite some time but has
been completed , just in the present period of time. So , this form of the present
tense is called present perfect tense.
(d) Sentence 4 expresses an action that has been in progress for a certain period. It has
been partly completed , yet it continues to be done. So , this form of the present
tense is called present perfect continuos tense or present perfect imperfect tense.

1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Observe the following sentence:

1. I do my homework at 3:00 p.m .

2. We play hockey daily at school.
3. You often come late to school.
4. Tailors stitch clothes for us.

But_

B. 7. He does his work very carelessly ( do + es)

8. She likes to wear blue ribbons. ( like + s)

The following rules to form present indefinite tense.

 Subject + Ist form of the verb.

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  Subject + Ist form of the verb + s/es with subjects of third person singular number.

Exercise 3.1.2

A. Use the following verb in sentences in the positive form of present indefinite tense with
subjects of the all the three persons in their singular and plural forms:

1. Read : He reads book every day.

2. Live : ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Eat: …………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Study: ……………………………………………………………………………………

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

This tense expresses actions that are going on at present and have not been completed so
far.

Example: I am doing my homework now.

The birds are flying to their nests.

The tailors are stitching clothes for us.

She is wearing blue ribbons.

Use am, is, are whichever suitable after the subject.

Use Ist form of the verb + ing after am, is, are.

Exercise 3.2.2

A. Use the following verb in sentences in the positive form of present continuous tense
with subjects of the all the three persons in their singular and plural forms:

1. Take: I am taking my football

2. Dance: ___________________________________________

3. Wash: ___________________________________________

4. laugh: ___________________________________________

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 3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
The present perfect tense expresses an action that was being done for quite some time but
has been completed (perfected) only in the recent present time.

Example: I have done my homework.

The birds have flown to their nests.

The tailors have stitched clothes for us.

She has worn blue ribbons.

The following rules to form present perfect tense:

 Subject + has or have whichever is suitable.

 Has or have is followed by third form of the verb.

A. Use the following verb in sentences in the positive form of present perfect tense
with subjects of the all the three persons in their singular and plural forms:

1. Find: she has found all her lost books.

2. Appear: ___________________________________________
3. Win: ___________________________________________
4. Reach: ___________________________________________

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

The completed in stages but it still goes on.

So, it has two present continuous tense expresses an action that has been in progress for
a long time. It has been aspects in terms of completeness.

(a) It has been completed (perfected) partially at stages.

(b) It is still going on, i.e. it is continuing. One important thing about this tense is that time
is stated in it for each action.
(c) Example: I have been my homework for an hour.
(d) The birds have been flying to their nests.
(e) The tailors have been stitching clothes for us.

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 (f) She has been wearing blue ribbons.

The present continuous tense is used:

 Has been / have been is used after the subject.

 Has been/ have been is followed by the ing-form of the verb.
 Time is mentioned in two different ways using the prepositions for and since.

Exercise 3. 3.3

Put since and for, whichever correct in each blank.

1. ________ ten minutes.

2. ________1997
3. ________three days
4. ________4th December.
5. ________morning
6. _________ I reached here.
7. _________centuries.

B .complete the following tense chart for the verb _ do and subject _I, He:

Form Present Present Present Present perfect

indefinite continuous perfect cont.
Affirmative I do. I am doing. I have done I have been
He does. He is doing He has done doing.
He has been
doing.
Negative I do not do.
He does not
do.
Interrogative Do I do?
Does he do?
Negative Do I not do?
interrogative Does he not
do?
UNIT -5

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 THE PAST TENSE
Four kinds of the past tense:

1). Simple past tense

2). Past continuous tense

3). Past perfect tense

4). Past perfect continuous.

1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Example : 1. I did my homework at 4:00 p.m.

2. They help us in every way.

3. The birds flew to their nests at sunset.

4. You often came late to school.

The second form of the verb has been used in each sentence.

The second form is used with all the subjects of all the persons.

Rules of simple past tense: Subject + 2nd form of the verb.

Exercise 4.1

Fill the following chart showing various forms of the past indefinite (simple) tense:

Form Past indefinite( simple) tense

Affirmative (a) Subject +_________of the verb +____

Negative (a) Subject +_______+ ______first form of the

verb+_____

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Interrogative (a)______+subject+____ +of the verb+___

Negative interrogative (a) ____+ subject +_____+____+___

(b) _____+_______+_________+_____+__________

2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

The past continuous tense expresses an action that continued to be done in the past but
remained incomplete or imperfect.

Example: 1. I was doing my homework at 4:00 p.m.

2. They were helping us in every way.

3. The birds were flying to their nests after sunset.

4. You often were coming late to school.

The following rules to form past continuous tense:

 Subject + was or were, whichever suitable.

 Was or were + ing form of the verb.

Exercise: 4.2
Fill the following chart showing various forms of the past continuous tense:

Form Past continuous tense

Affirmative (b) Subject +_________+ _________
(c) Subject +_________+ _________

Negative (b) Subject +_______+ ______+_____

(c) Subject +_______+ ______+_____

Interrogative (a)______+subject+_____+___
(b)______+subject+_____+___

Negative interrogative (a) ____+ subject +_____+____+___

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 (b) ____+ subject +_____+____+___
3. PAST PERFECT TENSE
The past perfect tense expresses an action that was in progress in the distant past but was
completed in just before the normal past tense(the past to which the past indefinite and
past continuous tenses belong).

Example: 1. I had done my homework before sunset.

2. They had helped us in every way by then.

3. The birds had flown to their nests just after sunset.

4. You often had come late to school that day.

The following rules to form past perfect tense:

 Subject is followed by had whether it is singular and plural. It may of any person
also.
 After had, we use the third form of the verb.

Exercise 4.3

Fill the following chart showing various forms of the past perfect tense:

Form Past perfect tense

Affirmative (a)Subject +_________+ _________

Negative (a)Subject +_______+ ______+_____

Interrogative (a)______+subject+_____+______

Negative interrogative (a) ____+ subject +_____+_________+___

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 4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
The past perfect continuous tense expresses an action that kept being perfected in stages,
yet continued to be done in the past time.

 Remember that time is mentioned in this tense in two ways:

(a) As a period of time after the prepositions for.
(b) As a point of time after the prepositions since.

Example : : 1. I had been doing my homework for an hour.

2. They had been helping us in every way since 1998.

3. The birds had been flying to their nests since sunset.

4. You often had been coming late to school that day.

All the sentences given above are in the past perfect continuous tense.

 The following rule in the past perfect continuous tense

Subject + Had been is used after the subjects of all the persons and both the numbers.

Had been is followed by the ing-form of the verb.

REVISIONAL EXERCISES
(Past tenses)
A. observe each sentence and write the name of the tense in the blank.

1. The farmers tilled the fields after the rain. ___________________

2. The cock was crowing early in the morning. . ___________________

3. The lion had killed the deer in an instant. . ___________________

4. The dogs had been barking aloud since long. . ___________________

5. Did the quinine taste sweet? . ___________________

26
6. The ladies had sung many bridal songs. . ___________________

B. Change each sentence to its past continuous tense.

1. I did my homework. _______________________________________________

2. I had learnt this poem by

heart.__________________________________________________

3. The snake-charmer amused the on-

lookers.__________________________________________________

4. The match had ended in the tame

draw.______________________________________________________

5. The children had been playing tip-cat in the

ground._______________________________________________________

C. Change each sentence to its past perfect form.

1. We had been preparing for the coming

test._____________________________________________________

2. I did not hear what you

said._____________________________________________________

3. The match was heading for a tame

draw._______________________________________________________

4. The court was announcing the

judgment.____________________________________________________

5. She did her hair in an attractive

style.____________________________________________________

D. Change each sentence to its past perfect continuous form.

1. He had suffered from ever for a

week._______________________________________________________

27
2. The tortoise moved slowly towards the
goal.______________________________________________________

3. Children were enjoying swing- rides in the

park.__________________________________________________________

4. The prayer-bell kept ringing for a long

time.__________________________________________________________

5. The mother had prepared her daughter for

school.____________________________________________________________

UNIT -6
THE FUTURE TENSE
There are four (4) kinds of the future tense:

1. Simple future tense or future indefinite tense.

2. Future continuous tense
3. Future perfect tense
4. Future perfect continuous tense

Remember that:
(a) Shall is used with I and we only in the future tense.
(b) Will is used with all other subjects in the future tense.

1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

Example: 1. I shall do my homework at 3:00 p.m.

2. The tailors will stitch our clothes in time.

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 3. We shall play hockey daily at school.

4. He will do his work very carefully.

The following rule to form simple future:

 Subject + will or shall, whichever is suitable.

 Will or shall is followed by the first form of the verb.

Exercise 5.1
Put in each blank a suitable verb in the simple future (indefinite) tense :( will or shall and
verb form.)

1. It ________________ extremely cold tomorrow. (be)

2. The principal _________________ the late-comers.(punish)
3. I ____________________for the competition this year.(study)
4. They __________ certainly _________a good fortune this year.(have)
5. Parents ______________their children with love and care. (raise)

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

Example: 1. I shall be doing my homework at 3:00 p.m.

2. The tailors will be stitching our clothes in time.

3. We shall be playing hockey daily at school.

4. He will be doing his work very carefully.

The following rule to form future continuous tense:

 Subject + will be/ shall be + ing – form of the verb.

Exercise 5.2
Put in each blank a suitable verb in the future continuous tense :( will be or shall be and
ing verb form.)

1. We ______________________our friends with men and money. (compare)

2. The students ___________________their teacher with a good morning.(great)

29
3. The teacher ____________________us test in English tomorrow.(learn)

4. Tree-leaves ____________________yellow during Autumn season.(turn)

5. They _________________a good fortune in the new year.(have)

3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Example: 1. I shall have done my homework by 3:00 p.m.

2. The tailors will have stitched our clothes by tomorrow.

3. We shall have played several hockey matches by month-end.

4. He will have done his work very carefully by evening.

The following rule to form future perfect tense:

 Subject + will have/ shall have + third person form of the verb.
 At the end of the sentence by + point of time.

Exercise 5.3
Put in each blank a suitable verb in the future perfect tense :( will have or shall have and
third verb form.)

1. The old leader __________________by the year 2010 E.C. (die)

2. They _________________________this place certainly before sunset. (close)

3. The boat ______________________ the river in an hour or so. (reach)

4. The cook _______________________dinner for the guests by 9:00 p.m.(prepare)

5. My words ______________________out to be true within two years. (says)

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Example :1. I shall have been doing my homework since 3:00 p.m.

2. The tailors will have been stitching our clothes for two hours.

30
 3. We shall have been playing hockey-matches for a month.

4. He will have been doing his work very carefully.

The following rule to form future perfect continuous tense:

 Subject + will have been / shall have been + ing form of the verb.
 At the end of the sentence, for/since+ point of time.

Exercise 5.4
Put in each blank a suitable verb in the future perfect continuous tense :( will have been or
shall have been and ing verb form.)

1. She ______________________________ her hair for twenty minutes.(combine)

2. The _______________________________this business for several years.(work)

3. The swallows ___________________________flying to hot lands since April.

4. The shoeshine _______________________polishing my shoes for ten minutes.

5. She ____________________________for the guests for over an hour.(prepare)

REVISION EXERCISES
(Future tenses)
A. Observe each sentence and write the name of the tense in the blank.

1. A good child will never mix with bad children. . _____________________

2. The match will have started by now. . _____________________

3. He will reach school by 9-30 a.m. . _____________________

4. Our soldiers will be fighting with courage. . _____________________

5. The earth will never stop rotating around its axis. _____________________

B. Change each sentence to future continuous tense:

31
 1. The cook will light a match-
stick._______________________________________________________

2. I will never disobey my parents in

life.___________________________________________________________

3. Will they have fulfilled their promise of help to us?

________________________________________________________

4. The train will reach Bombay central just on

time._______________________________________________________

5. The baby is crying in hunger for

milk._________________________________________________________

C. Change each sentence to future indefinite tense:

1. The bus will be leaving at 2:30

p.m.___________________________________________________________

2. The train will have steamed off on

time.___________________________________________________________

3. Miss chaltu has prepared tea for all the

guests._____________________________________________________

4. It will have been nightfall when the match

ends.________________________________________________________

5. My servant will have been serving me whole-

heartedly.__________________________________________________________

D. Change each sentence to future perfect tense:

1. Daddy will not be reaching home

soon.__________________________________________________

32
 2.The cook will be preparing dinner for us
now._________________________________________________________

3. The sun will be setting at 7:00

p.m.today.____________________________________________________

4. I shall be seeing the chairman in this

office.__________________________________________________________

5. She will pass her class VII this very

year._______________________________________________________

E. Change each sentence to future perfect continuous tense:

1. Will the laborers have worked for two hours by now?

________________________________________________________

2. The rats will be holding a meeting for their

safety.__________________________________________________________

3. I will always speak the

truth.___________________________________________________

4.They will be helping us whole-heartedly for a long

time.________________________________________________________

5. I shall have done my duty most

sincerely._____________________________________________________

UNIT-7
MODALS (AUXILIARIES)
Modals are also said to be helping verbs.

The following are commonly used modal auxiliaries:

Shall should can

could

Will would may might

Must must not used to 33 ought to

Need need not (needn`t)

modal auxiliaries are used in the following ways:

SHALL
1. ‘Shall’ is used in the first person:

(a) To express simple future tense.

 We shall talk about it later on.

(b) to express suggestion.

 Shall I give the car a wash?

 Shall we start running?
2. ‘Shall’ is used with the second and third persons:

(a) To express a theat.

 The naughty boy shall be punished.

 Those who violate the laws shall be put behind the bars.

(b) To express prohibition.

 You shall not tell a lie.

 You shall not drink here.

(c) To express legal obligation.

 You shall pay your income tax before the end of this month.

34
  You shall submit your account books in the Sales Tax Office by the due
date.

(d) to express willingness, determination, etc.

 You shall win the match.

 He shall not open the box.

SHOULD
‘Should’ is used:

1. As past tense of shall in the indirect speech.

 She told me that I should not walk barefoot.
2. To express caution, etc.
 Don`t laugh lest you should be punished.
 Don`t walk on the edge of the canal lest you should fall in it.
3. To express duty advice, suggestion, etc.
 You should do your duty honestly.
 Should I open the window?
 Should I bring the coffee for you?
4. To express guess, assumption, etc.
 It should be 4 pm.
 This shirt should cost $ 100.

WILL
WILL is used:

1. To express simple future tense with the second and third persons:

a) You will break six eggs and then put some sugar in it.
b) He will look into the matter for being a reputed member of the detective
agency.
2. To express general as well as habitual truth.
a) The earth will revolve round the sun .

35
 b) My brother will take a glass of juice in the morning.
3. To Express a request.
a) Will you please lend me your for a day?
b) Will you guide me to hotel park?
4. To Express order.
a) You will do as you are advised.
b) Will you stop laughing?
5. To Express invitation
a) Will you join us for the picnic?
b) Will you come to see us tomorrow?
6. To Express probability
a) The weather will break soon?
b) It will rain any time.

WOULD
1 ‘Would’ is used:
1. As a past tense of ‘will’ .
a. He said that he would not run barefoot on the hot sandy beach.
b. She told me that she would not like the idea of sailing on a raft.
2. To express a wish.
a. Would that I were rich !
b. Would that I were a king!
3. To make a polite request.
a. Would please lend me your bicycle for an hour?
b. Would you please help me solve this problem?
4. To make polite invitation.
a. Would you dine with us tonight?
b. Would you join us in our visit to Adama?
5. To express an imaginary or un real condition.
a. Had you mentioned it before, you would not have been treated so rudely.
b. If you had worked hard, you would have got pass marks at least .

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 CAN
‘ Can’ is used to:

1. To express present capability, ability etc

a. He can speak both French and English equally well.
b. He can drive fast on the highways.
2. To make a request.
a. Can I use your pen?
b. Can I ask you for help?
3. To express permission.
a. You can go now.
b. You can use my umbrella.

Could
‘Could’ is used:

As the past tense of Might

1. ‘CAN’
a. She told me that she could write in Ethiopia.
b. He said that he could climb the coconut tree.
2. To express past capability, ability etc
a. She could sew shirts very well when she was young.
3. To make a polite request.
a. Could I use phone?
b. Could I read this magazine of yours?

Note: ‘could’ express more politeness than ‘can’

MAY

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‘May’ is used:

1. To express a wish or prayer or curse.

a. May you get good marks!
b. May God help you!
c. May you go blind!
2. To express a strong possibility.
a. It may snow today.
b. He may be angry with you .
3. To seek permission
a. May I go to toilet , sir?
b. May I come in ,sir?
4. To give permission.
a. Yes, you may go.
b. You may go for lunch.
5. To express help, service, etc
a. May I help you go across the road?
b. May I carry this bag to the room for you?

Might
‘Might’ is used:

1. As the past tense of ‘may’.

a. She told me that her brother might come home that day.
b. The boy asked me if he might use my pen.
2. To express remote possibility
a. He might contact at 10 PM.
b. There are small patches of clouds sailing in the sky. it might rain in the evening.

Note : ‘might’ expresses less possibility than ‘ may’

3. To seek permission or to give permission.

a) Might I go out for tea ?
b) You might go.

38
Note: ‘might’ is more polite than ‘may’ but ‘may’ is more frequently used.

Must
‘must is used :
1. To express strong possibility.
a) He must deliver his maiden speech today.
b) It must rain tonight.
2. To express compulsion.
a) You must go to Canada to see your uncle.
b) You must finish your homework by evening.
3. To express obligation, duty, etc.
a) We must love our country men.
b) N you must obey your parents.

Note: ought to is the most suitable modal to express moral obligation.

;
4. To give advice
5. To express determination.

MUST NOT(MUSTN`NT)
‘must n`t’ is express obligation, compulsion, etc.
A) you mustn’t touch my toys.
B) You mustn`t come home late.

Ought to:
‘Ought to’ is used to
1. To express moral duty.
a) You ought to help the needy.
b) You ought to do something good to man kind.
2. To express obligation.

39
 a) You ought to request your elders.
b) You ought to obey your teachers.
3. To express advice or suggestion.
a) You ought to see a doctor at once.
b) If you don`t like this drink, You ought to ask for something else.

need
Need is used to express It is used in Interrogative sentences.
a) Need I request you again?
b) Need I remind you about it once again?
Needn`t is used to express obligation, necessity.
a) You needn`t poke your nose in our affairs.
b) You needn`t bring your bags tomorrow.

Used to
‘Used to’ is used
1.to express some habit in the past.
a) He used to smoke when his parents were out.
b) She used to talk to herself when she grew old.
2. To express present habit :
a) I am not used to talking about others` shortcomings.
b) He is not used to getting up early in the morning.
3. To show that the existence of some thing in the past.
a) There used to be an oak tree in the garden.
b) There used to be a three star hotel in the city.

Have to
‘ Have’ to is used to express compulsion, obligation.

40
 a) You have to work hard.
b) You have to run fast otherwise you won`t reach the station on the.

c) You have to go to the post office right now.

Had to
‘ Had’ to is the past tense of ‘have to‘ and used to express obligation compulsion,
necessity, etc.
a) She had to leave her job for the seek of her dignity.
b) He had to accept the charges against him.
c) They had to leave their country for a respectable job.

Dare
‘ Dare’ is used to express courageousness. It is used to in interrogative sentences.
a) How dare you talk to me like this ?
b) How dare you search my pocket?

Daren`t (dare not)

Daren`t is used to express lack of courageousness.
a) He daren`t ask me anything about it.
b) He daren`t shoot me a look at all.
c) He daren`t have a duel with me.
EXERISE

Tick the correct alternative in each of the following sentences.

Example: She used to /dared go to bed early in the evening.

1. You needn`t/ mustn`t wait for us for long.

2. Should/ will I switch on the Air Conditioner?
3. Should/ would you please help me?
4. May/ could you succeed in life?
5. Should /could I use your motorbike for a while?

41
6. She kept abusing him but he dare not/ needed not answer her back.
7. You ought to/ will serve your countrymen.
8. May/ could I go for lunch now? Yes, you may/ should
9. Could / would that were w rich man!
10. You will/ shall pay your debt by the end of this month.

Unit -8
Preposition
There are following kinds of prepositions:
1) Prepositions of place
2) Prepositions of time
3) Prepositions of method, instrumentality
4) Prepositions of cause, reason & purpose
5) Prepositions of manner
6) Prepositions of rate, measurement & quantity
7) Prepositions of contrast, concession
8) Prepositions of possession.
1. Prepositions of place

In on at in front of

Behind across over along

Through above below under beside

Examples:
 Her house is on the corner of the street.
 We had lunch at hotel plaza.
 The train arrived at plat form number 9.
 There was a lamp post in front of the house.
 My friend lives across/ over the highway.
 He elbowed his way through the crush.

42
 
 She sat beside her granny.
 She hid her paper under the bed sheet.
 We walked a long way a long the fence.
 He was standing below the level of the table on the plat form.

EXERISE : fill the blanks with prepositions of place.

1. My fried`s father works___________ M/s L.G Electronics.
2. My cousin works ________ a bank ________America.
3. He brought his hand _________his brow in disappointment.
4. She put the books _____ the bag, and shut in.
5. An ashy gigantic figure moved ______the floor in a flash.
6. She got _____the car and drove off.

2. Prepositions of time

At in on until/ till Throughout by

from during for before after
over

Example:
1. He worked in this office from 1980 to 2000.
2. Kaku was born at 5 pm on Monday in the end of this year.
3. My brother return to India by the end of this year.
4. During his journey, he read three books.
5. Please wait for a moment.
6. They left the place after Christmas.
7. I will wait for you until the evening.
8. He remained a recluse throughout his life.

EXERISE : fill the blanks with prepositions of time.

1. ____________ the day time it rained heavily.
2. She had to work hard ____________ her life.
3. Beka remained a leading biologist____________1990 to 2010.
4. We stopped at the bus stop _____ a few minutes.

43
5. I would manage to teach my uncle`s _________ 9 o`clock.
6. The superfast express arrived at the station ________ time.
7. We`ll back ________ sun set.
8. The weather has been recovering __________the past few days.

3. Prepositions of method or instrumentality

Example :
1. Robert cut the cake with a knife.
2. The company sends its important documents by registered post.

4. Prepositions of cause, reason & purpose

Examples:
1. His aunt died of heart attack.
2. His mother died from over work.
3. The girl saw the lion and began to tremble with fear.
4. Smoking is injurious to health.
5. Nelson Mandela struggled for freedom of South Africa.

5. Prepositions expressing possession

Example :
1. This book belongs to Henry
2. The boy with black curly hair is my friend.

EXERISE : fill the blanks with prepositions of expressing instruments, possession

, cause, reason or purpose .
1. Robert is a man ____ word.
2. The man ________ black hair is join`s uncle.
3. The girl ______ curly hair is suffering.
4. The woman______ blue eyes is struggling ____ livelihood.
5. The children ________ school uniform draw sketches ____ amusement.
6. I heard this news through one _______ my relatives.
7. The child ______ short hair lost his bag ________negligence.
8. The kettle _______ a long handle is boiling on the stove.

44
 9. My truck loads of apples were sent to Bule Hora ______ trains.
10. This pen belongs _______ Abraham and he daily writes a letter _____ it.

EXERISE : choose the correct preposition.

1. My house is situated ________ the correct of the street.
a) in b) at c) on
2. There is a small but beautiful lawn _______ the corner of my house.
a) in b) at c) on
3. I got up ______ 6 o`clock and saw the rosy light of the sun spreading over the distant
hills.
a) with b) on c)at
4. The cut the meat into slices___________ a sharp knife.
a) on b) with c) from
5.I visited the zoo three times _________ 1989 to 20004.
a) since b) between c) on
6. Milk is sold _______________ the litre.
a) far b) by c) with
7.This organization consists ________ five hundred members.
a) With b) of c) on
b)
8.Alex run fast ___________ the road as he wanted to catch the bus.
a) Up on b) across c) with
9. Ebise ran _________ the bus and she caught it in the end.
a) over b) after c) from
10. His uncle died ________ typhoid for having not been treated in time.
a) of b) from c) on
11. I will return home _______ four days.

45
 a) on b) after c) within
12. we sailed a boat __________the river in the moonlight.
a) Through b) above c) on
13.She sat _______ her mother in a chair.
a) besides b) besides c) across
14._________ in the bank of the canal there was an old oak tree.
a) in b) on c) with
15. she took hold of the bowl _______ tongs .
a) To b) on c) with

Unit -9
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to two or more sentences, words or phrases.
Examples:
a) Diriba could not do much progress in his studies.
b) Diriba did not get much time to read his books.
c) (a+b) Diriba could not do much progress in his studies because he did not get much
time to read his books.
There are the following kinds of Conjunctions:
a) Coordinating Conjunctions
b) Correlative Conjunctions
c) Subordinating Conjunctions
d) Compound Conjunctions

46
 1. Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions are used to join the sentences or clauses of equal
rank.

And but neither….. nor either …. Or

Yet or not only….. but also

Examples:
a) Boka and Tulu are brothers.
b) Work hard or you won`t get good marks.
c) He is disabled but kind.

2.Correlative Conjunctions
Not only…but also either …..or neither …… nor

Although ….yet whether …..but also

Examples:
1. Neither Peter nor his friends have turned up for the match.
2. Either buy this tea set or leave the shop.
3. Not only does she speak English, but also she speaks German equally well.
3.Compound Conjunctions: are the phrases, which
are used to join together two or more clauses.

As if… in order to as soon as as well as even if

Examples:
a) He takes as if he were the king.
b) As soon as the child saw the clown he cried loudly.
c) In order to reach at the Airport on time, Mr Tesfaye started walking fast.

47
 4.Subordinating Conjunctions

When since as before after till

until unless if that so that provided that

because

a. Subordinating Conjunctions of time: (until, till ,when, while, before,

as, since, after)
Bontu will back before the day breaks.
Somebody cried when/while I was drawing a picture.

b) Subordinating Conjunctions of place: (where, wherever)

Please go where you can find good opportunities for progress.
I shall find you out wherever you may go.
Exercise : join the following sentences using coordinating conjunctions.
1. (a) Rosy is going to America tonight.
(b) Dolly is going to America tonight.

2. (a) Danny will not be sanctioned leave for a week.

(b) Henry will not be sanctioned leave for a week.

_____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
3. (a) clip the hedges of my lawn.
(b) leave the place.
_____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
4. (a) Our landlord is rich.
(b) Our landlord Unkind.

48
 _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
5. (a)John knows dancing well.
(b) John knows Singing well.
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
EXERISE : fill the blanks with a suitable conjunction.
1._____________ you had listened to your farther, you would have succeeded in life.
( unless, until, if)
2. _____________ the child saw the snake, he raised an alarm. (as long as , as soon as)
3. you wont go anywhere _________i come back. (provided that, until)
4. I will start arranging furniture in the hall___________ the guest arrive. (provided that,
before)
5. A mail train was derailed ____________ it collided with a stationary goods train.(after,
unless, until)

UNIT -10
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
WHAT IS VOICE?
 When the verb of a sentence takes shape according to the doer of an action
(subject), it is in active voice.
 When the verb of a sentence takes shape according to the receiver of the action
(object), it is in passive voice.

Example: observe the two sentences given below.

1. Chala reads stories (active voice)

2. stories are read by chala.(passive voice)

49
In the sentence 1, (a) chala is the subject who does the action.

(b) The verb reads__ is according to the subject, i.e. it shows the
subject to be active.

(c) Stories __ is the object of the verb __reads.

Either voice has its own importance. Passive voice generally comes into play when the doer
of the action is unknown or unimportant. But active voice is used to show the subject as an
important doer of the action.

GENERAL RULES TO EXPRESS PASSIVE VOICE

(a) The verb-be- plays an important role in passive voice.

(b) The third form of the verb of the given sentence is equally important.
(c) The tense of the given sentence is also very important.
(d) The verb of the passive sentence takes shape as under:

Form of the verb _be_ in the tense of the given sentence.

+
Third form of the verb of the given sentence.

Present indefinite tense

1. The forms of –be- in the present indefinite tense are: am , is, are
2. So, the passive forms of the verbs in this tense can be:
Am + III form is + form are + III form

Observe the following examples:

Active voice passive voice

1. He helps me. 1. I am helped by him.

2. She reads stories. 2. Stories are read by her.

3. The hunter catches parrots. 3. Parrots are caught by the hunter.

Exercise 6.1

50
Change each sentence into passive voice:
1. The teacher advises me hard every
day.__________________________________________________________
2. Mammy gets me ready for
school.____________________________________________________________
3. The gardener plucks
flowers._____________________________________________________
4. Sisters love their
brothers.___________________________________________________________
5. Good students learn their lessons
well.________________________________________________
6. My friends congratulate me on my
birthday.____________________________________________________
7. The hound chases the hare
hotly.__________________________________________________________
8. Cloth do you want?__________________________________________________
9. Does he do his homework regularly?
_________________________________________________________
10. Some students do not pay their
fees.________________________________________________________
B. Change each sentence into active voice:

1. A bag is carried by every

student.________________________________________________________

2. Is he not known to you?

________________________________________________________________

3. Are parents not loved by their children?

____________________________________________________

51
4. Why are criminals punished by courts?
________________________________________________________

5. The dove is aimed at by the cruel hunter.

______________________________________________________________

6. How is sugar sold?_______________________________________________________

7. Are the customers cheated by this shopkeeper?

________________________________________________________

8. By whom is the prayer-bell rung?

__________________________________________________________________

9. A race is run by a hare and a tortoise?

__________________________________________________________________

10. Why are dirty people not liked by us?

_______________________________________________________________

The three forms of the verb-be-in present indefinite tense:

Is + III form of verb, am + III form of verb and are + III form of verb.

UNIT -11
ARTICLES (A, AN AND THE)
The determiners a, an and the are usually called articles.

Articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ are Indefinite Articles.

Uses of a and an

1. A and an can be used before a countable noun which represents a class.

Examples
(i) A cow gives milk. (All cows give milk.)
(ii) An elephant trumpets. (All elephants trumpet.)
2. A or an is usually used before a countable noun where it stands for one in number.

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 Examples
(i) She bought an egg. (one egg)
(ii) I have a cat. (one cat)
3. A and an is used with a noun complement.
Examples
(i) She is a teacher.
(ii) He is a doctor.
(iii) Mr. David was an engineer.
4. A is used with few and little.
Examples
(i) There were only a few students present in the class.
(ii) There was a little water in the jug.
5. A is used in exclamations before singular countable nouns.
Examples
(i) What a beautiful flower it is!
(ii) What a fine day today is!
6. A is used before certain numerical expressions.
Examples
A hundred A dozen
Half a dozen A thousand
7. A is used before mr/mrs/ miss+surname
(i) A Mr. Jack has come to see you.
(ii) A miss Mary wants to talk to you on phone
(The speaker does not know either Mr. jack or miss Mary.)

Uses of the

1. The can be used before a countable noun which represents a class.

Examples
(i) The dog barks. (All dogs bark.)
2. The is used before nouns to particularize them.
Examples
(i) Jane bought a new novel. The novel had a black cover. (Articulating a singular
noun)
(ii) Tony bought five eggs. The eggs were fresh (articulating a plural noun)
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3. The is used with few and little.
Examples
(i) Harris has eaten the few grapes that were in the basket.
(ii) He has lost the little money he had in his pocket.
4. The is used before the unique objects
Examples
(i) The sky (iii) The sun
(ii) The world (iv) The universe
5. The is used before the names of newspaper, magazines, etc.
Examples
(i) The times (iii) The blitz
(ii) The London express
6. The is used before the names of holy books.
Examples
(i) The Ramayana (iii) The Bible
(ii) The New Testament (iv) The Quran
7. The is used before the names of trains, ships, airplanes, roads, etc.
Examples
(i) The super fast express (iii) The Queen Elizabeth
(ii) The MIG-21
8. The is used before the names of rivers, gulfs, mountain ranges, boys, channels, etc.
Examples
(i) The Amazon
(ii) The Boy of Bengal
(iii) The English channel
(iv) The Indian ocean
9. The is used before the names of peoples (nations).
Examples
(i) The Indians
(ii) The Jews
(iii) The Christians
10.The is used before of imaginary lines.
Examples
(i) The longitude
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 (ii) The tropic of Capricorn
(iii) The tropic of cancer
11.The is used as an adverb
Examples
The more, the merrier
12.The is used before a superlative degree
Examples
(i) john is the most intelligent boy in our class.
(iii) Dolly is the tallest girl in our street.

NOTE: ‘A’ is used with the words which give a consonant sound e.g. a pen, a one rupee
note, etc.

‘An’ is used with the words which give a vowel sound e.g.an orange, an hour, etc.

Omission of Articles

The Article is omitted:

1. Before Common Nouns used in the modest tense.

Examples

(i) Man is mortal.

(ii) Woman is the mother of mankind

2. before proper nouns

Examples

(i) Nina is my classmate.

(ii) Ashoka was a kind king.

Note: when an article is used before a proper noun, it becomes a common noun.
Examples
(i) Monica is the madam curie of our class.
(ii) He is the Einstein of our class.

3. before the names of games.

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Examples: She plays both cricket and tennis well.

4. before material nouns

Examples: milk is essential for children to keep good health.

But we may write: The milk of this cow is sweet.

5. before abstract nouns.

Examples: Love begets love.

Bravery is the quality of the brave.

NOTE: When an abstract noun is qualified by an adjective, it may take ‘the’.

Examples
(i) The childhood of Abraham Lincoln was full of misery.
(ii) The honesty shown by the little child is commendable.
6. Before the of meals.

Examples: we had lunch.

7. before the names of certain phrases, etc.

Examples: we reached home late at night.

8. When a noun is preceded by a possessive determiner.

Examples: she kept her word.
This is my last attempt to reach the summit.

UNIT -12
SPECIAL FINITE VERBS
The non-finite forms include:

(a) Present infinitives to be, to do, to have

(b) Perfect infinitives to have been! Done/had
(c) Present participate being, having
(d) Past participate been, had

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 (e) Gerund being, doing (noun)

SPECIAL FINITE VERBS

All others forms of the verbs are finite verbs. But there are 24 finite verbs that are different
from other finite verbs. They are used to perform special functions. So, they are called
special finites.

SPECIAL FINITE VERBS

Present forms Past forms Past participle forms

Am , is , are Was , were been

Have, has had had

Do, does did done

shall should ___

will would ___

can could ___

may might ___

must ___ ___

ought ___ ___

need ___ ___

dare ___ ___

___ used ___

Functions of special finite verbs

I) as common finite verbs like: be, have, do.

Example: I do my homework regularly.

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II) As auxiliary verbs (helping verbs):

III) As modal verbs (showing a certain mode (mood).

Exercise 7.1
A. Write the correct answer the following question?

1. Which five forms of verbs are called infinitive?

________________ ________________

________________ ________________

B. Fill up each sentence with a suitable form of be (am, is, are)

1. We _________ to visit the sululta town on next Sunday.

2. Sudesh ___________ to marry Seema in the month of October.

3. I ________ to fulfill my promise, come what may.

4. This job ______ to be completed now and here.

C. Fill up each blank with will or shall?

1. I _____________ be drowned and nobody ____________ save me.

2. You ___________ pay me right now, I ___________ not let you go.

3. The school ____________ remain closed tomorrow on account of Holi.

4. Nobody _____________ violate the rules in any case.

5. ________________ I come over there in order to help you?

UNIT-13
VOCABULARY
A. WORD BUILDING
VERBS FROM NOUNS
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NOUN VERB NOUN VERB

1. Advice Advise 11. Food Feed

2. Beauty beautify 12. Health Grass

3. Black Blacken 13. Population Populate

4. Brass Braze 14. Blood Bleed

5. Brood Breed 15. Life Live

6. Class Classify 16. Power Empower

7. Company Accompany 17. Peace Pacify

8. Danger Endanger 18. Drop Drip

9. Example Exemplify 19. Belief Believe

10. Friend Befriend 20. Price Prize

VERBS FROM ADJECTIVES

Adjectives Verb Adjectives Verb

1. Able enable 7. Different differ

2. Broad broaden 8. Fine refine

3. Civil civilize 9. Hard harden

4. Clear clarify 10. Clean cleanse

5. Dark darken 11. Fertile fertilize

6. Equal equalize 12. Fresh refresh

ADJECTIVES FROM NOUNS

NOUN Adjectives NOUN ADJECTIVES

1. Advice advisable 11. Face facial

2. Air airy 12. Fate fateful

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3. Angle angular 13. Faith faithful

4. Blood bloody 14. Fault faulty

5. Boy boyish 15. Fire fiery

6. Center central 16. Force forceful

7. Child childish 17. Fun funny

8. Danger dangerous 18. France french

9. Duty dutiful 19. Gas gaseous

10. Ease easy 20. Switzerland swiss

NOUNS FROM ADJECTIVES

Adjective Verb Adjective Noun

1. Able ability 10. Cheap cheapness

2. Active activity 11. Deep depth

3. Brave bravery 12. Difficult difficulty

4. Bright brightness 13. Equal equality

5. Broad breadth 14. Fair fairness

6. Busy business 15. Good goodness

7. Calm calmness 16. Hard hardness

8. Careful carefulness 17. High height

9. Clean cleanliness 18. Local locality

B. SYNONYMS
1. Anger _____ wrath, rage

2. Brave _____ gallant, valiant

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3. Build _____ construct, erect

4. Couple _____ pair, duo

5. Danger _____ peril, hazard, risk

6. Death _____ demise, decease

7. Enemy _____ foe, opponent

8. Error _____ mistake, blunder

9. Force _____ compel, constrain

10. Opportunity _____ chance, occasion

11. Pain _____ ache, agony

12. Pardon _____ forgive, excuse, and apologize

13. Teach _____ educate, instruct

14. Wise _____ intelligent, talented

15. Wind _____ air, breeze

16. Wing _____ feather, plume

C. HOMONYMOS
1. Access (approach) : I have no access to the manager.

Excess (too much) : Excess of everything is bad.

2. Adept (expert) : he is an adept painter.

Adopt (take to) : she has adopted me as her daughter.

3. Beach (sea-shore) : the children are playing on the sandy beach.

Beech (a tree) : beech trees are growing in plenty here.

4. Ceiling (inner-roof) : the ceiling fan moves round and round.

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 Sealing (putting a seal) : the battle of Khanua sealed the fate of the Rajputs.

5. Council (assembly) : the city council has fifteen members.

Counsel (advice) : you must act up on your mother’s counsel.

6. Decent (grand) : I was impressed by his decent manners.

Descent (coming down) : descent of this hill is very steep and dangerous.

7. Fore (front) : this cow is limping of its fore leg.

Four (4) : two and two make four.

8. Goal (score) : which team scored three goals?

Gaol (jail) : the court sent the accused to gaol.

9. Hole (bore) : rats live in holes.

Whole (complete) : he ate up a whole chicken.

10. In (inside) : what is in the jug?

Inn (public house) : we passed the right in an inn.

11. Lightning (flash in clouds) : thunder and lightning accompanied the rain.

Lightening (making light) : the load on the cart was heavy. The cart-man is lightening it.

12. Metal (iron etc.) : Gold is the costliest metal.

Mettle (courage) : Napoleon was a man of great mettle.

13. No (negation) : I have no an honest man.

Know (to learn) : do you know how to swim.

14. of (‘s) : student of this class are honest.

Off (away) : be off my eyes.

15. Principle (rule) : he is indeed a man of principle.

Principal (chief) : the principal fined me for coming late.

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16. Sole (lonely) : he is the sole proprietor of this firm.

Soul (conscience) : soul is the best guide of a man.

17. Way (path) : let him have his own way.

Weight (to balance) : things are weighed in a balance.

18. Whether (if) : ash him whether he is to go with us or not?

Weather (season) : the weather is extremely sun today

19. Waste (spend uselessly) : never waste your time and money.

Waist (the middle body) : the water was waist-deep.

20. Where (which place) : where does he come?

Wear (put on) : wear your dress and go to school.

D. USEFUL WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS

1. Missionary : a religious preacher.

2. S.O.S : a signal by mariners when their ship is in danger_ it stands for Save Our Souls.

3. Vitamins : life-giving part of a plant.

4. Studio : the working room of a painter or photographer etc.

5. Advanced in age : grown old.

6. Advanced in knowledge : scholarly person

7. Bad blood : enmity

8. Bad debt : a debt not likely to be paid

9. A bag of bones : very lean person.

10. Black art : magic

11. Bye laws : rules made by a local body.

12. A capital crime : a crime punishable by death

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13. Capital sentence : death sentence

14. Cardinal points : East, West, North, South (on a compass)

15. Cardinal numbers : 1, 2, 3, 4 ………..etc.

16. Ordinal numbers : first, second, third……..etc.

17. Multiplicative number : once, twice, thrice, four times……….etc.

18. Cardinal flower : scarlet, lobelia

19. Ready money : hard cash

20. Small hours : time between 12 p.m. and 4 a.m.

21. Matricide : one who kills one’s mother?

22. Patricide : one who kills one’s father?

23. Fratricide : one who kills one’s brother?

24. Suicide : action of killing oneself

25. Homicide : one who kills a human being.

26. Infanticide : one who kills an infant?

27. Regicide : one who kills the king?

28. Pesticide : medicine that kills pests.

29. Germicide : medicine that kills germs.

30. Vegetarian : a person who lives on plant foods.

31. Non-vegetarian : a person who takes animal foods also.

32. Carnivore : an animal that lives on flesh.

33. Herbivore : an animal that lives on herbs.

34. Grassivore : an animal that lives on grass.

35. Piscivore : an animal that lives on fish.

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36. Biography : written life-story of a person

37. Autobiography : life-story of a person written by himself or herself.

38. Astronomy : science of the behavior of heavenly bodies.

39. Visible : that can be seen.

40. Invisible : that cannot be seen.

41. Movable : that can be moved.

42. Immovable : that cannot be moved.

43. Democracy : government by the people.

44. Transparent : via which light can pass.

45. Opaque : via which light cannot pass.

SUMMARIZING
Summarizing: is the stage next to comprehension. Comprehension means the act of
understanding. So a summary means the gist or substance of a given passage in as few
words as possible.

A summary includes all the essential facts of the passage to be summarized. All the
unimportant details are to be left out. Usually a summary is one third of the given passage in
length. A good summary has five distinct features.

1. Accuracy 2. Clarity 3. Completeness 4. Compactness 5. Brevity

HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY

 Read the sentence or passage carefully. Several times if necessary to get
central idea.
 Frame a suitable short little that should express the subject of the passage.
 Go via the passage again and underline all the facts that are important to
making a summary.
 Number the facts and arrange them in proper order.

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 Go through the outline and strike out the points that can be still deleted.
 Always write the summary in the indirect speech. Be precise and to the point.
 One- word substitution is the best tool in summarizing passages.

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