PAPER WRITING I

Lecture: Herysa Oktawati, S.Pd, M.Pd

Arranged by:

ENDAH NUR PUTRIYANI

13020311028

LANGUAGE AND ART DEPARTEMENT

SEKOLAH TINGGI KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

(STKIP) YPM BANGKO

ACADEMIC YEARS 2015

 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER I THE FUNDAMENTAL OF WRITING

CHAPTER II PUNCTUATION

CHAPTER III SENTENCE STUCTURE

CHAPTER IV SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

CHAPTER V CONSISTENT OF USE PRONOUN AND CONSISTENT

OF USE VERB TENSE

CHAPTER VI COMPOUND SENTENCE AND COMPLEX SENTENCE

CHAPTER VII COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE AND PASSIVE

VOICE

CHAPTER VIII CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

CHAPTER IX NOUN CLAUSE

CHAPTER X ADVERBIAL CLAUSE AND RELATIVE CLAUSE

CHAPTER XI PARAGRAPH

CHAPTER XII PARAGRAPH NARRATIVE

CHAPTER XIII PARAGRAPH DESCRIPTION

 CHAPTER I

THE FUNDAMENTAL OF WRITING

A. BASIC COMPETENCES

After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand what is writing

2. Understand what are the fundamental of writing
3. Understand the purpose in writing

B. INTRODUCTION

When a person writes something, he or she has purposes for writing. The
writer may have motivations of which he or she is unaware. The writer may also
have mixed, and even contradictory, motivations for writing.
For instance, a student writing an essay for a class may wish to please the teacher
and to amuse his or her classmates. Unfortunately, what might amuse classmates
the teacher could find unacceptable. In general, people write either because they
are required to or because they choose to write for their own reasons.

C. MATERIAL

A. Definition of writing

Writing is the activity or skill of marking coherent word on paper and

composing text. Writing is a method of representing language in visual or tactile
form. Writing systems use sets of symbols to represent the sounds of speech, and
may also have symbols for such things as punctuation and numerals.

B. Purpose of writing

1. Narrative, writing tells a story or related a series of event.

2. Describe, Writing describes a person, place or think.

3. Expository, Writing gives information or explains.

4. Persuasive, Writing attemps to convince someone to do or believe something.

C. Reader

Reader is the people who read the writing. Persuasive writing is co native;
so is writing intended to entertain the reader. Writing intended to arouse the
reader's feelings is conative. Conative writing may take about any form, so long as
its intention to persuade the reader or affect the reader emotionally.

D. Topics

Topics is a matter dealt with in a text, discourse, or conversation; a

subject. A topic sentence is a sentence that captures the meaning of the entire
paragraph or group of sentences. It tells what the passage is mainly about.
 CHAPTER II

PUNCTUATION

A. BASIC COMPETENCES

After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

4. Understand the concept of punctuation

5. Know the kinds of punctuation
6. Know the function of each punctuation

B. INTRODUCTION

It is very important to use punctuation when writing. It shows the reader when
sentences begin and finish, what information is the most important, when there is
direct speech and much, much more. When we speak, we use our voice to place
emphasis on something. Our tone and intonation reveal if we are asking or
answering a question, and we pause to make ourselves understood. In writing, we
cannot use our voice, tone or intonation to make ourselves understood.
Punctuation helps us express in writing what we would say out loud.

C. MATERIAL

WHAT IS PUNCTUATION?

Punctuation is used, in printing and writing, to imitate speech. When we speak

we use voice inflections, stops, pauses, and even body language to indicate our
meaning. For example, when we ask a question our voice rises at the end of a
sentence.

Punctuation marks are essential when you are writing. They show the reader
where sentences start and finish and if they are used properly they make your
writing easy to understand, When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of
our voices to indicate emphasis. This section gives practical guidance on how to
use commas, semicolons, and other types of punctuation correctly, so that your
writing will always be clear and effective.

TYPES OF PUNCTUATION

A. Full stop or period (.)

Is used to show that you have come to the end of sentence. You can also
use them to show that you have shortened or abreviated words. There are 2 type of
abreviations that use full stop.

1. You can put after full stop after the first letter of each abreviated
word.
E.g.; W. Va. (West Virginia)
J.V. (Junior Varsity)
G.B. (Great Britain)
2. After selected group of letters from a word.
e.g.: Inf. (Infinitive)
Etc. (Etcetera)

B. Comma ( , )

A comma marks a slight break between different part of a sentence.

Comma make the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words,
phrases, and clauses.

E.g.: -Punctuation is used, in printing and writing, to imitate speech.

- When they were speaking, she came.

C. Semi-Colon ( ; )

Colon (It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a comma. Like

commas, semicolons indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma's,
but short of a period's full stop.

E.g.: we have grapes, honey, pineapple; date, tomatoes, mango; and the others
food.

D. Colon (: )

Use a colon before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that can
stand by itself.

E.g.: there are some types of dogs: Chihuahua, bulldog, and golden retriever.

E. Hyphen (–)

Just as all punctuation marks ensure the clarity of writing, hyphens function
to avoid confusion and misreading by joining compound words including nouns
and other modifiers. Hyphens perform seven basic functions.

1. Use hyphens with compound numbers and to separate numerators and

denominators infractions.

 Fifty-two
 forty-six
 four-seven
 three-tenths

2. Use hyphens with some compound nouns.

  sister-in-law
 T-shirt

3. Use hyphens to join coequal nouns. For example:

 writer-illustrator
 director-actor

4. Use hyphens to join compound modifiers that precede nouns. For

example:

 middle-class people
 well-known novelist
 twentieth-century literature

5. Use hyphens to separate words in phrases functioning as modifiers that

precede nouns. For example:

 out-of-this-world experience

6. Use hyphens with certain prefixes and suffixes such as all-, anti-, -elect,
ex-, mid-, neo-, post-, pre-, pro-, and self-. For example:

 mid-century
 self-employed
 ex-man
 pro-American

7. Use hyphens to avoid confusion and misreading. Use hyphens to avoid

awkward letter combinations. For example:

 re-sign (as in to sign again, not resign or quit)

 English-language student (a student studying English, not an
English speaking student studying language).
F. Dash (—)

You can used dash to denote a sudden twist in thought or a diviation from
sentence’s main point. In some cases the interruption relater to the original idea.

E.g.: The boy – the one in the white shirt and blue jeans – is my cousin.

G. Question Mark (?)

The question mark has a very simple function in writing. It indicates a

question. If a sentence ends with question mark, then it is asking a question or
interrogative sentence.

E.g.: - where is Jim?

- What is that?

H. Exclamation Mark (!)

Using an exclamation mark when writing is rether like shouting or raising your
voice when speaking.

1. Used un exclamation mark to indicate stronge feelings or raised voice

in speech: She shouted at him,”Go way!”
2. Many interjections need an exclamation mark: Hi!
3. A non-question santence beginning with “what” or “how” is often an
exclamation and requites an exclamation mark: how nice that is!

I. Slash, Forward Slash or Oblique (/)

 Slash is often used indicate “or”

Ex: she will run/stand.
 Used a noun fof fraction
 Eg: 2/3
 Used a slash to indicate “per” in measurements of speed, prices etc...
Eg: The speed limit is 100 KM per H.
 A slash is often used in detes to sparete day, mounth and year.
Eg: He was born on 17/september/1997
 The slash is used to separate parts of website addres on the internet
and separate fulders on some computer system.
Eg: www.fundamental-of-writing.com/writing/19.htm.

J. Double Quotation Marks (“ “ )

We use Quotation marks to show the beginning and end of a word or prase
that is some how spesial or comes from out side the text that we are writing.
Quotation Marks can be double(“...”) or singgle (‘....’) that is really a mater of
slile. Quotation Marks are also colled quwoites or inverted comas.

1. Use Quotation Marks around the title or mane of a book film ship etc.
Eg: “Titanic”is a 1997 movie directed by james cameron about the
sinking of the ship “Titanic”
2. We use Quotation Marks around apiece of texs that we are guoting or
citing, usually on an other source
Eg: in the cambridge or encyclopedia of the English language, David
Crystal argues that punctuation “plays a critical role in the modern
writing system”.
3. Use Quotation Marks around dialogue or directspeech.
Eg: Mary said ”where is James?”
4. Use Quotation Marks around a word or phase that we see as slang or
jargon.
Eg: The police were called to a “disturbence” which in reality was a
pretty big fight.
K. Single Quotation Marks (‘‘ )

E.g. So she says to herself, ‘that can’t be right’

L. Apostrophe ( ' )

Use the Apostrophe to show possessive, with a singular noun, add an Apostrophe
plus the letter s.

Eg: Andre’s bag is in here.

M. Underline

Underline, also called an underscore,is a more or less horizontal line

immediately below a portion of writing. In a manuscript to be typesed, various
froms of underlining were conventionally used to indicate that text should be set
in aspecial typeface such as italics to show emphasis, part ofa procedure known as
mark.

 Magazine titles Bazaar

 Plays Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf
 Long (especially epic) poems Beowulf

N. Underscore (_)

The underscore sign is mainly used to show a space where a space is not
allowed, such as in internet usernames, email addresses and some computer
programs.

E.g.: endah_nur_putri@yahoo.co.id

O. Brackets [ ] ( ) { } ⟨ ⟩
 Brackets to set apart or interject other text. Used unqualified, brackets
refer to different types of Brackets, in different parts of the world and in different
contexts. E.g.: Long (especially epic) poems.

P. Ellipsis Mark ...

The Ellipsis Mark consists of thee dots (periods). We use the ellipsis mark
in a place of missing words. If we intentionally omit one or more words from an
originaltext, we replace them with an ellipsis mark.

Eg: “the film focussed on thee English learners...studying at university.”

The new sentence still makes sense, but the ellipsis mark shows the reader
that something is missing. We sometimes also usean ellipsis mark to indicate a
pause when someone is speeaking, or unfinished sentence.

Eg: Darling, there is something... I need to tell you.

EXERCISE

1. What are the function of commas? Give the examples of using commas
correctly!

2. What are the function of apostrophe? Give the examples of using apostrophe
correctly!

3. What is the function of punctuation?

4. What are the functions of hyphen?

 CHAPTER III
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE

A. BASIC COMPETENCES

After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand the structure of sentences

2. Know the usage part of sentences
3. Able to elaborate the sentence into its part.

B. INTRODUCTION

It is very important to know the structure of the sentence itself because its
help us to determine parts of the sentence itself. It’s become to help us finding the
answer for questions who, where, what, why, when, and how.

C. MATERIAL

 PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

A. Subject

The subject of a sentence is the noun or word group acting as a noun that

performs the action expressed in the predicate of a sentence or clause. The subject

may be one word: He didn’t know that. The subject may be in a noun phrase:

E.g.: The white witch was flying with her flying broom.
B. Predicate

The predicate is the part of the clause or sentence that says something

about the subject. In other words, the part of the sentences that is not the subject

and its modifiers is the predicate. A predicate can be one word or several words,

not all of which are verbs.

The principal part of the predicate is the verb.

 The cat growled.

 The cat has been growling.

 The cat snorted around, and growled.

C. Objects

The object of a sentence can be a noun, pronoun, or word group that acts

as a noun, and receives the action of a verb or is influenced by a transitive verb,

verbal (a word derived from a verb, i.e., gerund, infinitive, and participle), or a

preposition.

Direct objects are often needed to complete the thought of a sentence. "Jim

reads the magazines." "Jim reads" is a complete sentence, but it doesn't express

the complete thought. Jim reads what? He reads the newspaper. Indirect object:

Tells for whom, to whom, or to what something is done. "Jim reads his sister the

story book." Jim reads the story book to whom? “To his grandmother. Sister is the

indirect object. Pronouns are also used as indirect objects: "Jim reads her the story

book." Indirect objects often come between the verb and the direct object.
D. Complements

Complement means a word or word group that completes the meaning of a

subject, an object, or a verb.

1. Subject complement: Follows a linking verb and modifies or refers to the

subject. It may be a noun (also known as a predicate noun or nominative) or an

adjective (also known as a predicate adjective).

 Jim is reckless. (The adjective reckless is a subject complement; it describes

the subject, Jim.)

 Annie is a young girl. (The noun phrase young girl is also a subject

complement; it describes Annie.)

2. Object complement: Follows and modifies or refers to a direct object.

 (Television is the direct object. silly describes television; it is the object

complement.)

 The judges elected her Miss Brazil, 2002. (Miss Brazil is the object

complement, describing the direct object her.)

3. Verb complement: This is a direct or indirect object of a verb. It may be a

noun, pronoun, or word or word group acting as a noun.

 My sister gave sauce my meat ball. (Sauce is the indirect object, my meat

ball is the direct object of the verb gave. Both are considered verb complements).
 STRUCTURES SENTENCE

1. Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. An independent

clause is a group of words (with a subject and a verb) that expresses a complete

thought.

E.g. I eat cupcake.

I eat cupcake is an independent clause. It contains a subject (I) and a verb (eat),

and object (cupcake) it expresses a complete thought.

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These

clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. A coordinating

conjunction is a word that glues words, phrases, or clauses together.

She cried and he moved away

She cried is an independent clause. He moved away is also an independent

clause. And is a coordinating conjunction joining the two independent clauses. She

cried and he move away is a compound sentence.

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains a dependent clause and an independent clause.

A subordinate clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not

express a complete thought.

I realize your love after you are trying hard to understand me.

I realize your love is an independent clause. After you are trying hard to

understand me is a dependent adverb clause modifying the verb realize. I realize

your love after you are trying hard to understand me is a complex sentence.

4. Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at

least one subordinate clause.

When she was 17, she got unexpected present from her boyfriend but she threw

away the present.

She got unexpected present from her boyfriend and she threw away the preset

are both independent clauses. They are being joined by the conjunction but.

When she was 17 is a dependent adjective clause. The whole sentence is a

compound-complex sentence.
EXERCISES

a. Make three sentences using indirect object!

b. What is simple sentences and make three simple sentences!

c. What is compound sentence and make three compound sentences!

d. What is complex sentence and make three complex sentences!

e. What is compound-complex sentence and make a compound-complex

sentence!
 CHAPTER IV
SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand what is subject verb agreement

2. Know the rules of subject verb agreement
3. Make sentences subject verb agreement correctly

B. INTRODUCTION

The subject and verb must agree in number: both must be singular, or both
must be plural. Problems occur in the present tense because one must add an -s or
-es at the end of the verb when the subjects or the entity performing the action is a
singular third person: he, she, it, or words for which these pronouns could
substitute. Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-
common mistake. So it’s important to understand about this lesson. The following
are explanation about subject verb agreement.

C. MATERIAL

A. Subject verb agreement

Subject and verbs must agree with one another in number (singular or
plural) if subject is singular, its verb must also be singular, if subject plural, its
verb must also be plural.

Example: 1. the children are naughty.

2. The cat was sleeping.

3. We were roasting corn.

 B. Ten subject verb agreement rules

Basic Rule.

A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas
a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.

If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.

Rule 1.

A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for
understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-
verbmistakes.
Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common
mistake in the following sentence:

Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lends color and fragrance to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)

Rule 2.

Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular

verb.

Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3.

The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or
pronoun closest to it.

Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more)
subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.

Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

Rule 4.

As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are
connected by and.

Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

But note these exceptions:

Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.

In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound
subject.
Compound subjects (two subjects in the same sentence) usually take a plural verb,
unless the combination is treated as singular in popular usage or the two subjects
refer to the same thing or person.

Rule 5.

Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as
well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject.
Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.

Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Rule 6.

With words that indicate portions—a lot, a majority, some, all, etc.—Rule 1 given
earlier is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is
singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.

Rule 7.

In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.

Rule 8.

Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when
considered as a unit.

Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.

Rule 9.

Some collective nouns, such as family, couple, staff, audience, etc., may take
either a singular or a plural verb, depending on their use in the sentence.

Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit.
The couple disagree about disciplining their child.
The couple refers to two people who are acting as individuals.

The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural
they to staff in the same sentence.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

The preceding sentence would read even better as:

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

Rule 10.

The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to
fact. Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.

Joe isn't actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the
subjunctive sentence, which is used to express things that are hypothetical,
wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs
singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Note: The subjunctive is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used
in formal speech and writing.

Exercise:

a. what is subject verb agreement?

b. correct the errors in subject verb agreement. Some sentences contain no errors.

1. The books in my office is very valuable to me.

2. There is some interesting pictures in magazine.

3. Economics is my favorite subject.

4. A lot of students in the class are from west java.

 CHAPTER V

CONSISTENT OF USE PRONOUN AND CONSISTENT OF USE

VERB TENSE AND RULES OF USEAGE

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand what is subject verb agreement

2. Know the rules of subject verb agreement
3. Make sentences subject verb agreement correctly

B. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the use of pronouns can be caused by many things such to
make it more concise, a name not mentioned repeatedly in a sentence and the
effectiveness of a sentence. In case, pronouns are usually use in day-life but
sometimes people may be wrong in useage pronoun itself, so in this chapter will
discuss about the variety and useage of pronoun. Not only consistent when use
pronoun but also consistent use verb tense, there must consistent either in
sentences or in paragraph.

C. MATERIAL

A. Pronoun

Pronoun are words used to replace nouns, these nouns can be people,
animals, places and abstract concepts. In a sentence personal pronouns can be
used as the subject or object. The purpose of the use of pronouns can be caused by
many things such to make it more concise, a name not mentioned repeatedly in a
sentence and the effectiveness of a sentence. Listed below are several types of
pronouns in the English language along with an explanation and examples of
pronouns.
a) Subject pronouns

Personal pronouns used as the subject of the verb are I, you, he, she, it, we, and
they. Consider the following example sentences:

 We share together.
 He gets some awards.
 You’ll be the winner.
 It is you.
 I got a secret present.

b) Object pronouns

Personal pronouns used as the object of a verb is me , you , him , her , it , us and
them . Consider the following example sentences:

 Ann brought you to me.

 Boys give it to me.
 A police locked her.
 God blesses him.
 She looks for us.

2. Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns are pronouns that show ownership of an object. The

words used are mine, yours, his, hers, ours , theirs, its, and theirs.

Example:

 Those books are mine.

 A bird has its wings.
 He has his room.
 I am yours.
 She gets bandana and it’s hers.
3.Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronoun is used that substitute nouns when the nouns

they replace can be understood from the context. At the same time, to indicate
whether they are close or far, in space or time, from the speaker in the moment of
speaking. They also indicate whether they are replacing singular or plural words.

"This" (singular) and "These" (plural) refer to an object or person NEAR the
speaker.

"That" (singular) and "Those" (plural) refer to an object or person further AWAY.

Example:

 This is cup of tea for me.

 These are cups of tea for the customers.
 That is horse for the horse rider.
 Those are horses for the horse’s riders.

In a sentence, this and that as a singular demonstrative pronoun can act as a

subject and direct object (direct object), for example:

 This cake is hers.

 Would you take that?
 That is those things that I have to be.

4. Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronoun is used to ask people, objects, or an option. The pronoun

that is often used is what, who, whose, which and whom.

Example:
  Which one do you prefer?
 What is pronoun?
 Where do I go?
 Whom do you miss?
 Whose is this bag?

5. Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are pronouns that refer to the preceding noun

(antecedent) which serves as kind of relative pronouns are who, which, that , and
Whose.

- To refer to people, use the relative pronouns: Who, Whom, Whose

and that.

 Those girls who are studying grammar are my students.

 I got an award from my teacher whom teaches my class.
 The man whose father will fly to Australia is Will.
 Harry is one of the most handsome guy in campus that isn’t have
girlfriend yet.

- To refer to other objects or animals, use relative pronouns: which,

that and whose.
 This is the book which I bought yesterday.
 The animal whose neck is very long is giraffe.

6. Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that are used to indicate the actions or
activities undertaken by the subject himself (the subject of the verb). Reflextive
pronoun is used personal pronouns (my , your , him , her , it , our , them ) coupled
with “self” singular noun ( singular ) or “selves” plural noun ( plural ) .
The pronoun is used as a reflexive pronoun is : myself , yourself , yourselves ,
Themselves , himself , herself , and itself .

Example:

 I see myself in the mirror.

 He goes to campus by himself.
 The cats hide itself on underbrush.
 You can do that like they do by themselves.

7. Indefinite pronouns

The use of this pronouns, objects or things that are general and not
specific to using this type of pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are divided into
single , multiple or even both. Type Indefinite pronouns: indifinite persons or
thing and in definite quantities. Indefinite persons or things are somebody,
someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, no one, nothing,
everybody, everyone, everything. Indefinite quantities are all, another, any, both,
each, either, few, least, less, little, a lot (of), many, more, most, much, neither,
none, one, other(s), several, some.

Example:

 Everyone must be consistent.

 Someone that is very important.
 Nobody is in home.
 Both of you have to pay it.
 Everybody knows me.

8. Reciprocal pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns reciprocity which means that an

action or activity that occurs involving two people / groups who do the same thing
to each other. The pronoun is used as reciprocal pronouns are each other and one
another.

Example:

 We have each other.

 All of member help one another.
 They talked one another.
 Ann and Will always care each other.

B. CONSISTENT OF USE VERB TENSE AND RULES OF USEAGE.

Consistent verb tenses clearly establish the time of the actions being
described. Changes in verb tense help readers understand the time relationships
among various narrated events. Writers will generally maintain one tense for the
main discourse and indicate changes in time by changing tense relative to that
primary tense. Even apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses
consistently and clearly.

When a passage begins in one tense and then shifts without warning and to
another, readers can be confused.

- Matthew will attend the basketball camp next summer because he received a
full scholarship.

The main action is taking place in some past time, so the second sentence should
read: because he will receive a full scholarship

If you are writing about an event in the past - always use the past tense. The same
applies for present and future. If you are unsure about which tense to use, simply
refer to the last verb you wrote. As with every rule, there are exceptions - but
consistency is always your safest bet.
There are three main verb forms for showing time or tense:

1. Simple Tense
Simple sentence does not use auxiliary verbs refers to specific time period during
which something happens or something happened and is over or something will
happen.

Simple present (action goes on now): I sit

Simple past (action happened and is over): I sat
Simple future (action will happen): I will sit

2. Perfect Tense
 uses have, has, or had as auxiliary verb
 allows action to continue over time
Present perfect (action happened and may still be going on): I have sat
Past perfect (action happened before something happened in the past): I had sat
Future perfect (action will be considered in the future, by which time it will have
already happened): I will have sat

3. Progressive Tense
 uses is, are, was, or were as auxiliary verb with –ing ending on main verb
 focuses on “progress” of action
Present progressive (action is in progress right now): I am sitting
Past progressive (action was in progress in the past): I was sitting
Future progressive (action will be in progress in the future): I will be sitting

Each of the above tenses denotes a specific time for an action or event to take
place. Writers should be careful to use the exact tense needed to describe, narrate,
or explain. In general, do not switch from one tense to another unless the timing
of an action demands that you do.
 A. Verb Tense Consistency on The Sentence Level.

Keep tenses consistent within sentences. Do not change tenses when there is no
time change for the action. Example:

- The instructor explains the diagram to students who asked questions

during the lecture.

Explains is present tense, referring to a current state; asked is past, but should be
present (ask) because the students are currently continuing to ask questions during
the lecture period. So the correct one is:

- The instructor explains the diagram to students who ask questions during
the lecture.
- The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves.

Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it now;) built is
past, referring to an action completed before the current time frame (they are not
still building it.)

- The children love their new tree house, which they build themselves.

correct:

Harry reached for the sandwich after he had already eaten two pieces of pizza.

The second action took place in the past; the first action occurred before the past
action. Therefore, the first action requires the past perfect tense (had + verb).

B. Verb Tense Consistency On The Paragraph Level

Generally, establish a primary tense and keep tenses consistent from sentence to
sentence. Do not shift tenses between sentences unless there is a time change that
must be shown.
- Past Tense Paragraph

My mother had a strange and shocking experience when she was five
years old. While she was riding her bike out on the driveway, a car pulled up and
the driver whisked her into the front seat and drove away. After some time he
picked up a woman at a bus stop and sped off along the expressway into the
country. As he turned onto a narrow road leading into the mountains, the woman
suddenly grabbed the man's arm crying out that she couldn't go on with this wild
scheme to have a child of their own. That night the woman dropped my mother
dose to her home and drove off into the dark night. My mother raced in the
opposite direction toward the lighted house on the corner.

C. Verb Tense Consistency on the Essay Level

1. Use present tense when writing essays about

 your own ideas

 factual topics
 the action in a specific movie, play, or book

-Your Own Ideas

Income tax laws should apply to all levels of society equally. Corporations
and wealthy citizens who often have access to skilled lawyers should not pay
proportionality less income tax than other members of society. A system that
allows the wealthy and the corporate to profit from loopholes is inherently unfair.

Several categories of citizens are less able to pay taxes. Those citizens who
are middle class often pay more than their fair share simply because they do not
enjoy this easy access to legal counsel. In addition, people who work full-time
but earn very little, people with disabilities, and people with large families should
receive some sort of tax break…

- Factual Topic
 The Nile River which gets its name from a Greek word is 4.184 miles long. It
covers a good deal of the African continent and is considered the longest river in
the world.

The Nile and its tributaries flow throughnine countries. The White Nile
moves through Uganda, Sudan,…The Blue starts in Ethiophia. Tributaries in
Zaire, Kenya, Tanzanian, Rawanda, and Burundi flow into the Nile or into Lake
Victoria Nyanes…

Major cities on the edge of the Nile include Caire, Aswan, Thebes,…while
these cities may differ markedly from one another, each receives benefits from
the river along which it is situated…

Of the four major dams on the Nile, the most well known is the Aswan High
Dam. This dam attracts many tourists each year who marvel at the hydro-electric
power it generates and…

The Nile River discharges an average of 300 million cubic meters of water
each day. This amount is roughly equivalent to…

Wildlife along the Nile includes fishing eagles, crocodiles, and…

-Action In A Specific Movie Or Book

This indecisiveness becomes apparent as the play progresses. Hamlet, who is

full of doubts, does not act forcefully. As a result, he confuses his mother and…

Later in the play, Hamlet decides to…

In the end, Hamlet’s actions cause…

Note: When quoting from a work, maintain the present tense in your own writing,
while keeping the original tense of the quoted material.
Example :

` Last week I went to the theatre. I had a very good seat. The play was very
interesting. I did not enjoy it. A young man and a young woman were sitting
behind me. They were talking loudly. I got very angry. I could not hear the
actors. I turned round. I looked at the man and the woman angrily. They did not
pay any attention. In the end, I could not bear it. I turned round again. I can’t
hear a word! I said angrily. It is none of your business.’ The young man said
rudely.’ This is private conversation.

By LG Alexander

2. Use past tense when writing about

 past events
 completed studies or findings, arguments presented in scientific literature.

Example - Past Event

The declaration of independence, which was adopted on july 4, 1776,

asserted independence from Great Britain and explained the justifications for
breaking away. The second continental congress passed the act, written mainly
by Thomas Jefferson. Most of the congressional delegates from the Thirteen
Colonies signed an engrossed copy of the declaration on August 2, 1776. That
copy is now on display in the National Archives in Washington, D.C…

Example - Scientific Study

Findings from a group of 21 study patients showed that X-toperin vaccination

was effective in stimulating the patient’s immune system to attack the tumor cells,
a function known medically as tumor-specific immune response. All the patients
had recurrent, high-grade glioma, and all showed a favorable immune reponse..

3. Use future tense when writing about

  An event that will occur in the future.

Example - Future Event

The proposed vehicle will use carbon dioxide as its primary fuel and will
convert the CO2 into oxygen, which it will then release into the air. The vehicle
will weigh only ten pounds and will fold up so that it will fit into a shoe box at
the end of each day.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the correct answer in parentheses.

My Grandma was always very lucid. No matter what we (do, did) as

children, Grandma always (wants, wanted) to hear about it. I will never (forget,
forgot) my first date. I didn't even want my brothers and sisters to know about
Ray. But Grandma! She (is, was) different. Even before I (tell, told) my mother, I
(rush, rushed) over to grandma's and let her in on the secret. She just (smiles,
smiled) and kept rocking and (tells, told) me to be sure to bring Ray over to meet
her sometime. That night, on the way to our first dance together, Ray and I (stop,
stopped) in for a minute to see Grandma. She (is, was) someone we always
wanted to share our secrets with.

2. What is pronoun?
3. Make sentences by using reflective pronoun!
4. Make sentences by using demonstrative pronoun!
5. Make sentences by using relative pronoun!

CHAPTER VI

COMPOUND SENTENCE AND COMPLEX SENTENCE

A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand about compound sentence and complex sentence

2. Make compound sentence and complex sentence

B. INTRODUCTION

This chapter will discuss about compound sentence and complex sentence,
we know that there are differences between both, even we sometimes
misunderstanding the both. They were made up by independent and dependent
clauses. So we have to knowing more about the both.

C. MATERIAL

 COMPOUND SENTENCE AND COMPLEX SENTENCE

1. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent

clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating
conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the
words "FAN BOYS":

Examples of compound sentences include the following:

I hung up the phone and I wanted to hear his voice.

He is handsome and I like him.

2. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses connected to it. A complex sentence joins an independent
clause with one or more dependent clauses.
Examples of dependent clauses include the following:

 because she never believe her heart

 while he was young

Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences

because a complex sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships
between the main parts of the sentence.

Exercise

1. What is the difference between complex sentence and compound sentence?

2. Make three dependent sentence!

3. Make three independent sentence!

CHAPTER VII

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE AND ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE

VOICE

A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Know what is compound-complex sentence

2. Make compound-complex sentence
3. Understand what are passive and active voice
4. Make passive and active voice

B. INTRODUCTION

This chapter will discuss about compound-complex sentence. We have

learned compound sentence and complex sentence, they were different, but how if
the both combined and joined together? More difficult, so in this chapter will
discuss in detail of its. Not only compound-complex sentence but also active and
passive voice. On our daily, we are using active and passive voice out of our
conscious. It’s important to understand the both, how to change active into
passive.

C. MATERIAL

 COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

A. Definition Compound-Complex Sentence

The compound-complex sentence combines elements of compound and

complex sentences. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two
independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. Dependent clauses begin
with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the most common
subordinating conjunctions, after, although, as, because, before, even though, if,
since, though, unless, until, when, Whenever, whereas, wherever, while

E.g. - He tried to speak well but he couldn’t do that because he was unconfident.

-I don’t bring an umbrella when it is raining so I am coming wet.

 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES

A. Active Voice
A sentence is written in active voice when the subject of the sentence
performs the action in the sentence.

Example: Mary helps her sister.

Mary helped her sister.

Mary is helping her sister.

B. Passive Voice

A sentence is written in passive voice when the subject of the

sentence has an action done to it by someone or something else.

Example: Her sister is helped by Mary.

Her sister was helped by Mary.

Her sister was being helped by Mary

EXERCISE

1. Change the sentence following into passive voice

-Jim will help Mary

-Jim helped Mary

- Jim is going to help Mary

2. Change the sentence following into active voice

-The play was written by Shakespeare.

-The report is being prepared by Alex.

-The door will have been opened by Jim.

CHAPTER VIII

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand about conditional sentence

2. Make conditional sentence correctly

B. INTRODUCTION

Conditional sentence is used to express occurs an event with one

condition. They were made up by two parts. Conditional sentence, there is 3 type.
It may become important to understand more about it. It can help us to make
conditional sentence.

C. MATERIAL

A. Conditional Sentence

Conditional sentences also known as conditional clauses or if clauses.

Conditional sentence is used to express an event or action that may or may not
occur. They are made up of two halves. The first halves with the word if in is
a condition, and the other halves the main clause states the action to occur if
the condition is fulfilled.

B. Type of Conditional Sentence

There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

1. Conditional sentence type 1

Conditional sentences that used when the result or consequence of the

condition have the possibility to realized in the future due to the realistic
condition to fulfilled.

Formula of conditional sentence type 1:

If + simple present tense, Simple future tense

Simple future tense + if + simple present tense

 For example:
 If I can sing, I will be a singer.
 I will stop you if I’m in there.
 If she is me, I must be shy.
 If you’re mine, I will make you happy.
 I will say thank you if you send me a present.

2. Conditional sentence type 2

Conditional sentence that used to expressed events that may not occur
because the condition cannot happen. This sentence used to expressed the fact
that the opposite of the present.

Example :

 If he was young, he would not regret his mistakes.

The fact is : he is old so he regrets his mistakes.
 Tom would be angry if his wife wasn’t in home.
The fact :his wife is in home so Tom is not angry.

Formula of conditional sentence type 2:

If + Simple past tense, Past future tense

Past future tense + if + simple past tense

For example:

 If she was young, she would bring him down.

 He would beat the dog if it bit him .
 If Galuh didn’t have enough money, he would steal from
the pedestrian.
 Marry would shake off all that him do for her if he betrayed
her .
  If I had much money, I would buy a wonderful island. .
3. Conditional sentence type 3

Conditional sentence types 3 are used when it is impossible for

condition to be fulfilled because the possibility has already passed.

Example :

 If she had invited, she would have came to the party.

The fact : she didn’t invited so she didn’t come to the party.
 I would have written your name in the sky if I had been a sky
god.
The fact : I didn’t write your name in the sky because I wasn’t
a sky god.

Formula of conditional sentence type 3:

If + Past perfect, Past future perfect

Past future perfect + if + past perfect
For example:
 If I had had much money, I would have flown into the sky with my
plane.
 You would have flown into the sky if I had had wings.
 If that man had done his working, he would have went home.
 The women would not have shown her feeling if the men had not
broken her heart .
 If I had not lost my money, I would have bought a new handbag.
C. Exercises
1. Please translate into English with appropriating the conditional sentences!
 Jika aku adalah dewi cinta, aku akan membuatmu jatuh cinta.
 Fallen akan tahu kebenaranya jika malam itu dia tidak pergi.
2. Move to conditional sentence of these facts.
  His friend betrayed him so he didn’t believe his friend
anymore.
 I didn’t eat breakfast so I’m hungry .
 They didn’t prepare it well so they were late .
 A doctor checked his condition so his condition better.
4. Move to fact of these conditional sentences.
 If I didn’t sleep, I wouldn’t get a dream.
 We would have gone to the zoo if the weather had been nice
yesterday.
 If the weather is nice tomorrow, we will go to the park.
 I would have got a dream if I had slept

CHAPTER IX

NOUN CLAUSE

A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand about noun clause

2. Make noun clause

B. INTRODUCTION

It’s important to understand about noun clause. We can identify noun

clause because it has some characteristic and will discuss in this chapter.

C. MATERIAL

A. The Meaning of Noun Clause

Noun clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate noun.
Noun Clause answers the question related to the verb, the noun is usually start
with That, What, How, However, Why, Whether, and whoever. A noun clause is
used as a subject or an object
Formula: Conjunction + Subject + Predicate + object
An example is:
1. My mom says that she would never herself forget.
2. How nice that is!
3. I heard what they said.

B. Use of Noun Clause

As for the use of the noun clause is as follows :
a. Subject of verb
E.g. :

1. Whether they’re dead or alive.

2. Why you always do this.

b. Transitive object verb

E.g. :
 1. I know she have to runaway.

2. I realize how you can do this to me.

3. I beg you to know that I need you.

c. Object verb

E.g.:

 I believe what I trust in my life.

 She is begging to me that she can do that.

 I am thinking to understand that I will never ever try to give up.

d. Additional information on the noun or pronoun

E.g.:

 We take the responsibility to reach what we want to be.

e. Verbs of incomplete predications/incomplete verb or as predicative noun

E.g.:

 His fear is that he will lose his job.

 That question is where to find the money for the project.

 My worry is whether I shall be able to see her again.

1. Types of Noun Clause

a. Noun Clauses That Preceded by Question Words

Noun clauses that preceded by question words are usually used to

answer a question. The following examples:

 Who is that man? I know he is our neighbor who has the red car.
 Where is she? She is in there where she belongs.
 b. Noun Clauses That Preceded by Whether or If
Noun clauses that preceded by whether or if are used to answer

yes/no type questions. Whether and if are usually interchangeable. The

following examples:

 Does she know you? If we ever meet her.

c. Noun Clauses That Preceded by That

Noun clauses that preceded by that are used to answer questions in

which person who is answering is thinking, giving an opinion, or using a

mental activity verb. The following examples:

 I knew that she would never let herself forget.

 I think that you will agree with me.

Exercise

1. What is noun clause?

2. What kind of noun clause?

3. Give example of noun clause based on the type!

CHAPTER X
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE AND RELATIVE CLAUSE

A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand about adverbial clause

2. Make adverbial clause

B. INTRODUCTION

Adverb clause shows something in particular, there are many kinds of adverbial
clause. In this chapter we are going to discuss it closely and also will discuss
about relative clause.

C. MATERIAL

A. Definition of Adverbial Clause

Adverbial clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a verb, adjective,
or adverb in the main clause. Every adverb clause is introduced by a
subordinating conjunction. An adverb clause tells when, where, why, how, to
what extent, or how much about the word it modifies.

B. Kinds of Adverbial Clause

1. Adverbial clause of result
Adverb clauses of result are introduced by subordinating conjunction
(so, hence, thus, therefore, consequently, that).
For example:
- He tried to find the answer so he locked all the door and red all
book.
- The road was slippery consequently we had to be careful.
- He has been standing for 2 hours therefore his legs tired.
2. Adverb clauses of supposition
Adverb clauses of supposition are introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions (though, although, even, if, etc). The adverbs of clauses
of concession are one and the same as adverb clauses of supposition.
 For example:
- Even she got married, she still like childish.
- Although Jim has been waiting since long ago, he’s been never
trying to give up.
3. Adverb Clause of Reason
We use adverb clause of reason to modify verb in main clause and to
tell the cause that an action takes place (because, as, for, that). These
clauses are used to indicate the reason for something.
For example:
- I make the moves as I go.
- He is doing this for some reason.

4. Adverb Clause of Time

Adverb clause of time are used to modify verb in main clause and to
tell the time that an action takes place (when, whenever, anytime,
before, after, till, until, while, since, etc).
For example:
- While we’re young, we’re reckless.
- I arrived here before you came.
5. Adverb Clause of Place
Adverb clause of place is introduced by the conjunctions “where and
wherever”.
For example:
- I will always waiting for you wherever you are.
6. Adverb Clause of Purpose
Adverb clauses of purpose are used to indicate the purpose an action (
so that, in order that, in order to + V1).
For example:
- He fought in order to keep his promise.
- The dragons fight each others in order to find who the chief is.
 7. Adverb Clause of Contrast
Adverb clause of contrast are used to indicate an opposition/contrast
(although, even though, however, nevertheless, whereas, still, on the
other hand, but, yet, while).
For example:
- Although his condition was getting worst, he was trying to look
for her.
- The government won’t let the inflation but there are many
national debts unfinished yet.

EXERCISE
1. What is adverbial clause?
2. What kinds of adverbial clause?
3. Make sentences by using adverb of contrast!
4. Make sentences by using adverb of time!
5. Make sentences by using adverb of result!

RELATIVE CLAUSES

A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:
 1. Understand about relative clause
2. Make sentence about relative clause

B. INTRODUCTION
Relative clause also called relative pronoun, is used to modify noun. It
describes more information about noun, there are kinds of relative clause and it
will discuss closely about it.
C. MATERIAL

A. Definition Of Relative Clauses

A clause is a part of a sentence. A relative clause tells us which person or
thing (or what kind of person or thing) the speaker means. Relative clauses
(relative pronoun) also mentioned an adjective clause that modifies a noun. It
describes or gives information about a noun.

B. Kinds Of Relative clauses

1. Relative clauses as subject
a. Subject of person ( who/that)
Who is used in a relative clause when we are talking about people.
We use “who” instead of he/she/they.
E.g.:
- The girl who sitting behind me is my close friend.
- Cressida Cowell was a woman that created the story
“how to train your dragon”.

b. Subject of Thing ( which/that)

Which / that are used when we are talking about things. We used
which/that instead of it / they.
E.g.: - the bag with the red and black color which is on the chair
is mine.
2. Relative clauses as Object
 a. Object of Person ( whom)
Whom is possible instead of who (for people) when it is the object
of the verb in the relative clause.
E.g.: - Andre whom I knew was never ever surrounded.
- The young girl with blonde hair whom I saw yesterday
was very attractive.
b. Object of Things ( Which)
Which are used for things.
E.g.:- The bird which I confine on a brown cage is escape fly away.
3. Relative Clauses of Possessive
a. Possessive of Person and things ( Whose)
Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as
other possessive pronouns used as adjectives his, her, its, and their.
Whose is connected to a noun.
E.g.: 1. I know the girl whose the bird is escape.
2. I think about the girl whose the dress is red.
b. Possessive of Things ( of which)
E.g.: - the bird, whose the one of its wings are broke.
- The book, whose the cover was damage.
4. Relative Adverb ( where, why, when)
a. Relative adverb of place refers to a place
E.g.: - The place where we belong to be.
- A home is a place where we stay and share together.
b. Relative adverb of time refers to a time expression.
E.g.: - I’ll never forget the day when you leave me again.
- Just go away when you ready.
c. Relative adverb refers to a reason.
E.g.: - The reason why it could happen.
- That’s the why we are different.
5. Relative Clauses “extra information”
 A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus
preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.
a. Relative clause of preposition + whom/which
E.g.:
-The bag to which is red is mine in the wardrobe.
b. Relative clause in phrases ( All of/most of +whom/which
E.g.:
- Lea has many cats, most of which are kind of Persian’s
cat.

Exercise
1. What is relative clause?
2. What kind of relative clause?
3. Give example from relative clause refers of reason?
4. Give example from relative clause in phrases!
5. Give example from relative clause refers to place!

CHAPTER XI
PARAGRAPH
A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand about paragraph

2. Make example of paragraph

B. INTRODUCTION

C. MATERIAL
A. What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences about a topic. Every paragraph should
have one topic, which is usually presented in the first sentence called the topic
sentence. All the other sentences in the paragraph must develop and support the
topic. According to Oshina and Hogue (1981), a paragraph is a basic unit of
organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develop mean idea.
Meanwhile, McWhorter (1985) argued that a paragraph then, provides explanation
and support for a main idea about a particular topic.

A paragraph gives one main idea and all the examples or the smaller ideas that
explain it. The main idea is sometimes called the theme.

The theme of a paragraph is given in the topic sentence. This is usually the
first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence tells your reader what the
paragraph is about and what your idea is.

B. The structure of a paragraph

A paragraph is made up of three components: the topic sentence, the
supporting sentences (body), and the concluding sentence.

1. Topic sentence
 The first sentence in a paragraph
 Presents the topic and the controlling idea (an important idea about the
topic) of the paragraph
 2. Supporting sentences
 The main part of the paragraph
 Provide several supporting points that explain the controlling idea of the
paragraph
 Provide details that explain each supporting point
3. Concluding sentence
 The last sentence in a paragraph
 Restates the controlling idea and summarizes the supporting points
Example:
PIRANHAS
Like sharks, snakes, and spiders, piranhas are widely feared. Although
most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part,
entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish
and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to
flee, not attack. But there are two situations in which a piranha bite is likely. The
first is when a frightened piranha is lifted out of the water—for example, if it has
been caught in fishing net. The second is when the water level in pools where
piranhas are living falls too low. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more
piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are
well-fed, they won’t bite humans.

The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the
topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be
discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called
the controlling idea. Notice how the topic sentence of the model states both the
topic and the controlling idea:
(Topic) (Controlling idea)
Like sharks, snakes, and spiders, piranhas are widely feared.
Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain the topic
sentence by giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and quotations.

Purposes Transitional word/ phrase

first, second, third, also, then, next, in

To add an idea addition, moreover, furthermore, beside,
additionally.

also, too, in the same way, similarly,

To compare one idea to
likewise, in like manner, both…and, not
another
only…but also, either…or

however, nevertheless, yet, on the one

To contrast one idea with hand, on the other hand, in contrast, to
another the contrary, contrarily, unlike,
conversely, on the contrary.

for example, for instance, as an

To give an example illustration, to illustrate, as a case in
point, in particular, in general.

above all, especially, in fact, surely, most

To emphasize an idea
importantly, equally important
 granted, certainly, of course, no doubt,
To concede a point surely, naturally, although this may be
true.

perhaps, probably, for the most part

To qualify a point

therefore, as a result, thus, indeed,

consequently, accordingly, hence, as a
To indicate an effect
consequence, for this reason, because of
this.

before, meanwhile, afterwards, at the

same time, to begin with, subsequently,
previously, at last, at present, briefly,
currently, eventually, finally, gradually,
To place in time immediately, in the future, then, now,

later, suddenly, earlier, formerly, shortly,

at that time, in the meantime, in the past,
until now.

here, above, beside, below, beyond,

further, there, inside, outside, nearby,
To indicate spatial next to, on the far side, to the east (north,
relationship south, or west), behind, adjacent to, in
the background, opposite to, to the right,
to the left.
 overall, all in all, finally, in brief, in other
words, lastly, on the whole, to sum up, in
To summarize
sum, in conclusion, to conclude,
consequently, eventually.

Exercise:

1. What is paragraph?

2. What are the structures of paragraph?

3. What is topic?

4. What is controlling idea in paragraph?

CHAPTER XII
PARAGRAPH NARRATIVE
A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand about paragraph narrative

2. Make example of paragraph narrative
B. INTRODUCTION
We often hear about narrative that is apart of literature, it’s some kind of
story, retell about story. There are many types of literature that are considered
narratives, including novels, dramas, fables, folk tales, short stories, poetry, etc.
Story may contains some elements, such as setting, plot, theme, characters,
style/structure, perspective/voice, to understand them we may use narrative
technique that will be explain in this chapter.
C. MATERIAL

A. Definition of Narrative

A narrative is some kind of retelling, often in words (though it is possible

to mime a story), of something that happened (a story). The narrative is not the
story itself but rather the telling of the story -- which is why it is so often used in
phrases such as "written narrative," "oral narrative," etc. While a story just is a
sequence of events, a narrative recounts those events, perhaps leaving some
occurrences out because they are from some perspective insignificant, and perhaps
emphasizing others. In a series of events, a car crash takes a split second. A
narrative account, however, might be almost entirely about the crash itself and the
few seconds leading up to it. Narratives thus shape history (the series of events,
the story of what happened).

B. Definition of Narrative Techniques

Narratives are works that provide an account of connected events. A

synonym for 'narrative' is 'story'. There are many types of literature that are
considered narratives, including novels, dramas, fables, folk tales, short stories,
poetry, etc. In addition to literature, narratives are found in cinema, music, and
theatre. Narrative literary techniques are also known as literary devices. Narrative
techniques provide deeper meaning for the reader and help the reader to use
imagination to visualize situations. First, it is important to understand that literary
elements in narratives include setting, plot, theme, characters, style/structure,
perspective/voice, etc., since literary techniques are best understood in the context
of one of these elements. Literary techniques include metaphors, similes,
personification, imagery, hyperbole, alliteration, backstory, flashback, flash-
forward, foreshadowing, and narrative perspective/point of view.

C. Types of Narrative Techniques

There are many literary techniques, but for this lesson, we will examine
literary techniques relevant to style, plot, and narrative perspective/point of view.
Common techniques relevant to style, or the language chosen to tell a story,
include metaphors, similes, personification, imagery, hyperbole, and alliteration.

Common techniques relevant to plot, which is the sequence of events that make
up a narrative, include backstory, flashback, flash-forward, and foreshadowing.
Common techniques relevant to narrative perspective, or who is telling the
story, include first person, second person, third person, and third-person
omniscient.

Examples of Narrative Techniques in Style

The style a writer uses is seen in the diction/language used. Figurative language is
a common element in narrative writing.

Metaphors and similes are expressions used to compare two things in an effort to
help the reader have a better understanding of what the writer is attempting to
convey. The difference between a simile and a metaphor is the simile uses the
words 'like', 'as', or 'than' in the comparison, while the metaphor does not utilize
these words. Consider the metaphor, It's raining men. This, obviously, does not
mean it is literally raining men, since that is impossible. It simply means there are
a lot of men present. Here you can see an example of a simile; It was raining like
cats and dogs. Again, this does not literally mean cats and dogs are coming from
the sky; that is impossible. This is an expression that helps the reader understand
that the rain is very powerful and forceful.
Imagery creates visuals for the reader that appeals to our senses and usually
involves figurative language: The day was gone so long. This statement appeals to
our senses to help us visualize and feel the negative aspects of this location.

Personification is seen when an inanimate object is given human or animal-like

(living) qualities, like, The storm was angry..

Hyperbole is an over-exaggeration to make a point. You might have heard

someone say, My purse weighs a ton.

Alliteration is seen when the writer uses the same letters together in a sentence.
Here is a classic example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. Some
writers use alliteration to help readers remember phrases or concepts, while some
writers simply use this technique because it is 'catchy' and appealing to readers.

Examples of Narrative Techniques in Plot

When we think of the common techniques relevant to plots, we think of a certain

sequence of events. To present the events, writers use back-story, flashback, flash-
forward, and foreshadowing.

Backstory is used when the author feels it is important for the reader to know
something that has happened prior to the actual events described in the narrative.
For example, in the story of Cinderella, we learn that Cinderella's father has lost
his wife and married another woman who has two other daughters. This is
important for us to understand why Cinderella is treated so differently from the
other daughters. We don't actually experience this event in the story. Instead, the
narrator gives us this 'backstory' just before the actual first event that we do
experience.

EXERCISE:

1. What is narrative paragraph?

2. What is narrative technique?

XIII
PARAGRAPH DESCRIPTION

A. BASIC COMPETENCES
After learning this chapter, the students are expected to achieve the following
competences. They are able to:

1. Understand about paragraph description

2. Make example of paragraph description

B. INTRODUCTION
 Paragraph description is a paragraph that tell object clearly and in detail,
so that the reader can feel, hear and experience its. So it’s important to make this
paragraph correctly, in this chapter will discuss more about it.

C. MATERIAL

A. Definition Paragraph Description

Paragraph description is a paragraph that describes or depicts something

based on the experience of all the senses with words clearly and in detail. The
purpose of this paragraph is to provide details or details about the object so that
the reader as if they went to see, hear, feel, or experience what is described.

example: The park was also decorated with several statues of white
stork. The statues that look very unique. In the middle of the park there is a
pond. In the middle of the pond, there is a fountain. Various children's toys
helped complete the Park Ground.

Paragraph description of a description of a state of the sentences, giving

rise to the impression that life. Depiction or painting it should be presented as
lively-life, so that what was depicted life in the imagination of the reader.
Paragraphs are higher unity of the sentence. Paragraph consists of only one
theme. Paragraph is not a sentence, but a couple of sentences that have one
big idea. Main ideas in paragraphs supported by the sense of unity that comes
from a few sentences. Thus, paragraph rather than a collection of a few
sentences that do not have a sense of unity (Anwar Hasnun, 2006: 25) The
purpose write a description is made aware of the life of the reader what the
writer absorbed through the senses, stimulate the reader feeling about what he
described, presenting a quality direct experience. Objects that describtioned
might be something that could be captured by our senses, a natural landscape,
city streets, sewer rats or horse races, face pretty attractive person, or
someone who is desperate, music or thunder, and so on.

B. The Elements Of Paragraph Description

 Elements of the description in this paragraph means the parts that build
the paragraph description. Iitu element, too, who also became a benchmark
assessment of a paragraph description, whether written paragraph is perfect or
not. Wandono in Siburian (2010: 18) suggests elements of this paragraph the
following description.

1).contents

In paragraph description, the contents are aspects of assessment.

Contents include topics and sequence development. A topic can be sourced
from the experience, knowledge, imagination, opinion and belief, the facts.
So the paragraph may present opinions, beliefs, facts, opinions attitudes,
responses, imagination, divination, and so on. A topic in paragraph
formulated again into sub-topics to form a good framework, or a sequence of
development in a paragraph. Fill good paragraph should look fairly detailed
sequence of development, as well as carefully and logically arranged. Thus,
the composition becomes a regular paragraphs and the author does not come
out of a stated objective.

2). In a paragraph to note the contents organization.

Organization in the paragraph contents are processing materials,

organize, develop and arranged in a logical structure. Content of a good
organization should pay attention to cohesion and coherence. Cohesion can
be seen through the preparation or logical relationships sentence. Relationship
existing thoughts in paragraphs into a coherent, complete and compact. This
cohesion can be built through conjunctions, pronouns and keywords (word
repetition overlooked). Coherence visible if one sentence with the alin clearly
shows the relationship reciprocal logical and clearly discuss the main ideas.

3). Diction / Word Options In paragraph description

diction an essay more interesting. In Big Indonesian Dictionary (2003:

264), the diction is the right choice of words and harmony (in its use) to
 express the idea in order to obtain certain effects (as expected). n order for
businesses to leverage interesting storytelling techniques through the choice
of the word good diction must (1) choosing the right words to express an idea
or thing, (2) an author should have the ability to accurately distinguish
nuances of meaning in accordance with the idea of wanting submitted and the
ability to find a form appropriate to the situation and the value of a sense of
readers, (3) the appropriate choice of words and appropriate only possible if
he controls a large number of vocabulary (vocabulary).

4). Impressionism

Paragraph description of impressionism shows two things. Firstly the objects

depicted. The object described it comes daari experience, completion,
imagination, and so on. In paragraph description of painting an object must
attract attention, so it really can be seen, heard, read and perceived by the
reader. Second, the existence of the details of the objects depicted. These
details may be characteristics or details of an object. Objects are described dai
details will show an interesting paragraph description. Thus a description
essay can meet its existence as a typical paragraph description. Thus, it is
clear that something (an object) that want to be depicted must have
considered salient details about the object. Details of the object can also
distinguish between objects described by other objects. Thus paragraph
descriptions will look attractive. In this study, assessment paragraph
description using the above elements as a descriptor which later developed
into the indicator. With these indicators, the ability to write a paragraph
description of the data can be measured.

C. Kinds of Paragraph Description

In general, the paragraph description divided into two kinds, namely:

1) Paragraph spatial description is a paragraph that describes the room or venue

for an event. Its portraying be seen from the various terms that are clearly
defined space in the thoughts and feelings of the reader.
Example:
My class room was very comfortable. 7x12m size. Seats neat 4 laterally 8
backward and 1 more tables to the teacher at the front corner opposite side door.
There are 2 windows on the right side and the left wall, in the middle right there is
fan classrooms because of the cool breeze, as was the mountains. In front of the
blackboard there is pupil chairs size 2,5x2m make writing can be seen very clearly
but minus glasses pupil he was at the rear. Floor space is always clean as ants will
slip when entering it.

2) Paragraph objective description is a paragraph that describes something or

someone to reveal his identity as it is so that the reader can imagine the situation.
So that an object can evoke imagination to the reader, the writer must be described
from various viewpoints. The more detailed the writing, the more clearly
illustrated in the shadow of the reader.

If the object is a person described it, the details can be made to the physical aspect
and the spiritual aspect. Spiritual aspects include feelings, character, talent, their
role in the field of employment, etc.

Example:

My classroom size 7x12m, 4 seats arranged laterally 8 backward. And 1

teacher's desk in the front corner opposite side with door. Besides, there are 2
classes wall each window on the left and right. 2,5x2m sized whiteboard is
located right in front of the bench pupils. And the floor is always kept clean class.

D. Characteristics Paragraph Description

1. To describe or portray something
 2. The portrayal is made very clear by engaging the senses
3. Make the reader or listener to feel alone or experience
4. Development Patterns
5. The spatial development pattern that paragraph development patterns
based space and time
6. The pattern of development or objective viewpoint is a pattern of
development that is based on a paragraph and a writer in a position to see
something

E. Steps Writing Paragraphs Description

Steps in writing a paragraph description is:
1. determine the theme
2. set a goal of writing
3. collect materials
4. make the outline
5. develop the outline
6. Revising the essay.

Exercise

1. What is Definition Paragraph Description?

2. What is The Elements of Paragraph Description?
3. How many Kinds of Paragraph Description are?
4. What is Characteristics Paragraph Description?
5. What is Steps for making Paragraphs Description?
6. Please make the example of paragraph objective and spatial !