CHAPTER 2

FORCE, MOTION & ENERGY

LINEAR MOTION
The motion along a straight line is called linear motion. The terms associated with linear motion
are:

MOTION
A body is said to be in motion if its position changes with respect other bodies regarded as fixed
with the passage of time.

SPEED:
The time rate of covering a distance by an object is called speed. It is also scalar quantity and
its unit is m/s. The dimensional formula of speed M0LT-1

VELOCITY:
The time rate of change of displacement of an object is called the velocity of the object. The
dimensional formula M0LT-1

SCALAR QUANTITY
Those quantities, which have only magnitude but no direction is called scalar quantity
E.g.- Mass, time, speed, distance traveled etc. …

VECTOR QUANTITY
Those quantities, which have both magnitude and direction is called Vector quantity
E.g.- velocity, momentum, Force etc …

DISPLACEMENT
It refers to change of position in a particular direction.

UNIFORM VELOCITY
The velocity of a particle is said to be uniform if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of
time in the same direction.

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AVERAGE VELOCITY
It can be defined as the uniform velocity with which the particle should travel to have the same
displacement as actually described by the particle in the same interval of time.

ACCELERATION
It is defined as the rate of change of velocity m/s 2 or cm/s2. It is said to be uniform if the velocity
of the particle changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time.
Velocity
Acceleration = m/s 2
Time
UNIFORM ACCELERATION
A body is said to possess uniform acceleration if its velocity changes equally in equal intervals
of time however small the intervals may be.
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
The acceleration of a freely falling body under gravitational force is called “acceleration due to
gravity”.
EQUATION FOR LAWS OF MOTION
Let,
u-initial velocity
v-final velocity
t-time
a-acceleration
i) a = v-u
t
v-u = at
v = u+at

ii) S-displacement
Average velocity = S
t
S = v+u
t 2

2S = vt+ut
2S = (u+at) t+ut
S = ut+1/2at2

iii) Average velocity = S/t

S/t = v+u/2

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 S when giving t = v-u/a
S/t = v-u
a

S/t = S = v+u
v-u 2
a

2as = (v+u) (v-u)=v2-u2

v2 = u2+2as
iv) Distance traveled during nth second of time
Sn = u+a (n-1/2)
v) Acceleration of two consecutive equal interval of time

A = S2-S1
T2
PROBLEMS
1) A freely falling body covers 0.1m in 0.1second and 0.1 in the next 1 second. Calculate
the value of g at that place.
Solution:
a = S2-S1 S2=.198
t2 S1= 0.1m

a = 0.198-1 t= 0.1s
(0.1)2

= 0.098 = 9.8 m/s2

(
0.1)2
2) A balloon is ascending with a velocity of 9.8m/s and a Sand bag is dropped from it when its
height from the ground is 39.2m. Calculate the time taken by the Sand bag to reach the ground?
Solution:
S=39.2m
G=9.8m/s2
S=ut+(1/2)at2
39.2=9.8x1+1/2x9.8.t2
8=2t+t2
t2-2t-8=0
t=4sec
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Statement: Everybody continues to be in a state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight
line unless it is compelled by an external force to change that state.

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If the sum of all the forces on a given particle is F and its acceleration is a, the above statement
may also be written as,
A=0 if and only if F=0

SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Statement: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the impressed
force and takes place in the direction of the force.
In symbols: a=F/m or, F=ma.
IMPULSE
The product of force and the time for which the force acts is called the Impulse of the force.
Impulse = Force X Time = F X T Kg m s-1

THIRD LAW OF MOTION

Statement: Every action has equal and opposite reaction.
MOMENTUM (LINEAR)
It’s defined as the total quantity of motion contained in a body and it’s measured as the product
of the mass of body and its velocity.
As the momentum is the product of a scalar (mass) and a vector (velocity), it is therefore a
vector quantity denoted by P. the momentum of a body of mass M moving with velocity V is
given by
P= M V
Suppose a ball of mass M1 and a car of mass M2 (where M2 > M1) are moving with the same
velocity v. if P1 and P2 are the moment of ball and car respectively, then

P1 = M1V OR P1= M1
P2 M2V P2 M2

As M2> M1, if follows that P2>P1 i.e. if a ball and a car are traveling with same velocity, the
momentum of car will be greater than that of the ball.

FORCE
Definition:
Force is described an external agency (E.g. Push or Pull) which produces or tends to produce
motion or else destroys motion in a body.
Effects of force:
To cause a stationary body to move by

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 a) Push or b) Pull.
UNIT OF FORCE
A unit of force is that force which produces unit acceleration on a body of unit mass.
SI unit of force is Newton (N).
INERTIA
Inertia is defined as the inability of a body to change by itself the state of rest or of uniform
motion in straight line.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

It states that in the absence of external force, the momentum of the system remains constant.

EXPRESSION:
Consider a system of two bodies on which no external force acts. Thus, system is isolated from
surrounding and the bodies can only mutually interact with each other. Due to the mutual
interaction of the bodies, the system will not change.
Thus if P1 and P2 are moment of the two bodies at any instant, then in absence of external force
P1+P2=Constant

The principle applied equally well, if the system consists of more than two bodies. For a system
of n bodies having moment
P1 , P2, P3 , P4 …… Pn If no external force acts, then
P1+P2+P3+P4+…….+ Pn= Constant.
Again, consider the system of two bodies on which no external force acts. If due to mutual
interaction, their moment becomes P1’ and P2’ respectively then according to law of
conservation of momentum

P1+P2= P1’+P2’
Or M1 U1+M2 U2=M1 V1+M2 V2
Where U1 and U2 are initial velocity of two bodies of masses.
M1 and M2 and V1 and V2 are their final velocities.

WORK
Work is said to be done, if force acting on a body is able to actually move it through some
distance in the direction of the force.
The dimensional formula is ML2T-2

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Its unit in S I is joule and is denoted by J. In CGS unit is erg.
W = FS
IJOULE =1 Newton X 1Metre.
There fore work done is said to be one joule, if a force of 1 Newton displaces a body though 1
meter in the direction of force.

Again from the equation

W = FS
1erg=1dyne x 1 cm.

Work done is said to be one erg, if a force of 1 dyne displaces a body though 1 cm in the
direction of force.
POWER:
The rate of doing work is called power.
If an agent does work W in time t, then average power, Pavg is given by
Pavg= W/t.
Since power is a ratio of two scalar (W and t), the average power is a scalar.

DIMENSION AND UNITS OF POWER

The dimensional formula is ML2T-3
Its absolute unit is Watt in S.I units it is denoted by W; in CGS system its absolute unit is erg s -1
From the relation
P = W/t
1 Watt = 1Joule / sec
The power of a agent is said to be 1watt if 1 Joule of work is done in 1 sec.
ENERGY
Is defined as the capacity to do work. Since energy of a body is the total quantity of work
therefore it is a scalar quantity.
The dimensional formula is ML2T-2
It has the same unit of work i.e. Joule.

POTENTIAL ENERGY
It is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position or state of condition.
Example for potential energy are
a) Water stored in reservoir
b) The wound up spring in the watches and clocks

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Potential energy = Mgh Joule
DERIVATION FOR GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIONAL ENERGY
Consider a body of mass m lying on the surface of the earth. If g is the acceleration due gravity
on the surface of the earth, it will be attracted towards the center of the earth with force mg. In
order to move the body up from the point A to B with zero acceleration, force equals to mg will
have to be applied in the upward direction on the body if the body is moved through a height ‘h’
then work done given by
W= Force x Distance = mgh
The work done will be stored inside the body as its gravitational potential energy at point B,
there fore, Potential energy = mgh Joule

KINETIC ENERGY
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.
Kinetic Energy=1/2mv2
Where m= mass of the body, with Velocity v.
Eg. A) A bullet fired from a gun
B) A rotating wheel
DERIVATION
Consider a body of mass 'm’ moving with an initial velocity of V. Let a force F acting on the body
in the opposite direction bring it to rest in a distance s.
Using the relation, v2 - u2 = 2as
O2 - v2 == 2as
v2
a= - (Negative sign indicates retardition)
2s

Kinetic energy of a moving body is measured as the work it can do against resistance force
before coming to rest.
From Newton's second law of motion, the force acting on the body.
mv2

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F = ma = -
2s
From Newton's third law of motion, the force exerted by the body is (Reaction force)
mv2
F=+
2s
Work done by the force on the body in stopping it in a distance of s is
mv2 1
W=FXs= Xs= mv 2
2s 2
i.e. the body is capable of doing ½ mv2 work before coming to rest.

Kinetic energy of the body of mass m moving with a velocity V is ½ mv2

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

It states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be converted from
one from to another.
It is one of the fundamental laws and is always obeyed in the entire processes taking place in
the universe. Energy can exit in various forms. When ever, energy in one form disappears, in
fact an equivalent amount of energy appears in some other remaining forms.
Example:
The total energy of an isolated system always remains constant.
1. In an electric bulb, the electrical energy changes to light energy
2. In an electric motor, the electrical energy is converted in to mechanical energy
3. In an electrical heater, the electrical energy is converted into heat energy.

PROBLEMS ON LAWS OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

1. A neutron having mass of 1.67 x 10 -27 kg and moving at 108 ms-1 collides with a deuteron
at rest and sticks to it. Given that the mass of deuteron is 3.34 x 10 -27kg. Calculate the
speed of the combination. The composite particle is called triton.

Solution:
Here mass of neutron, m1 = 1.67 x 10-27kg
Initial velocity of neutron, u1 = 108ms-1
Mass of deutron, m2 = 3.34 x 10-27kg
Initial velocity of deutron, u2 = 0 (at rest)
The mass of the composite particle triton,
m1+m2 = 1.67 x 10-27+3.34 x 10-27
= 5.01 x 10-27 kg

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Let v be the velocity of the composite mass. According to law of conservation of linear
momentum,

m1u1+m2u2 = (m1+m2) v

V = m1u1+m2u2
m1+m2

= 1.67 X10 –27 x 108+3.34 x 10-27 x 0

5.01 x 10-27
= 1.67 x 108 = 3.33 x 107 ms-1
5.01
CIRCULAR MOTION
ANGULAR VELOCITY
The Angular velocity of a rotating body is measured by the angle described by it in a unit time. If
 is the angle described in t seconds, then angular velocity.
 =  / t = angle described / time taken
The angle is measured in radians or degrees.
A radian is angle subtended by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.
The angle subtended by a circumference of a circle = 2R/R = 2 radians
If it is traversed in time t, then
 = 2 / t
Again, if the body describes one revolution in the same time t, the linear velocity of the body.
V= 2 R / t = R
Or linear velocity = angular velocity x radius.
From the relation it is evident that any particle having same angular velocity will cover different
linear distances if it moves on the circumference of circles of different radii.

Angular Acceleration:
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration.
Thus, the angular acceleration is

d d2
 =------- = -------
dt dt2
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION:
If a particle moves in a circle of radius r with a constant speed v, its acceleration is v 2 / r directed
towards the center. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.

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CENTRIPETAL FORCE:
The resultant force is directed towards the center is called Centripetal force. Thus, a Centripetal
force of magnitude mv2 is needed to keep the particle in uniform circular motion.
PLANETARY MOTION
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION:
About a thousand year after arayabhat, the brilliant combination of Tycho Bravhe (1546 –1601)
and Johannes Kepler (1571 –1630) studied the planetary motion in great detail. Kepler
formulated his important things in his three laws of planetary motion.

KEPLERS LAW OF MOTION:

LAW OF ORBIT: - (I LAW)
All the planets move in elliptical orbit with the sun on of its foci.
P

F1

F1 F2

LAW OF AREAS: - (II LAW)

The radius vector from the sun to the planet sweeps equal area in equal interval of time.

B
C

A
S

Major axis (2r)

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LAW OF PERIODS: (III LAW)
The square of the orbit time (T) period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi
major axis of the ellipse or mean distance (r), between the sun and the planet.
The acceleration of a body falling near the earth’s surface is about 9.8 m/s2

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION:

Newton guessed that the acceleration of a body towards the earth is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance of the body from the center of the Earth.
1
Thus, a  -----
r2
Also, the force is mass times acceleration and so it is proportional to the mass of the body.
Hence,
M
F--------
r2
By the third law of motion, the force on a body due to
the earth must be equal to the force on the earth due to
the body; therefore, this force should be also being
eruptional to the mass of earth. Thus the force between
the earth and body is.
F Mm/r2
F=GMm/r2
Newton further generalized the law by saying that not
only the earth but also the material bodies in the
universe attract each other according to equation with
the same value of G. The constant G is called
universal constant of gravitation and its value is found
to be 6.67 * 10-11 N – m2 / Kg2. Equation is known as the universal law of gravitation.

Variation in the value of g

The acceleration due to gravity is given by

F
G =--------
m
Where F is the force exerted by the earth on an object of mass m. This force is affected
by a number of factors and hence g also depends on these factors.

1.Height from the surface of the earth

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 Consider earth to be sphere of radius R and mass M. let g be the value acceleration due
to gravity at point A on the surface of earth (fig. beside)
The acceleration due to gravity, g' at point B at a height h above the surface of earth is given by
g' = g(1-2h/r)
from the above equation, it follows that as we go up, the value of acceleration due to gravity
decreases.
2. Depth from the surface of the earth
In similar lines, it follows that acceleration due to gravity decreases with depth also.
The value of g is maximum at the surface of the earth and decreases with the increase in height
as well as with depth.

ORBITAL VELOCITY

Orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity required to

put the satellite into its orbit.
Suppose a satellite of mass m has to be into circular
orbit around the earth at a height x above its surface.
Consider earth to be a sphere of mass M and radius R.
then radius of the satellite will be R+x. Suppose v is the
required orbital velocity for the satellite.
The gravitational attraction between satellite and earth will provide the necessary centripetal
force
Vo =  GM/R+ x
Thus we find that the orbital velocity of a satellite is independent of the mass of the satellite and
depends on the radius of the orbit (R+ x) and mass of the planet M about which it revolves.

ESCAPE VELOCITY
If we throw a stone vertically upwards, it falls back to the surface of the earth after attaining a
height depending upon its velocity. If the stone was given a sufficiently large velocity to
overcome the gravitational pull and the resistance of earth’s atmosphere, then it would escape
from the influence of earth. And shall never return to the earth.

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The minimum velocity, with which a body must be protected in the atmosphere so as to enable
it to just overcome the gravitational pull, is known as escape velocity.
Ve = √ 2gR
Thus we find that the orbital velocity, the escape velocity, also does not depend upon the mass
of the body to be projected.

Problems
1. Find the escape velocity at moon given that its radius is 1.7x10 6 m and the value of ‘g’ at its
surface is 1.63 ms-2.
Solution:
Here R=1.7x106 m, g = 1.63 ms-2.
Now escape velocity
Ve = √2gR = √2x1.63x1.7x106
=2.354x103
=2.354kms-1
2. Jupiter has a mass 318 times that of earth and its escape velocity is 11.2 times the earth’s
radius. Estimate the escape velocity of a body from the Jupiter’s surface, given that the escape
velocity from the earth’s surface is 11.2kms-1
Solution:
Let the mass of earth, M1= M
And, radius of earth, R1 =R
Then mass of Jupiter, M2 = 318M
And, radius of Jupiter, R2 = 11.2R
Escape Velocity on earth V1 = 11.2 kms-1
V1/ V2 = √ (2GM1)/(R1 ) x√ (2 GM2 / R2) =√(R2/R1) x(M1/M2)

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11.2/ V2 = √ (11.2R)/(R) x (M)/(318M)
V2 = 11.8 √ (318)/(11.2) =59.68 kms-1

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