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International Journal of Hospitality Management 120 (2024) 103748
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhm
Full Length Article
How does the career commitment of hospitality employees change across

career stages? A multilevel investigation into occupational self-efficacy and
family support
Dan Zhu a, Peter B. Kim a,*, Simon Milne b, In-Jo Park c
a
School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
b
New Zealand Tourism Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
c
Department of Psychology, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonbuk, South Korea
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
This study examined how and why hospitality employees’ occupational self-efficacy and family support influence
Career commitment
their career commitment over time. Longitudinal data was collected from 310 hospitality employees at three
Occupational self-efficacy different points of time, with a three-month lag between them, exploring the differences in the employees’ career
Family support commitment growth trajectories between early and mid-to-late career. Results from growth modeling revealed
Longitudinal data
that career commitment declines over time for early-career employees but increases for their mid-to-late
Multilevel analysis
career counterparts. The findings also indicated that organizational commitment mediates the relationships of
Time-varying effect
career commitment with occupational self-efficacy and family support at both between- and within-person
levels. Furthermore, time-varying effect analysis captured significant changes in the magnitude of antecedents
over time across the different career stages. Implications drawn from the findings are discussed for both
hospitality researchers and practitioners.
1. Introduction
workers with strong occupational self-efficacy (a domain-specific effi-
cacy) is believed to be vital to the hospitality industry, an environment
The task of recruiting and retaining talent in hospitality vocations
where customer experience is significantly influenced by the attitudes
has always been difficult. Research undertaken by Richardson (2008)
and behavior of service providers (Xiang et al., 2023). Empirical hos-
revealed that more than half of the participants were already seeking
pitality research has found that employees with strong self-efficacy be-
jobs in non-hospitality fields, and that around 40 % noted that they
liefs tend to demonstrate higher levels of work engagement (Wang and
would not choose hospitality as a career. Similar percentages have
Tseng, 2019) and better service performance (Kale, 2020) than those
frequently been detected since then (Lv et al., 2022; Neequaye and
who are less self-efficacious. These findings corroborate SCCT theory,
Armoo, 2014), with less than half of respondents intending to pursue a
which argues that psychological factors (e.g., personality, values, and
hospitality career. Studies on early-career hospitality employees show
beliefs) arise from within, and play a crucial role in human functioning,
that over 30 % leave the sector within the first five to six years (Brown
by shaping and directing thinking styles and behavioral choices. How-
et al., 2014). High turnover rates and labor shortages have been chronic
ever, there is less information available as to whether self-efficacy can
issues challenging hospitality operators. Attention to hospitality em-
make a difference to individuals’ willingness to remain in their chosen
ployees’ career commitment is therefore needed from both researchers occupational fields.
and practitioners (Lin et al., 2020).
Guided by both SCCT and spillover theory (Crouter, 1984), the
Lent et al.’s (1994) social cognitive career theory (SCCT) has long
highlighted the crucial influence of psychological characteristics (e.g., rationale for investigating the impact of family factors on career
commitment is grounded in the premise that there are no distinct
self-efficacy) and broader environmental factors (e.g., social support) on
boundaries between the two most crucial dimensions of individual
career decision and persistence. However, previous empirical studies
lives—work and family. Just as workplace factors influence life
on career commitment have predominantly focused on predictors
outside
within the workplace, specifically job- and organization-related of work, family and household factors also exert an influence on orga-
factors. Hiring nizational and vocational attitudes. A recent survey revealed that over
* Corresponding author.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2024.103748
Received 17 September 2023; Received in revised form 13 February 2024; Accepted 9 April 2024
Available online 17 April 2024
0278-4319/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
D. Zhu et al. International Journal of Hospitality Management 120 (2024)
103748
70 % of participants considered their families an important factor received

when making career decisions (Abe and Chikoko, 2020). Indeed, managing
the work-family interface is a significant concern for hospitality
employees, many of whom work long hours with unpredictable
schedules and struggle to balance work demands and family duties.
Therefore, it is worthwhile to investigate the factors contributing to
healthy in- teractions between family and vocation.
Moreover, research on the determinants of career commitment has
tended to focus on its direct impact; only a handful of studies have
explained why these factors influence career commitment (Akbiyik,
2016). A deeper understanding of the mechanisms behind such causal
relations is also required. Accordingly, the present work investigated
the progressive effects of the antecedents on career commitment,
proposing organizational commitment as a latent mediating
mechanism based on signaling theory (Chang and Busser, 2019;
Goffman, 1959). Organiza-
tional commitment represents an employee’s emotional attachment to
their employer. From another perspective, and informed by signaling
theory, it also mirrors the extent to which an employee’s career needs
are fulfilled by an organization, and sends employees signals around
whether they are valued by management and whether they are on a
positive career path (Chang and Busser, 2019). Thus, organizational
commitment is believed to play a critical role in shaping career devel-
opment confidence and vocational commitment.
Previous research on the antecedents to commitment also suffer
from methodological limitations. Considering that vocational attitudes
are affective and cognitive evaluations, these attitudes may vary
considerably over time in relation to changes in work or life events.
In general, psychologists do not usually deem work commitment and
its antecedents to be static (Maia et al., 2016). What is known about
the relationships between the antecedents and career commitment is
largely based on cross-sectional studies in which data was gathered
using one-shot surveys, and where the relationships were examined by
analyzing interindividual differences (between-person level). One of
the major limitations of these types of studies is that failing to account
for the variance that occurs within a subject (within-person level),
limits the ability to examine how the career commitments of a person
unfold over time, and to ascertain whether the findings hold true as
time passes (Lan et al., 2021). This inhibits research results relating to
causality between variables (see Tremblay, 2021). For this reason, a
more nuanced examination of the antecedents of career commitment,
i.e., an examination based on longitudinal multilevel data, is needed.
Despite decades of research, the temporal nature of career commit-
ment remains inadequately understood, and the static perception of
‘career commitment’ has created a theoretical gap concerning its initial
development and subsequent progression (Na¨gele and Neuensch-
wander, 2014). Vocational theories and empirical research both
suggest, however, that the concept of a career is widely considered to
be dy- namic, and in addition, developmental patterns in career
attitudes may
differ for early-career employees and old-timers. Chang and Tse’s (2015)
findings revealed that a significant number of hospitality employees
exited the industry during their early career stages. A possible expla-
nation could be that their initially high expectations shifted to a ‘reality
shock’ upon entering the field (Boswell et al., 2005). Other studies
(e.g.,
Son and Ok, 2019) suggested that job satisfaction increased with career
progression, as old-timers gained competence and autonomy. Despite
these insights, there have been no prior studies to examine the devel-
opmental trajectories of career commitment, especially at differing
career stages. This lack of understanding has produced a practical
challenge, as it hinders hospitality practitioners from clearly
identifying those who may be prone to commitment changes, and
when and how such changes may manifest themselves.
Extant research has reported inconsistent findings relating to the
relationships between the antecedents and career commitment. This
suggests that it would be fruitful to examine the factors moderating the
influence of antecedents; such boundary conditions, however, have been
rarely examined. The moderating role of time, in particular, has
little attention. Career development models have suggested that 1990, 103748
different career stages are characterized by distinct work concerns
and motives; therefore, vocational perceptions related to the
antecedents of career commitment may fluctuate as time passes. For
instance, Socio- emotional selectivity theory (Carstensen et al., 1999)
implies that support from family is more crucial during the initial
phases of a career, in comparison with later stages. In other words,
the emphasis employees place on such antecedents may change over
time, resulting in shifts in the predictive power of these
antecedents. While a number of cross-sectional studies have
explored the moderating role of age or tenure (as a proxy for time) in
the relationship between antecedents and work commitment (e.g.,
Kim et al., 2019), their findings are considered relatively
inconclusive. Scholars have thus called for further research based on
repeated measurements, recognizing that the influence of time is a
longitudinal phenomenon (Dobrow Riza et al., 2018).
Cognizant of these research gaps, the main purpose of this study
was to examine how the career commitment of hospitality employees
changes over time. First, drawing on SCCT, this study examined the
impact of self-efficacy beliefs (i.e., occupational self-efficacy) and family
(i.e., family support) on career commitment, complementing existing
research that predominantly focuses on the predictive role of job and
organizational factors. It also extends prior cross-sectional studies by
demonstrating these effects at both between- and within-person
levels. Additionally, the aim of the study was to inform practitioners
about the reasons why these factors influence the career commitment
of hospitality employees, through the integration of aspects of
SCCT and signaling theory. The findings are intended to provide
hospitality managers with a more holistic understanding of career
commitment, its antecedents, and its mediators, thereby laying the
foundation for more targeted and effective interventions.
Moreover, this study aimed to reveal the trajectory of hospitality
employees’ career commitment through the use of growth modeling.
Using the ‘honeymoon-hangover’ effect as a reference, this study
hy-
pothesized and then detected different patterns of career commitment
development between early-career and mid/late-career employees.
An understanding of these developmental patterns will assist
hospitality practitioners to proactively manage employee turnover,
enabling them to more effectively tailor employee management
programs based on career stages. Additionally, guided by human
development theories, time-varying effect analysis was conducted to
examine how the relationships between career commitment and the
antecedents changed over time, and across different career stages.
This nuanced longitudinal approach further enabled the identification
of precise employee engagement/retention initiatives that would align
with evolving career dynamics.
2. Literature review
2.1. Career commitment
Career commitment, as a concept, is not a recent development.

Blau (1985b) offered the first definition, as, “one’s attitude toward
one’s profession or vocation” (p. 278) and initially developed a
robust mea-
sure of career commitment that exhibited discriminant validity from
other forms of work commitment. Indeed, while various forms of
work-related commitment are theoretically interconnected, numerous
occupational psychologists have highlighted the fact that career
commitment stands apart fundamentally from others, due to its inher-
ently self-interested nature (Hall, 1971). For example, career
commit-
ment should be distinguished from ‘organizational commitment’,
which pertains to emotional connection to a person’s current
employing organization, rather than the occupation itself.
Moreover, job involvement refers to being committed to a
comparatively immediate set of objective work tasks, while career
commitment,
“involves a longer perspective and is related to the subjective (or in-
ternal) career envisioned by the individual” (Colarelli and Bishop,
103748
p. 159). Goulet and Singh (2002) agree, stating that an individual can
with obstacles.
feel committed to a job and not have an emotional attachment to their
career. An employee may, for example, enjoy a food operation role,
2.3. The effect of family support on career commitment
but envisage being a chef as their lifelong vocation.
Drawing upon Blau (1985b) work, Carson and Bedeian (1994)
In comparison with workers in other industries, hospitality pro-
conceptualized career commitment as the motivation that drives in-
fessionals tend to have to work in shifts, and are busier during public
dividuals to remain in their chosen careers, while Meyer et al. (1993)
holidays; this reduces the time they can spend with family members
defined career commitment as an individual’s connection to their
occupation. It can be seen that while the specific definitions may vary and, in turn, can cause elevated levels of role stress and an increase in
slightly, these researchers hold a common understanding of career staff turnover (Liu et al., 2022). Professionals in non-service sectors
commitment. They perceive it as a person’s attitude toward their pro- are often able to work some of the time from home, reducing their time
fession, and the emotional bond they have with their career; their away from family members, but this is nearly impossible for most
willingness to remain in their chosen vocational field. In the present hospitality employees. With the increase in dual-earner families,
work, the researchers’ views are in line with those of these vocational work-family issues require additional consideration. The notion of
psychologists. family support has been touched on by Hobfoll (1988), when he
wrote on the topic of ‘social
2.2. The effect of occupational self-efficacy on career commitment support’. Social support can be viewed as the comfort, help and support
provided to individuals through formal or informal social contacts with
The expectations of consumers can vary, and are often vague and other individuals or groups, that enables individuals to handle chal-
changeable. Because of this, the ‘boundary-spanning’ workers who lenges and stress in their social roles. In vocational settings, family
directly interact with customers, are expected to exhibit a ‘can do’
support is described as ‘the cross-domain social support that a person
attitude, and a degree of flexibility when resolving service issues under
obtains from closest relatives when coping with occupational demands
uncertain and unfamiliar circumstances (Raub and Liao, 2012). The
and strains’ (Ocampo et al., 2018).
recruitment and retention of employees with strong career resilience SCCT acknowledges the susceptibility of individuals to social in-
(confidence, persistence, and commitment to their chosen career) has fluences, such as family members who offer encouragement, feedback,
therefore become an important task for hospitality human resource and career-related support, all of which can significantly affect their
managers wishing to maintain service quality and customer career persistence. Spillover theory (Crouter, 1984) also provides insight
satisfaction. Employees who are high in occupational self-efficacy are into why family support may have a critical influence on a person ’s
able to meet the above-mentioned criteria. profession. It suggests that employees transmit the feelings and behav-
Unlike the big five traits, self-efficacy is not a type of personality; iors they generate at the workplace into their off-work life
rather it is a self-judgment about a person’s capability to take control intra-personally, and vice versa, implying that the work world and
over their own emotions, motivations and behavior, in order to form family life have a circular spillover impact on each other. Such
reality in the fashion they desire (Wang et al., 2022). Bandura (1986) spillover effects can be either positive or negative. For example, when
defined self-efficacy as a person’s beliefs in their ability or
an employee is struggling with childcare in the family domain, they
competence to perform an act, or to cope with an unexpected
challenge; in his social cognitive theory, he emphasized that an may have no choice but to apply less effort to their career; in such a
individual’s attitudes and behavior could be significantly incited by situation, issues such as a depressed mood, or low affection to their
self-influence. Specifically, chosen career, may present themselves in the workplace, and this may
prior to commencing a given task, a person will first cognitively be in turn have impact in the family domain (García-Cabrera et al.,
process the challenges related to the task, and then consider their 2018). In contrast, an employee with lighter levels of family demands
abilities to deal with them. Hence, people are likely to evade or will have more energy to shoulder duties at work. This will result in
renounce tasks that they sense to be beyond their abilities but will be reduced levels of work stress and enhanced career satisfaction, which
willing to accept and carry out tasks they feel they can handle. may lead to a sense of wellbeing in the family domain.
Built on Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, the SCCT theory Results from several works suggest that there is a significant rela-
(Lent et al., 1994) posits that occupational self-efficacy can determine tionship between family support and career outcomes. For example,
how much effort people are prepared to apply in pursuing their careers both Ocampo et al. (2018) and Amin et al. (2017) identified that
and how long they will persist when encountering difficulties (Park spousal understanding was effective in helping employees achieve
and Jung, 2015). Employees with the same levels of career expertise, work-life balance, leading to more subjective career success.
may still demonstrate different attitudes toward their careers, Therefore, it is believed that instrumental family support (e.g.,
contingent on whether their self-assessment of efficacy improves or assistance with household activities) can provide a person with more
diminishes their enthusiasm. For instance, it could be argued that time and energy to concentrate on the development of career
people with high levels of occupational self-efficacy may feel more expertise. In addition,
confident in their career choice, devote more effort, and be more emotional support (e.g., spousal encouragement for the pursuit of
persistent and optimistic (Clements and Kamau, 2018). career goals) can facilitate the development of a ‘career identity’ and
occupational self-esteem, thereby providing the worker with more
Indeed, a wealth of research has identified the beneficial impact of
faith and
occupational self-efficacy (as a vital personal resource) on individual
passion to conquer any career obstacles they may be facing (Arjona--
career-related outcomes. First, occupational self-efficacy has been found
Fuentes et al., 2022).
to predict proactive career attitudes and behaviors. For example, Hart-
man and Barber (2020) discovered that people high in occupational
2.4. The mediating role of organizational commitment
self-efficacy expressed more desire to advance their careers (i.e.,
career aspirations), and Hirschi and Jaensch (2015) found that self-
Although talent management is applied by firms to achieve
efficacious individuals engaged in more career engagement behaviors
business objectives, it is important to keep in mind that employees
(e.g., gath- ering information about career advancement opportunities
enter organizations to realize their own career aspirations. While some
in the desired field). It can therefore be predicted that hospitality
researchers
professionals with greater levels of occupational self-efficacy, will be
argue that an individual’s loyalties toward their employer and career
more willing to set occupational goals, will constantly develop vocational may conflict under certain circumstances (e.g., English, 2008), others
skills, and will remain in their chosen field to pursue their careers, hold the view that there is a substantial likelihood that organizational
even when faced commitment and career commitment are compatible, and can develop
simultaneously based on common experiences at work (Lee et al.,
2000). Drawing upon signaling theory (Goffman, 1959), the 103748
researchers believed that it would be possible for managers to
boost hospitality
103748
employees’ career commitment by enhancing their emotional attach-
ment to an organization. environment integration (Becker et al., 2022; Savickas, 2005), and it is
logical that a person’s perception of their career may vary at different
According to Porter et al. (1974), organizational commitment can
career stages. An understanding of how career commitment develops
be viewed as the bond a worker has with the employer; this mirrors
over time is therefore of value. The ‘honeymoon-hangover effect’ and
devotedness and obligation to the organization. From a psychological ‘uncertainty reduction’ theories (Boswell et al., 2005, and Kramer, 1999,
perspective, Mathieu and Zajac (1990) defined it as ‘the degree to respectively) offer theoretical lenses through which the different
which an individual identifies with a group or an organization’. developmental trajectories of career commitment at the various career
Meyer and stages can be examined.
Allen (1991) portrayed organizational commitment as a ‘willingness to The honeymoon-hangover effect theory and several organizational
devote loyalty’. The rationale behind the assumption that organizational studies have revealed that newcomers typically have more positive
commitment is positively related to career-related outcomes can be work attitudes closer to the commencement of their employment,
captured in signaling theory. This theory is mainly concerned with followed by a decrease in work engagement and deterioration in job
communications between employees and establishments, and posits satisfaction (Maia et al., 2016). It is therefore expected that early-
that there is usually an information asymmetry between an employee career employees will display relatively high levels of career
and a larger entity. It asserts that signaling can reduce any asymmetry commitment at the initial stage of their employment. According to the
between two parties as it helps the signal receiver to better interpret honeymoon-hangover effect theory, this assumption can be explained
the characteristics of the signal giver. It is logical to assume that when from both situational and dispositional perspectives. From a situational
employees have inadequate knowledge about their careers, they may perspective, when recruiting new staff members, employers are likely
require signals to interpret and forecast information (Chang and to stress the positive side of the job and outline a promising career path
Busser, 2019). In such cases, their experience at their current for their potential employees. The anticipation of such positive
workplace can be regarded as a key signal to infer their future careers. attributes may temporarily
Those who experience positive emotions at work and enjoy being a fulfil the employee’s need for self-esteem, leading to positive feelings
member of an organization are likely to be more willing to work hard and initial commitment to the chosen career. This phenomenon is
and to achieve professionally. They will also be more likely build a especially pertinent to early-career workers who possess limited voca-
strong occupational identity and believe that having a career in the tional experience and an incomplete understanding of their careers
current field is promising (Yoo et al., 2019). (Boswell et al., 2005; Willson and Given, 2020).
A person’s self-belief in their own competence significantly affects From a dispositional perspective, post-decision dissonance is likely to
the extent of their internal work motivation (Lent et al., 1994). Occu- prompt an inclination to minimize or rationalize unfavorable attributes.
pational self-efficacy thus determines how much time and effort a person Psychological discomfort occurs when people hold two or more con-
is willing to invest in their place of work (Park and Jung, 2015). Spe- flicting thoughts at the same time, and in order to reduce this disso-
cifically, a person who is confident in their work abilities may have nance, people tend to seek consistency within their perceptions
stronger intrinsic job motivation, and set higher performance (Harmon-Jones et al., (2022); Lee et al., (2016); Levinson (1978); Lon-
standards; they are more likely to experience a greater sense of don (1983); Niu (2010); Park et al., (2021b); Sirgy et al., 2020; Jarcho
achievement at work, and to form increased emotional attachment to et al., 2011). This phenomenon is likely to occur when a person has
their job. In contrast, less self-efficacious employees (who do not just
believe in their ability to satisfy their job requirements) could easily entered a new occupational field. Choosing a vocation is generally
experience greater anxiety and helplessness, and put less effort into considered to be a significant decision in life—a wrong choice, there-
work tasks (Law and Guo, 2016). In this way, employees who already fore, could equate to a huge cost for an early-career employee, (e.g.,
expect to fail in their endeavors, are less likely to develop emotional the
bonds with an organization. effort spent on career preparation). In this situation, there is a tendency
According to SCCT and spillover theory, there is no boundary be- for newcomers to develop a sense of affection and belonging to their
tween the working world and family. Thus, drawing upon social ex- careers, regardless of the reasons for the career choice. Despite any
change theory (Homans, 1961), it can be extrapolated that when negative characteristics that early-career employees may find in their
employees receive support and help from the family domain, they new career, they may still pay more attention to the favorable aspects
would, in response, display positive attitudes and behaviors toward in order to rationalize their career choices. Integrating the situational
both their families and their workplace. Emotional support (e.g., and dispositional perspectives, it was predicted that:
compassion and empathy) from their families provides service workers H2 (a). : Early-career employees will display relatively high levels of career
with a haven where they can be themselves and evade emotional labor, commitment at the initial stage of their employment.
allowing them to refresh and cope better with daily job demands (Zhou
et al., 2020). In addition, those who obtain instrumental support from Unfamiliarity with a new situation may cause newcomers to over-
their families, are believed to have more energy and enthusiasm in estimate the promises of their new employer, and to experience a
dealing with challenging work tasks and taking up advancement feeling of newness, leading to highly positive attitudes early on.
opportunities, leading to stronger connections within the organization. However, the honeymoon-hangover effect theory (Boswell et al.,
In summary, it was hypothesized that occupational self-efficacy 2005) also suggests
and family support would enhance the organizational commitment of that the ‘magic of the new’ only lasts for a limited time, and that the
optimistic work attitudes are likely to be followed by a deterioration in
hospitality employees, which in turn, would improve their career
an employee’s job evaluations over time, a phenomenon referred to as
commitment. the ‘hangover’ effect. Indeed, increased tenure is likely to bring a
H1 (a). : Organizational commitment will mediate the relationship greater recognition of any less attractive elements; as newcomers
become
between occupational self-efficacy and career commitment.
settled and engage in more routine daily activities, their jobs gradually
H1 (b). : Organizational commitment will mediate the relationship between lose the ability to evoke enthusiasm.
family support and career commitment. In a similar vein, and from a career perspective, as the novelty of a
vocation wears off, the unknown and negative aspects become clear.
2.5. The trajectory of career commitment During this transition period, early-career employees who suffer reality
shocks will gradually realize the differences between what was
Career development has been viewed as an ongoing process of expected and what is experienced, and therefore may feel discouraged
adaptation to the social environment, with the aim of attaining person- and disappointed. Such potential hangover patterns are supported by
empirical evidence. For instance, Vandenberghe et al. (2011) surveyed
170 university graduates on their work attitudes at three different 103748
points in time, and reported that their affective commitment
and job
103748
satisfaction decreased over time. Moreover, Dobrow (2013) conducted 2.6.1. The accelerating effect of occupational self-efficacy
a 4-wave study on ‘career calling’ using 450 respondents and found It is logical that employees who feel confident about their
that while respondents expressed a comparatively high level of
calling in
their early career stage, they experienced a significant decrease in
calling as time passed. Taken together, it was thus predicted that
early-career hospitality employees’ career commitment may display a
hangover pattern.
H2 (b). : A decreasing trajectory of change will occur in the career
commitment displayed by early-career employees.
Being a newcomer in a company or an occupational field is a tem-
poral experience. The pattern of ‘honeymoon-hangover’ in the
attitudes of early-career employees may therefore not apply to
employees who have relatively longer career tenure (i.e., ‘old-timers’)
(Boswell et al., 2005). Drawing upon uncertainty reduction theory
(Kramer, 1999) and
existing empirical findings (e.g., Mooney et al., 2016), the authors sur-
mised that the hangover pattern (deterioration in career commitment)
would not be long-term, and that for old-timers, their career commit-
ment would grow with longer career tenure.
As previously noted, early-career employees are likely to have
limited knowledge about their chosen careers, and because of this, they
may experience a decline in career commitment over time, as they
become aware of unexpected factors. Uncertainty reduction theory
claims that when a person enters a new field, they will suffer many
cognitive uncertainties, leading to anxiety, and the motivation to seek
more information about the environment. Logically, the more time
people spend in an occupational field, the more access they have to
information about that vocation—both negative and positive. For old-
timers this means the development of more realistic expectations, and
the ability to make objective evaluations, which will ultimately lead to
resilience, the reduction of uncertainties, and a sense of belonging.
Moreover, empirical studies on hospitality careers have identified
respect and autonomy as two crucial determinants influencing
workers’ willingness to stay in the hospitality industry for the long
term (Mooney
et al., 2016). Industry experience is highly regarded in hospitality, and
therefore, it is generally believed that old-timers are more likely to be
considered reliable people who deserve to be trusted, empowered and
promoted (Keller and Semmer, 2013). Therefore, for old-timers, career
commitment is likely to be enhanced over time. Taken together, it was
therefore, assumed that:
H2 (c). : For old-timers (employees with relatively longer career tenure),
will experience an increasing trajectory of change in their career
commitment.
2.6. Time-varying effect
Research conducted so far has presented conflicting findings in

terms of the associations between antecedents and career commitment.
For instance, Deepak (2016) identified a positive association between
job involvement and career commitment, which contrasts with Singh
and Gupta’s (2015) discovery of a negative correlation. Other
examples are
Wang et al., (2016) study which revealed a strong correlation between
job satisfaction and career commitment, and that of Shah (2011) who
found a comparatively weak correlation. According to SCCT theory,
career development is an ongoing and evolving process. Thus, it is not
surprising to see that many vocational studies (e.g., Dobrow, 2013)
have suggested that the perceptions of these antecedents (e.g.,
perceived importance) may change considerably over time. In other
words, time may act as a latent moderator in determining the strength
of the associations between the antecedents and career-related
outcomes. Hence, it is timely to examine how hospitality employees
experience and respond to these antecedents over time, and how any
changes in perceptions may affect their vocational attitudes.
occupational competence are expected to be internally motivated more detrimental 103748
effects on employees’ vocational attitudes, such as
to deliver their work to a high standard, and to seek ongoing career commitment. Therefore, it was anticipated that the impact of
professional advancement. Such employees are therefore more likely
to realize their career aspirations, and in turn, become more
committed to their careers. However, according to career
development models (e.g., Super, 1957), people generally undergo
distinct stages in their career journeys. In the initial career stage,
despite being self-efficacious, workers are less likely to achieve a
high level of job performance due to a lack of work experience. This
observation emphasizes the gradual nature of career development.
Consequently, the confidence exhibited by early-career employees
may not immediately translate into peak job performance and
tangible career success. Human capital theory (Becker, 1994) also
suggests that individuals vary in the investment they make to
improve their competencies and capabilities. In comparison to
early-career workers, the years of experiential learning of old-timers
contribute to richer problem-solving skills and experience. Thus,
as time passes, old-timers with high self-efficacy not only possess a
can-do attitude, but also boast a larger repertoire of accumulated
skills and knowledge. This enables them to provide a higher
standard of performance and to ach-
ieve more fruitful career outcomes.
Taken together, compared to old-timers, early-career employees
may have relatively less chance to attain their career goals (e.g.,
being recognized as an expert in the field), despite having high
career-related efficacy and strong career motivation. This may
especially hold true in the hospitality sector where work experience
is highly regarded by practitioners (Mooney et al., 2016). Thus, even
if early-career self-- efficacious employees set high career aspirations
for themselves, they may not develop that high level of affection or
attachment towards their careers. It is therefore expected that the
effect of occupational self-efficacy on career commitment may be
stronger as time passes. In other words, time moderates the
relationship between occupational self-efficacy and career
commitment, and this time-varying (accelerating) effect should be
more significant for old-timers.
H3 (a). : For old-timers, the positive effect of occupational self-efficacy on
career commitment will increase over time.
2.6.2. The decelerating effect of family support

According to socio-emotional selectivity theory (Carstensen et al.,
1999), temporal awareness plays a crucial role in shaping the motiva-
tional landscape for career development, impacting how individuals
allocate their time and energy. For example, per the theory, when in-
dividuals deem their future to be open-ended, they are inclined to set
up advancement goals. Thus, early-career employees are more
willing to sacrifice their personal lives for career advancement and
competition. This theory could be applied to explain the findings of
Labrague et al. (2021), who discovered that employees in the initial
career stage were more likely to experience work-family conflict.
Furthermore, employees in the initial career stage have been
found to experience higher work pressure and possess fewer
resources to maintain work-family balance (Reichl et al., 2014).
Specifically, a lack of task-related expertise and experience compels
them to exert extra effort in handling challenging work situations
(Matthews et al., 2010). Additionally, being in a junior job position
grants them less work in- dependence and flexibility, resulting in
increased inter-role conflicts. However, such work-family conflicts are
expected to reduce over time as employees become more adaptable and
obtain more control over their work; once this occurs, they will have
more energy to shoulder family responsibilities (Demerouti et al.,
2012).
In summary, both theoretical frameworks and empirical research
suggest that early-career employees may need more family under-
standing to maintain work-life balance, making family support more
significant at the start of a career than in later stages. Thus, the
absence of family support at or near the beginning of a career is
expected to have
103748
family support on career commitment would be stronger at the start of
Fig. 1 demonstrates the research model of the present work.
a person’s career, and decrease as time progresses. In essence, time
would moderate the relationship between family support and career
commit- 3. Methodology
ment, and that such time-varying (decelerating) effects would be likely
to be more profound in the group of early-career workers. 3.1. Research sample
H3 (b). : For early-career employees, the positive effect of family support
Participants in the current study were hospitality workers employed
on career commitment will decrease over time.
in divergent departments of various hotels in Kaifeng, Northern China.
Kaifeng, a mid-sized city, stands out as a popular tourist destination
2.6.3. The accelerating effect of organizational commitment
with a rich historical background. To ensure that respondents had a
While human capital theory posits that as employees age, their
basic understanding of the hospitality industry, only employees with a
knowledge and experience will be enhanced, life span theory (Kanfer
mini- mum of one-month’s experience working in a hospitality
and Ackerman, 2004) suggests that ageing is also associated with
establishment,
losses. As time passes, the biological abilities of employees will were accepted.
decrease, as well as their occupational future time perspective, which In order to compare the career commitment trajectories of early-
refers to their perceptions around the remaining time and opportunities career employees with those having greater workplace experience,
in their occupational future. This latter theory to some extent explains and guided by extant vocational studies in high-impact journals (e.g.,
the fact that old-timers tend to place more weight on job security and Lam et al., 2012; Stumpf, 2014), individuals with seven or fewer years
career stability (Morrison, 2014). In other words, according to life span of experience were regarded as ‘early-career’ employees, and those
theory, with
individuals progress through career stages with different priorities and eight or more years, as ‘old-timers’. It should be noted that while there is
goals; in the mid or later stages of a person’s career, there is an no agreement regarding how career stages should be operationalized,
increased focus on attaining a sense of fulfillment and rootedness, career tenure is a more appropriate indicator of career stages in a
making the particular occupational field, than age, or job tenure (Lam et al., 2012).
alignment between personal values and organizational values crucial. This is because workers can be at a particular career stage, at any age,
Old-timers are thus more likely to consider person-organization fit and may also cycle through career stages when they change their
as a signal that they have selected a correct career (Koo and Li, 2016), occupations.
and several empirical studies have captured the positive relationship Shi et al. (2021) suggest that in order to avoid poor model fit, the
between tenure and decision-making authority (e.g., Hendrawijaya, sample size should be larger than 60 for research using growth
2019). An employee with greater tenure is believed to have more modeling and in practice, and that clusters of 100–200, are
power to master work activities, as well as organizational skills; this preferable. For this
results in a stronger need for a sense of psychological ownership. As research, and drawing on previous longitudinal multilevel studies (e.g.,
there is more emphasis on emotional linkages with the organization, De Cuyper et al., 2012; Park et al., 2021b), the expected size of the
deficiencies in sample was 200; however, taking attrition into account, the targeted
this area may have a more negative influence on old-timers’ career at- sample size for the baseline survey was above 300.
titudes. In contrast, employees at the initial career stage are actively
experimenting with different jobs to identify themselves in the occu-
pational field in which they are interested, and thus may be more 3.2. Data collection
willing to try different jobs in different organizations if the current one
fails to meet their career expectations (Goh and Lee, 2018). Their Employees who exhibited willingness to participate in the survey
career commitment is therefore less likely to be influenced by their were required to sign consent forms and to return these in soft copy via
emotional attachment toward the current organization. WeChat (one of the most popular instant communication Apps in China).
Consequently, it was expected that the effect of organizational The consent form not only asked participants to provide their
commitment on career commitment would be stronger as time passes. signatures, it also requested their contact details (e.g., WeChat ID); this
In other words, time would moderate the relationship between enabled them to be sent the survey links. Online surveys were
organizational commitment and career commitment, and that this conducted at 3- month intervals over a 6-month period. This decision
time-varying (accelerating) effect would be more significant for old- was made for the following reasons. First, three separate points of time
timers. are the mini- mum required for latent growth modeling (Walther et al.,
2021; Xu and Martinez, 2018; Xia and Ha, 2023). Second, according
H3 (c). : For old-timers, the positive effect of organizational commitment
to Bucy and Holbert (2010), as more waves of data are gathered, the
on career commitment will increase over time.
sample attrition
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Fig. 1. Research model.

103748
rate will increase, diminishing the representativeness and reliability of Questionnaires distributed 166 156 156
longitudinal data. The use of a 3-month time lag was consistent with Valid responses 156 126 101
Response rate 94 % 81 % 65 %
existing career-related longitudinal studies (Autin et al., 2017; Xu and
Tracey, 2017).
Respondents were first asked to complete the baseline online
survey at Time-1. This measured career commitment and its
antecedents (i.e., occupational self-efficacy, family support and
organizational commitment) and demographic characteristics (e.g.,
age, gender and civil status). Participants who completed the Time-1
survey were invited to participate three months later in the Time-2
survey, and after an additional three months (six months from
commencement) in the Time-3 survey. The same questionnaires were
used on each occasion. When completing each survey, respondents
were asked to provide the last four digits of their mobile phone number
as a personal code. This identification number allowed the researcher
to match their responses over time. In compensation, participants
received a financial incentive in the form of WeChat Red Packets (a
digital currency equating to RMB 8 yuan) for every questionnaire
completed).
The sample size across waves is displayed in Table 1. Regarding
the total sample, of the 335 hospitality employees who signed the
consent form, 310 participated in the Time-1 Survey. These
respondents were then invited to join the Times- 2 and 3 surveys. From
Time-1 to Time-3, the attrition rate was around 40 %, which was in the
acceptable range (see Kristman et al., 2005; Yin et al., 2023).
Respondents were distributed fairly between early-career employees
(N = 154) and old-timers (N
= 156).
3.3. Measurements
Occupational self-efficacy was captured utilizing a six-item scale

developed by Rigotti et al. (2008). Respondents rated the items from 1
=
‘strongly disagree’, to 7 = ‘strongly agree’. Example of item: “Whatever
comes my way in my job, I can usually handle it.” The Cronbach’s alpha
values for this scale were 0.93 at Time-1, 0.91 at Time-2, and 0.93 at
Time-3.
Family support was examined utilizing seven items adapted from
Boyar et al. (2014). Respondents rated the items from 1 = ‘strongly
disagree’, to 7 = ‘strongly agree’. Example of item: “My family is willing
to listen to me when I talk about my career.” The Cronbach’s alpha
values for this scale were 0.91 at Time-1, 0.92 at Time-2, and 0.95 at
Time-3.
Organizational commitment was examined utilizing a five-item scale
developed by Lee et al. (2001). Respondents rated the items from 1
=
‘strongly disagree’, to 7 = ‘strongly agree’. Example of item: “I really feel
as if this organization’s problems are my own”. The Cronbach’s alpha
values for this scale were 0.95 at Time-1, 0.96 at Time-2 and 0.96 at
Time-3.
Career commitment was captured utilizing seven items adopted
from Blau (1985b) with wording adjusted slightly to be more pertinent
to a hospitality context. Respondents rated the items from 1 =
‘strongly
disagree’, to 7 = ‘strongly agree’. Example of items: “I never feel
Table 1
Sample size across waves.
Time-1 Time-2 Time-3
Total sample
Questionnaires distributed 335 310 310
Valid responses 310 215 184
Early-career employees
Questionnaires distributed 169 154 154
Valid responses 154 89 83
Old-timers
disappointed that I ever entered the hospitality industry.” The Cron- 103748
bach’s alpha values for this scale were at 0.94 Time-1, 0.96 at Time-
2 and at 0.96 Time-3.
3.4. Data analysis
3.4.1. Longitudinal multilevel analysis (Between- and within-person

perspectives)
Cross-sectional studies primarily focus on between-person
variations in career commitment, revealing that individuals who rate
above average on certain factors tend to display greater emotional
attachment to their careers. However, this approach lacks the ability
to explore within-person psychological processes (Wang and
Maxwell, 2015). Longitudinal research, which utilizes within-person
data, explores how the changing psychological traits within an
individual can impact attitudes and behavior over time. Many
psychological theories include as- sumptions from a within-person
perspective (Galla et al., 2014). For example, Social Cognitive
Theory (Bandura, 1986) posits that social cognition is a within-
person process that develops over time, as individuals evaluate the
challenges related to a task, consider their abilities to deal with
these challenges, and then apply effort to solve them. Applying this
perspective to career commitment, employees will devote more time
and energy to their careers when they have higher occupational self-
efficacy, than they will when their occupational self-efficacy is low.
In such cases, employing a longitudinal design reveals valuable
insights into the causal relationship between intra-person fluctuations
in self-efficacy, and changes in career commitment.
In contemporary vocational research, longitudinal multilevel
modeling (also known as hierarchical linear modeling) is highly rec-
ommended (Hoffman and Stawski, 2009), as it has the power to
detect random variance due to the use of multiple sampling facets
(e.g., across time and a range of individuals), allowing researchers to
separate within- and between-person effects, and more importantly,
to simultaneously examine both types of effects. The traditional
longitudinal multilevel model is comprised of two levels: repeated
measurements at Level-1 and individual attributes at Level-2. The
equations below show a
traditional longitudinal model. The Level-1 equation shows the
‘within-person’ effects of time-varying variables on the outcome,
while the Level-2 equation exhibits the influence of ‘between-
person/time-invariant’ variables.
Level-1:
Yti = π0i + π1i*(Timeti) + π2i*(Xti) + eti
Level-2:
π0i = β00 + β01*(Covariates) + r0i π1i = β10 + β11*(Covariates)

+ r1i π2i =β20
This model, however, has been challenged by contemporary re-
searchers (Zhang et al., 2009) who have pointed out that even the
common time-invariant covariates are controlled (e.g., demographic
variables), and within-person change at Level-1 can still be
confounded by between-person differences at Level-2, such as the
between-person effect of the variable X. This sets up barriers to
capturing pure intra-person fluctuations.
To overcome such limitations, the longitudinal multilevel analysis
in the present study was conducted following Zhang et al.’s (2009)
approach. The equations below show the revised models. The time-
varying variable ‘X’ is group-mean centred at Level-1, to subtract
between-person variance from X, allowing a pure calculation of
the
within-person effect of X on Y. The Level-2 equation illustrates that apart
from time-invariant covariates, Level 2 variables also include the
group mean of X as a control variable. This improved model not only
enables researchers to remove between-person confounds, it also
allows a simultaneous examination of the within-person and
between-person effects of X on Y. In the current research, when
investigating the relationships of career commitment with its
antecedents, occupational
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self-efficacy, family support and organizational commitment were
Table 2
treated as X, whereas career commitment was used as Y (H1a, b).
Respondent profile.
Level-1:
Total sample Early-career Old-timers
Yti = π0i + π1i*(Timeti) + π2i*(Xti - Mean_X) + eti N % N % N %
Level-2: Age (years)
20 and under 10 3.2 10 6.5 - -
π0i = β00 + β01*(Mean_X) + β02*(Covariates) + r0i π1i = β10 + 21–30 74 23.9 67 43.5 7 4.5
β11*(Mean_X) 31–40 80 25.8 33 21.4 47 30.1
41–50 97 31.3 25 16.2 72 46.2
+ β12*(Covariates) + r1i π2i = β20
51 and above 49 15.8 19 12.3 30 19.2
Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
Mean = 38, Mean = 33, Mean = 43,
Median = 38, Median = 31, Median = 44,
Min = 18, Min = 18, Min = 22,
3.4.2. Latent growth modeling relationship or married. Most respondents (57.4 %) had one to three
Max = 60 Max = 55 Max = 60
Latent growth modeling was employed to examine the trajectory of dependents.
Gender With
hospitality employees’ career commitment (H2a, b, c). The equations Male 121 39.0 66 42.9 55 35.3
are illustrated as follows. The Level-1 equation, of particular interest to Female 189 61.0 88 57.1 101 64.7
researchers, centers on within-person change (i.e., changes in Y over Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
time), allowing observation of the developmental trajectories of a Civil status
Single 52 16.8 36 23.4 16 10.3
time- varying outcome variable. Specifically, Y was modelled as a
In a relationship/ 258 83.2 118 76.6 140 89.7
function of an intercept (i.e., π0i, individual i’s initial value of Y), a Married
slope (i.e., π1i, Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
growth rates of Y over time t), and an individual- and time-specific re- Number of dependents
sidual (i.e., eti, within-person random error). 1 28 9.0 11 7.1 17 10.9
Level-1: 2 79 25.5 47 30.5 32 20.5
3 71 22.9 39 25.3 32 20.5
Yti = π0i + π1i*(Timeti) + eti 4 66 21.3 28 18.2 38 24.4
5 and more 66 21.3 29 18.8 37 23.7
Level-2: Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
Highest qualification
π0i = β00 + r0i π1i = β10 + r1i None 55 17.7 23 14.9 32 20.5
High School 100 32.3 39 25.3 61 39.1
The Level-2 equation reflects the influence of between-person het- qualification
erogeneity on the Level-1 intercept and slope. Specifically, in the Level-2 Certificate/Diploma 119 38.4 68 44.2 51 32.7
equation, π0i is modelled as a function of an intercept (i.e., β00, grand Bachelor’s degree 35 11.3 23 14.9 12 7.7
mean of Y, that is population intercept) and a slope (i.e., r0i, the dif- Postgraduate degree 1 .3 1 .6 - -
ference between individual i’s intercept and population intercept). π1i Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
is modelled as a function of an intercept (i.e., β10, mean growth rates of Company size
Y, Less than 10 22 7.1 15 9.7 7 4.5
that is population slope) and a slope (i.e., r1i, the difference between 10–49 59 19.0 34 22.1 25 16.0
50–99 35 11.3 25 16.2 10 6.4
individual i’s growth rates and population slope). In the present study,
100 or above 194 62.6 80 51.9 114 73.1
career commitment, was treated as Y.
Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
Sector
3.4.3. Time-varying effect analysis Accommodation 206 66.5 91 59.1 115 73.7
Time-varying effect analysis was performed to examine whether Food and beverage 75 24.2 45 29.2 30 19.2
the relationships between career commitment and its antecedents Travel 16 5.2 11 7.1 5 3.2
Other 13 4.2 7 4.5 6 3.8
changed over time (H3a, b, c). Following Singer and Willett’s (2003)
Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
instructions, Position
the classic moderation model was converted into a time-varying effect Entry level 226 72.9 131 85.1 95 60.9
model. Specifically, Y is the outcome variable; β00 as an intercept is Supervisor↱/Manager 82 26.5 22 14.3 60 38.5
the initial value of Y; β10 and β20 demonstrate the main effects of time Senior Manager 2 .6 1 .6 1 .6
and X Total 310 100.0 154 100.0 156 100.0
on Y; Time*X is the cross-product of time and X. The parenthetical
term entails the residuals at the within- and between-person levels. In
the present study, career commitment was treated as Y, and
occupational self-efficacy, family support and organizational
commitment were utilized as X.
Yti = β00 + β10*Timeti + β20*Xti + β30*Cross-product (Time*X)

+ [r0i +
r1i*Timeti + eti]
4. Results
4.1. Respondent profile
As shown in Table 2, the mean age of participants was 38 years,

with the youngest being 18 and the oldest being 60. On average, old-
timer employees were ten years older than early-career employees. In
terms of gender, female respondents accounted for 61 % of total
participants. The majority of respondents (83.2 %) were either in a
103748
regard to educational background, the majority of respondents (88.4

%) did not have a degree qualification. In terms of company size, of
the 310 respondents, the majority of respondents (73.9 %) were from
mid to large-scale hotels. Regarding departments, 66.5 % were from
the accommodation sector, while 24.2 % were from the food and
beverage sector. The respondents comprised both entry-level
employees (72.9 %) and their supervisors/managers (27.1 %)
4.2. Measurement model
To inspect the validity of the measures, multilevel Confirmatory

Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted utilizing Mplus 8.0. The
results (see Table 3) revealed that the proposed four-factor model
obtained acceptable fit to data compared with other alternative
models (X2 [294]
= 1083.29, P < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90).
Single-
level CFA was conducted on the measures at each point of time. The
103748
Table 3
Multilevel CFA - Comparison of measurement models.
Model No. of factors X2 d.f. △X2 CFI TLI RMSEA
Baseline model 4 factors: OSE, FS, OC and CC 1083.29 294 N/A 0.91 0.90 0.05
Alternative 1 3 factors: OSE, FS, (OC + CC) 2340.43 297 1257.14 0.75 0.74 0.09
Alternative 2 2 factors: FS, (OSE + OC + CC) 3314.33 299 2231.04 0.64 0.61 0.11
Alternative 3 1 factor: (OSE + FS + OC + CC) 3994.57 300 2911.28 0.56 0.53 0.12
Note: OSE = Occupational self-efficacy; FS = Family support; OC = Organizational commitment; CC = Career commitment; d.f. = degrees of freedom; CFI =
comparative fit index; IFI = Incremental Fit Index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.
results (see Appendix) show that all items loaded well onto their
magnitude of the direct effects of occupational self-efficacy and family
respective factors at each point, with factor loadings larger than 0.70.
support were reduced at both the between- (OSE: from 0.55, p
In addition, all AVEs were higher than 0.60, and the squared
<0.001–0.28, p > 0.05; FS: from 0.70, p <0.001–0.44, p <0.001) and
correlations and composite reliability were higher than 0.80,
within-person (OSE: from 0.34, p <0.001–0.18, p <0.05; FS: 0.31, p
demonstrating the discriminant validity of the constructs at each
<0.001–0.20, p <0.001) levels. These findings revealed that organiza-
measuring point.
tional commitment mediated the effects of occupational self-efficacy
Means, standard deviations and between- and within-person corre-
and family support on career commitment at both levels (H1a, b
lations among the constructs are presented in Table 4. As was
supported).
expected, there were significant and positive correlations of career
commitment with the antecedent variables (i.e., occupational self-
4.3.2. Latent growth modeling
efficacy and family support), at both levels. A relatively stronger
To begin with, a simple slope analysis was conducted to explore
correlation between organizational commitment and career
the statistical differences between the slopes of the career commitment
commitment was also observed at both between- and within-person
strategies of early-career employees, and those of old-timers. As
levels. Traditional Pearson correlations among the variables across
shown in Fig. 2, there was a significant interaction effect of time and
the three points of time are shown in the Appendix section.
career stage (early-career = 0, old-timers = 1, b = 0.31, p <0.001),
and the
4.3. Hypothesis testing early-career employees had a relatively higher level of initial career
commitment. Fig. 2 also demonstrates that the slope of career commit-
Before testing the main hypotheses, unconditional models were ment change was negative for early-career employees, and positive for
estimated to check the intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for each old-timers.
construct. The results show that the intercept of the focal construct Unconditional latent growth analysis was then conducted to metic-
(i.e., career commitment) was statistically significant (p < 0.001), ulously examine the trajectory of hospitality employees’ career
and the commitment. The results are presented in Table 6 and Fig. 3. For the
ICC for career commitment was 0.76. In addition, the ICC scores were total sample, the findings showed that while the intercept was signifi-
0.68 for occupational self-efficacy, 0.66 for family support, and 0.74 cant (5.12, p < 0.001), time (b = —0.01 p > 0.05) was not a significant
for organizational commitment. The ICC values for each construct predictor of career commitment.
were above 0.5, indicating good test-retest reliability among the three Regarding the trajectory of early-career employees’ career commit-
ment, the intercept was 5.16 (p < 0.001) on a seven-point Likert scale,
time- waves, thereby justifying the rationality of conducting multilevel
revealing their mean career commitment level at the initial stage. The
analysis.
mean growth rate was —0.19 (p < 0.001), implying that early-career
employees’ career commitment decreased by 0.19 units at each point
4.3.1. Longitudinal multilevel modeling
of time (H2b supported).
Longitudinal multilevel modeling was employed to examine the Regarding the trajectory of old-timers’ career commitment, the
relationship between the antecedents and career commitment. As intercept was 5.05 (p < 0.001) on a seven-point Likert scale, revealing
shown in Table 5, occupational self-efficacy and family support were their mean career commitment level at the initial stage. Compared with
positively related to career commitment at both the between- (OSE: b early-career employees (5.16, p < 0.001), old-timers (5.05, p < 0.001)
= 0.55, p reported lower initial career commitment (H2a supported). The mean
<0.001; FS: b = 0.70, p <0.001) and within-person (SE: b = 0.34, growth rate was 0.12 (p < 0.001), implying that old-timers’ career
p commitment increased by 0.12 units at each point of time (H2c
<0.001; FS: b = 0.31, p <0.001) levels. supported).
The tables also indicate that occupational self-efficacy and family
support were positively related to organizational commitment at both 4.3.3. The time-varying effect
the between- (OSE: b = 0.49, p <0.001; FS: b = 0.67, p <0.001) and Time-varying effect analysis was conducted to examine whether
within-person (OSE: b = 0.36, p <0.001; FS: b = 0.26, p <0.001) levels, the effects of the antecedents on career commitment varied over time.
and that organizational commitment was positively related to career The
commitment at both the between- (b = 0.70, p <0.001) and within-
person (b = 0.43, p <0.001) levels.
When organizational commitment was entered into the model, the
Table 4
Between- and within-person correlations among main variables.
Between-person effects Within-person effects
M SD 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1. OSE 5.66 0.84 1 1

.06**2. FS 5.52 0.93 .39*** 1 1
1 3. OC 5.60 1.01 .46*** .54*** .09*** .09** 1
4. CC 5.09 1.20 .47*** .53*** .70 ***
1 .09*** .11*** .12*** 1
Note: OSE = Occupational self-efficacy; FS = Family support; OC = Organizational commitment; CC = Career commitment.
**
p <0.01
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Table 3
***
p < 0.001
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Table 5
The Between- and Within-Person Relationship between the Antecedents and Career Commitment.
Relationship of the Relationship of the Relationship of the mediator to The mediating role of OC between the
antecedents to CC antecedents to OC CC antecedents and CC
OSE FS OSE FS OSE FS

OC
Intercept 5.12*** 5.02*** 5.73*** 5.63*** 5.01*** 5.05*** 5.01***
Level 1
Time 0.02 0.08 -0.10 -0.05 0.10 0.09 0.11
OSE 0.34*** 0.36*** 0.18* (0.34***)
FS 0.31*** 0.26*** 0.20*** (0.31***)
OC 0.43*** 0.38*** 0.38***
Level 2
Age 0.01 -0.01 0.01* 0.01 -0.01 -0.01 -0.01
Gender 0.03 -0.09 0.15 0.03 -0.12 -0.06 -0.12
Marital status -0.03 0.18 -0.20 0.01 0.20 0.10 0.18
Number of dependents -0.02 -0.04 0.02 -0.01 -0.04 -0.03 -0.04
OSE 0.55*** 0.49*** 0.28 (0.55***)
FS 0.70*** 0.67*** 0.44*** (0.70***)
OC 0.70*** 0.56*** 0.45***
Deviance 1833 1802 1683 1673 1656
Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p <0.001.; OSE = Occupational self-efficacy; FS = Family support; OC = Organizational commitment; CC = Career commitment.
Fig. 2. Statistical differences between the slopes of early-career employees’ and old-timers’ career commitment trajectories.
Table 6 time; more specifically, for early-career employees, the effect of

Latent growth modeling (Unconditional growth model). family support on career commitment decreased over time (H3b
supported).
Total (N = 310) Early-career (N = 154) Old-timers (N = 156)
Moreover, a significant interaction effect of organizational commit-
Intercept 5.12*** 5.16*** 5.05***
ment with time on career commitment was observed in the old-timer
Level 1
Time -0.01 -0.19*** 0.12***
sample (b = 0.11, p < 0.01); this was not evident in the early-career
Deviance 1932 (1932) 907 (931) 992 (996)
sample (b = —0.01, p > 0.05) (see Fig. 6). This indicates that the ef-
fect of old-timers’ organizational commitment on their career commit-
Note. Deviances for the null model (in parentheses) are shown. ment varied over time; more specifically, for old-timers, the effect of
***
p <0.001 organizational commitment on career commitment increased over time
(H3c supported).
means and standard errors of the antecedents and career commitment
for both early-career and old-timer samples are shown in Table 7. The 5. Discussion
results of hypothesis testing are presented in Table 8.
First, a significant interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy 5.1. Research and theoretical implications
with time on career commitment was observed in the old-timer sam-
ple (b = 0.11, p < 0.05), but not in the early-career sample (b = —0.05, Labor shortages and high turnover rates can appear to be a curse for
p the hospitality industry, and a body of research has explored the stories
> 0.05) (see Fig. 4). This indicates that the effect of old-timers’ occu- behind job/career changes. Despite this, empirical studies into the fac-
pational self-efficacy on their career commitment varied over time; tors motivating hospitality employees to be committed to their
more specifically, for old-timers, the effect of occupational self- vocation, and the importance of such commitment are scant. A number
efficacy on career commitment increased over time (H3a supported). of recent hospitality works have revealed the positive relationship
In addition, a significant interaction effect of family support with between hospitality employees’ levels of commitment and feelings
time on career commitment was observed in the early-career sample (b of job security
= —0.18, p < 0.01); this was not evident in the old-timer sample (b = (Akbiyik, 2016) and perceived organizational growth (Son and Kim,
0.02, p > 0.05) (see Fig. 5). This indicates that the effect of early-career 2021). In contrast, and drawing on SCCT and spillover theory, the cur-
employees’ family support on their career commitment varied over rent study provides robust evidence regarding the influence of hospi-
tality employees’ occupational self-efficacy and perceived 103748
family
103748
Fig. 3. Career commitment trajectories of the total sample, early-career employees and old-timers based on growth modeling.
Table 7
Means and Standard Errors of the Antecedents and Career Commitment.
Early-career
OSE FS OC CC
M S.E. M S.E. M S.E. M S.E.
Time-1 5.59 5.49 5.48 0.08 5.15 0.09

0.07 0.07
Time-2 5.53 5.44 5.47 0.11 4.98 0.13
0.08 0.09
Time-3 5.49 5.43 5.41 0.11 4.89 0.14
0.09 0.10
Old-timers
OSE FS OC CC
M S.E. M S.E. M S.E. M S.E.
Time-1 5.75 0.07 5.53 0.08 5.76 0.08 5.04 0.09
Time-2 5.76 0.06 5.62 0.08 5.70 0.08 5.13 0.10
Time-3 5.77 0.07 5.56 0.09 5.74 0.07 5.28 0.10
Note. OSE = Occupational self-efficacy; FS = Family support; OC = Organizational commitment; CC = Career commitment; M = Mean; S.E. = Standard errors
Table 8 support on their career commitment, supplementing preceding works

Time-Varying Effects of the Antecedents on Career Commitment. that have focused on the predicting role of job or organizational factors.
The current work also advances knowledge of the antecedents of
Relationship of SE Relationship of Relationship of career commitment at the within-person level. While the results of
to CC FS to CC OC to CC
previous studies using between-person designs may suggest which em-
Early Old- Early Old- Early Old- ployees are more committed to hospitality careers (e.g., Akbiyik, 2016;
career timers career timers career timers
Okurame, 2012), within-person designs can answer the question of
Intercept 5.36*** 4.76*** 5.28*** 4.80*** 5.33*** 4.88*** when workers are likely to change their emotional attachment to their
Level 1 hospitality careers. By investigating the antecedents and career
Time -0.14** 0.10** -0.15** 0.11** -0.12* 0.11***commitment as time-varying covariates, the present study sheds light on
OSE 0.53*** 0.43***
FS 0.63*** 0.48*** the within-subject processes in which occupational self-efficacy and
OC 0.62*** 0.64*** family support vary within individuals over time, and on how these
Time*OSE -0.05 0.11*** fluctuations influence the development of career commitment. Taken
Time*FS -0.18** 0.02
together, the multilevel design offers a solid understanding of the
Time*OC -0.01 0.11**
Level 2 causal relationships between the antecedents and career
commitment, and
Age 0.02* 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 responds to calls from hospitality researchers (e.g., McGinley and Mar-
Gender -0.07 -0.02 -0.18 -0.02 -0.24 -0.13 tinez, 2018) who have recommended that both inter-individual differ-
Marital
status -0.24 0.34 -0.06 0.29 -0.07 0.27 ences and intra-individual change be taken into consideration when
Number of 0.01 -0.09 -0.01 -0.11 0.01 -0.06
evaluating vocational behavior.
dependents This study extends current knowledge by using SCCT and signaling
Deviance 871 947 855 923 827 851 theory to examine both the antecedents, and the explanatory mechanism
(931) (996) (931) (996) (931) (996) for their relationships with career commitment. Both theories have
Note: OSE = Occupational self-efficacy; FS = Family support; OC = previously been applied to the study of work commitment (e.g.,
Organiza- tional commitment; CC = Career commitment. Deviances for the Baidoun andAnderson, 2023; Klimchak et al., 2020), but an integration
null model (in parentheses) are shown.
of the two theories has not been explored. By revealing the mediating
*
p <0.05
**
p < 0.01 role of organizational commitment, it lends support to the signaling
***
p < 0.001 theory and to previous studies that have used job attitudes as a proxy to
predict vocational outcomes (e.g., Liu et al., 2020). The findings are
consistent with the notion that positive emotions and a sense of
belonging in the
103748
Fig. 4. The Time-varying effect of occupational self-efficacy on career commitment.
Fig. 5. The time-varying effect of family support on career commitment.
Fig. 6. The time-varying effect of organizational commitment on career commitment.
current workplace, signal the likelihood of the development of a strong

career commitment with its antecedents at both the between- and
occupational identity, which will foster confidence in career prospects
within-person levels. Mediation analysis is used to demonstrate the
(Rodrigues et al., 2020). This work is also the first study to explore the
causality that reflects change within a person, and therefore,
mediating role of organizational commitment in the associations of
combining between-person results with longitudinal evidence is more
convincing.
103748
This contributes to a robust understanding of the causal processes un-
turnover issues. Rigotti et al.’s (2008) self-assessment tool is frequently
derlying the association between the antecedents and career
recommended as a concise and reliable measure of occupational self-
commitment.
efficacy for use in the recruitment and selection process. The observed
This research, rooted in the ‘honeymoon-hangover effect’ and ‘un-
certainty reduction’ theories, is the first to empirically trace career ‘within-person’ fluctuations in occupational self-efficacy demonstrate its
commitment across various career stages. A noteworthy contribution malleable nature. Methods to develop occupational self-efficacy thus
of require adequate attention from management. For instance, an error-
this work is to offer longitudinal evidence in support of previous cross- tolerant work environment should be established to encourage em-
sectional results. Specifically, that although early-career hospitality ployees with low occupational self-efficacy to attempt challenging tasks,
workers initially exhibit a stronger passion for the industry, they often develop ambitious career goals, and in turn, become more committed
experience disillusionment over time (e.g., Mooney and Jameson, to their career choice. An error-tolerant environment can be created by
2018). Additionally, the findings also resonate with the insights pro- encouraging open discussions about errors when they occur, and
vided by Dobrow et al., (2018), who found a positive relationship be- genuinely working together to help subordinates deal with service fail-
tween industry experience and career satisfaction. However, compared ures (Wang et al., 2021a).
to these extant studies that utilized a between-person design, the Family support has a beneficial impact on career commitment. Pro-
current research method provided a rare opportunity to study the actively and openly pouring out true thoughts and work experiences (e.
same individuals over time, and to precisely sketch a portrait of the g., feelings of stressful work events) to family members on a regular basis
developmental pattern of career commitment. These findings extend will release pressure and enhance resilience. In this way, family mem-
existing literature, and affirm the applicability of the mentioned bers can also provide effective support to the worker. From an organi-
theories in vocational research, providing a robust empirical zational perspective, with the aim of helping employees obtain more
foundation for future studies with similar themes in terms of research understanding from family, managers should implement policies that
design or interpretation. This study also represents the first attempt to bring employees and their families closer together. Common family-
examine the joint influence of antecedents and time on career friendly practices include, but are not limited to, flexible work ar-
commitment, complementing existing research (e.g., Okurame, 2012) rangements, access to subsidized childcare services, and paid parental
that has predominantly focused on gender and culture as moderators. It leave (Remery & Schippers, 2019). Another example could be the
challenges the implicit propo- sition in prior cross-sectional studies celebration of an employee’s achievements in front of their families. A
that the effect sizes of antecedents remain constant. The novel findings social event such as this not only creates an opportunity to
acknowledge the sacrifices a family makes in support of an employees’
demonstrate not only the impact of certain antecedents and mediators
work, but can also help family members to understand more about
on career commitment, but also reveal that the strength of their hospitality work,
effects varies over time. Building on career development theories especially the difficulties associated with hospitality occupations.
(e.g., socio-emotional selectivity theory and human capital theory), The findings also reveal the influence of the antecedents on career
the results support the core idea in these theories, i.e., that tailored commitment via organizational commitment. Organizational commit-
approaches, based on career stages, are essential in career ment thus should be considered a vital proxy and prerequisite for
management and employee retention. While the moderating role of career commitment. Management is encouraged to transform the HRM
time-related constructs (e.g., tenure and age) has been detected in system from a ‘control’ to a ‘people-oriented’ mode, to ensure that
hospitality research (Kim et al., 2019), most of the previous studies employees
lack reliability without the support of longitudinal data. This study feel that they are seen by the company as being assets, rather than ex-
resonates with (and extends from) these studies by proposing a method penses, which in turn will enhance identification with the organization
for a more nuanced assessment of the moderating role of time, (Rossidis et al., 2021). According to social exchange theory (Homans,
through repeated measurements and time-varying effect analysis. 1961), in order to sustain employees’ psychological contract with an
This study also sets up a methodological example for future hospi- organization, it is crucial to comprehend and satisfy their needs. Con-
tality studies aiming to use longitudinal design on this career-related ducting anonymous surveys and having informal interviews with sub-
topic. For instance, the importance of appropriately using multilevel ordinates in out-of-work gatherings helps to capture the true needs of
modeling in order to take full advantage of the longitudinal data, has workers, and demonstrates personalized care for them, thereby
been highlighted. While both the group-mean, or grand-mean building empathy and commitment between the two parties.
centering strategies are accepted for time-varying variables (Level-1), The observed ‘hangover’ effect in the career commitment of early-
the present study empirically reveals that group-mean centering should career employees needs special attention, as a reduction in commit-
be given priority as it allows it to be methodologically possible to ment is a signal that there is an incongruence between the vocational
eliminate between-person confounds in the time-varying variable at expectations of the newcomers, and the reality of a hospitality career.
Level-1. Such between-variance, calculated by the group-mean To reduce this effect, institutions should ensure that students have a
centering method, can be added back to the model at Level-2 and real-
concomitantly examined with within-person variance, generating a istic knowledge of the industry’s conditions, which in turn, will shape
realistic employment expectations. For example, apart from
comprehensive understanding of the predictive power of the variable.
internships,
The methodological design also answers the call from Singer and institutions need to add more experiential learning to the curriculum
Willet (2003) to treat time more flex- ibly in longitudinal research and provide more chance for students to interact with industry pro-
(e.g., as a predictor or a moderator). By doing so, the observation of fessionals (e.g., inviting guest speakers and organizing networking
the developmental trajectory of time- varying variables over time, as events) (Brown et al., 2015). From an employer’s perspective, organi-
well as the change in the magnitude of effect sizes, are possible. zations should provide potential employees with adequate information
about the nature of a hospitality role, rather than overstating the posi-
5.2. Practical implications tive aspects. Managers may wish to proactively inform employees of
the possibility of latent change in career attitudes in the early-career
The current research reveals that the career commitment of hospi- stage, and offer career planning assistance and skill development
tality employees is affected by their occupational self-efficacy. This programs to underline the possibilities for professional advancement
finding will assist practitioners in extending the approaches they use to associated with the increase of tenure. Building mentorships between
evaluate employee commitment. Particularly, when choosing job ap- early-career employees and old-timers who are experiencing an
plicants, low occupational self-efficacy is recommended to be an upward career
exclusion criterion, as such employees may have low motivation to commitment trajectory may be another strategy to foster positive
perform their job to a high standard, and may increase costs related to change in newcomers’ career development.
The findings also demonstrate that the predictive power of the an- 103748
tecedents varies across time. Practically, this implies that the
103748
importance of an antecedent may increase or decrease if the weight an
period of hangover, the deterioration rate of newcomers’ work satis-
employee places on it changes. An understanding of how such weight
faction will gradually become slower. Technically, the adoption of a
changes over time can help practitioners implement the right HR in-
time series approach with more than three survey waves and over a
terventions for the right person at the right time. The accelerating
longer period of time, could help future researchers to scrutinize any
effects of organizational commitment and occupational self-efficacy
curvilinear changes in career commitment. Such a research design
exhibit that their importance to old-timers increases over time.
would also allow the use of alternative methods for conducting
Accordingly, managers are encouraged to provide old-timers with
time-varying effect analysis with stronger statistical power, such as
more empowerment over time, to make them feel valued, thereby
Cox’s (1972) survival regression method, and Hastie and Tibshirani’s
boosting their psychological ownership toward the organization and (1993) time-varying effect model.
commitment to the career. Leadership training is therefore necessary to In order to reduce respondent fatigue, only questions closely related
help managers understand the importance of empowerment, enabling to the variables of interest were asked. Future research is required to
them to share power and demonstrate confidence in their subordinates. extend the research framework by integrating other antecedents of
The findings emphasize the importance of family support to the career commitment. Specifically, a within-person examination of the
career commitment of early-career employees, but reveal that this negative determinants (e.g., role ambiguity and customer
importance diminishes as time passes. This to some extent reflects that mistreatment) would shed more light on the triggers for negative
the shorter the industry tenure, the more family conflicts early-career change in career commitment. For instance, role ambiguity induces
employees tend to experience, perhaps due to a lack of autonomy and uncertainty and stress, fostering a sense of disengagement and
flexibility in work (Reichl et al., 2014). While long and irregular diminishing the emotional connection with the organization (Üngüren
working hours are inevitable for most hospitality jobs, organizations and Arslan, 2021). Conse-
should strive to provide entrants with enough time (e.g., flexible quently, this may impact a worker’s long-term commitment to their
working hours and leave policies) to spend with their family. This will career. Longitudinal qualitative research is called for, as this would
assist them in obtaining more understanding and support from family juxtapose the narratives that detail the impact of both positive and
members, which is critical if they are to stay in hospitality for the negative antecedents on career commitment.
long-term. Taken together, the results of the time-varying analysis Another point for consideration is that the present study incorpo-
remind managers to avoid using ‘one size fits all’ human resource stra- rated four control variables that have frequently been adopted by prior
tegies. Rather, they should take time-related factors into account when
vocational research (Ayodele et al., 2020), to address potential con-
tailoring their retention strategies and modify them according to the
founding effects on career commitment. It is plausible, however, that
needs of employees with different ages and levels of industry experience.
other confounding variables could have influenced the findings. For
instance, respondents’ personality, emotional intelligence, and career
5.3. Limitations and future research competence were not assessed. Future studies could consider including
these factors as control variables, as they could potentially impact the
As with all research, the current study has some limitations, and career commitment of hospitality employees (Sultana et al., 2016).
these will provide avenues for future studies. The measurement model Given the nesting of employees within teams or companies, another
tests indicate that the variables in this study have high reliability and possible area for future longitudinal research would be to adopt a
validity across time, however, all samples were drawn from China. three-level design to examine the influence of group- (e.g., team cohe-
There has been growing interest in the impact of employees’ cultural sion) or organizational-level attributes (e.g., organizational career sup-
background on their work commitment (e.g., Wang et al., 2021b). It is port) on career commitment. For example, when team cohesion is
possible that the relationships between the antecedents and work strong, team members may experience increased warmth and support
commitment can be moderated by culture. Western employees in low (Jyoti, 2022), leading to a heightened sense of belonging and
power distance cultures, unlike their Eastern counterparts, tend to feel emotional connection to their work. This strengthened bond could be
more secure in taking on challenging tasks and are comfortable discus- expected to contribute to their commitment to their careers.
sing career goals with management (see Hofstede, 2011). In this sce- Finally, because of the single-source nature of the study, the current
nario, self-efficacious employees, with a ‘can do’ attitude, are likely to
findings may be susceptible to common method bias. For example,
seize more career development opportunities. Consequently, the posi-
existing evidence (e.g., Khalid and Ali, 2005) indicates that self-rated
tive impact of occupational self-efficacy on career commitment is
work-related attitudes tend to be significantly higher than those of su-
anticipated to be stronger in low power distance contexts. Future
pervisors, due to an inclination toward organizationally desirable re-
studies are required to test the research model on samples from other
sponses. This could potentially overvalue the positive effects of
geographic areas.
antecedents on career commitment. Future studies are recommended to
Another concern arises from the current data, which, despite being
validate the findings through the collection of data from diverse
collected from various hotel departments, still exhibits a bias toward
sources (e.g., colleagues or supervisors).
accommodation employees, with the majority from mid-to-large scale
hotels. Therefore, expanding the sample size to include a broader
CRediT authorship contribution statement
range of hospitality sectors (e.g., restaurants, clubs, casinos, etc.) is
imperative
to enhance the generalizability of the findings. The longitudinal Peter B. Kim: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
study’s results may also be influenced by attrition bias, another type of Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Vali-
sampling dation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Simon
bias. While the attrition rate was acceptable, it is notable that Milne: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration, Su-
unsatisfied workers tend to drop out more in longitudinal studies (e.g., pervision, Validation, Writing – original draft. Dan Zhu: Conceptuali-
zation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology,
Jelicic et al., 2010). This could affect the representativeness of findings
Project administration, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing –
if those experiencing a sharper decline in career commitment leave review & editing. In-Jo Park: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal
before completing follow-up surveys. Future studies could explore analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing –
such methods as personalized survey invitations, shorter original draft, Writing – review & editing.
questionnaires, or increased incentives to reduce attrition.
In addition, the present study utilized a three-wave longitudinal Declaration of Competing Interest
design and was unable to test whether the developmental trajectory of
career commitment could be portrayed in a non-linear fashion. Several The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
existing studies (e.g., Son and Ok, 2019) have found that during the later
103748
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Appendix A. measurements
Occupational self-efficacy
1. I can remain calm when facing difficulties in my job because I can rely on my abilities.
2. When I am confronted with a problem in my job, I can usually find several solutions
3. Whatever comes my way in my job, I can usually handle it.
4. My past experiences in my job have prepared me well for my occupational future.
5. I meet the goals that I set for myself in my job.
6. I feel prepared for most of the demands in my job.
Family support
1. My family is willing to listen to me when I talk about my career.

2. My family understands how important my career is to me.
3. Someone in my family asks me regularly about my career progression.
4. When my work gets very demanding, someone in my family will take on extra household duties and/or childcare responsibilities.
5. If I need to work late as a result of my career role, I can count on someone in my family to take care of everything at home.
6. When I have career-related setbacks to overcome, my family tries to do more work around the house.
7. Family members adjust their schedules to meet my work needs.
Organizational commitment
1. I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own.

2. I do feel like “part of the family” at my organization.
3. I do feel “emotionally attached” to this organization.
4. This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me.
5. I do feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization.
Career commitment
1. If I could go to a different job in an industry other than hospitality which paid the same, I would not do so.
2. I definitely want a career for myself in the hospitality industry.
3. If I could do it all over again, I would still choose to work in the hospitality industry.
4. If I had all the money, I needed without working, I would probably still continue to work in the hospitality industry.
5. I like this vocation too well to give it up.
6. This is the ideal vocation for a life work.
7. I never feel disappointed that I ever entered the hospitality industry.
Appendix B. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) at each point of time
CFA analysis (Time-1)
Time-1 Variables Standardised factor loadings Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE
Occupational self-efficacy 0.93 0.93 0.70

OSE1 0.81
OSE2 0.86
OSE3 0.85
OSE4 0.84
OSE5 0.82
OSE6 0.83
Family support 0.91 0.94 0.70
FS1 0.77
FS2 0.82
FS3 0.88
FS4 0.74
FS5 0.83
FS6 0.93
FS7 0.88
Organizational commitment 0.95 0.94 0.78
OC1 0.79
OC2 0.86
OC3 0.91
OC4 0.94
OC5 0.92
(continued on next page)
103748
(continued )
Career commitment 0.95 0.95 0.72

CC1 0.74
CC2 0.84
CC3 0.88
CC4 0.88
CC5 0.92
CC6 0.92
CC7 0.76
Note. OSE = Occupational self-efficacy; FS = Family support; OC = Organizational commitment; CC = Career commitment; CR = Composite reliability;
AVE = average variance extracted.

OSE1 0.77
OSE2 0.76
OSE3 0.82
OSE4 0.76
OSE5 0.79
OSE6 0.84
FS1 0.87
FS2 0.89
FS3 0.85
FS4 0.77
FS5 0.80
FS6 0.94
FS7 0.84
OC1 0.86
OC2 0.91
OC3 0.93
OC4 0.93
OC5 0.92
CC1 0.77
CC2 0.84
CC3 0.86
CC4 0.90
CC5 0.95
CC6 0.93
CC7 0.88

OSE1 0.79
OSE2 0.91
OSE3 0.85
OSE4 0.85
OSE5 0.77
OSE6 0.83
FS1 0.92
FS2 0.87
FS3 0.87
FS4 0.86
FS5 0.90
FS6 0.92
FS7 0.95
OC1 0.80
OC2 0.88
OC3 0.94
OC4 0.93
OC5 0.95
CC1 0.77
CC2 0.90
(continued on next page)
103748
(continued )
CC3 0.93
CC4 0.90
CC5 0.94
CC6 0.93
CC7 0.85
Appendix C. Zero-order correlations among the main variables
Descriptive statistics and Bivariate correlations
M SD OSE.T1 FS.T1 OC.T1 CC.T1 OSE.T2 FS.T2 OC.T2 CC.T2 OSE.T3 FS.T3 OC.T3 CC.T3
OSE.T1 5.67 0.92 1

FS.T1 5.51 0.94 .511** 1
OC.T1 5.62 1.04 .489** .565** 1
CC.T1 5.10 1.17 .474** .573** .660** 1
OSE.T2 5.66 0.75 .616** .528** .519** .469** 1
FS.T2 5.55 0.92 .369** .668** .507** .421** .604** 1
OC.T2 5.60 1.02 .525** .548** .701** .544** .707** .678** 1
CC.T2 5.07 1.23 .396** .421** .617** .720** .570** .557** .699** 1
OSE.T3 5.65 0.77 .584** .449** .434** .417** .666** .457** .513** .389** 1
FS.T3 5.49 0.94 .403** .623** .411** .317** .517** .616** .543** .321** .496** 1
OC.T3 5.56 0.96 .473** .479** .695** .549** .622** .493** .747** .531** .693** .589** 1
CC.T3 5.09 1.20 .417** .421** .604** .747** .547** .417** .624** .765** .518** .396** .683** 1
Note. OSE = Occupational self-efficacy; FS = Family support; OC = Organizational commitment; CC = Career commitment.
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2. TÓM TẮT BÀI BÁO THEO MẪU

2.1 Loại nghiên cứu
Bài báo có tiêu đề "Career commitment của nhân viên khách sạn thay đổi như thế nào qua các giai
đoạn nghề nghiệp? Một cuộc điều tra đa cấp về occupational self-efficacy and family support" là
một nghiên cứu thực nghiệm. Bởi vì nó liên quan đến việc thu thập và phân tích dữ liệu thực tế để
kiểm tra các giả thuyết của nó. Cụ thể, các nhà nghiên cứu đã thu thập dữ liệu theo chiều dọc từ các
nhân viên khách sạn ở các giai đoạn sự nghiệp khác nhau, đo lường các biến như occupational self-
efficacy, family support và career commitment theo thời gian.
2.2 Tính cấp thiết
Vì sao câu hỏi nghiên cứu của bài báo quan trọng?
- Câu hỏi nghiên cứu của bài báo rất quan trọng vì nó giải quyết một thách thức đáng kể mà
ngành khách sạn phải đối mặt—tỷ lệ nhân viên nghỉ việc cao và tình trạng thiếu hụt lực lượng
lao động. Nghiên cứu tập trung vào sự thay đổi career commitment của nhân viên ngành khách
sạn qua các giai đoạn nghề nghiệp. Nghiên cứu khám phá hai yếu tố chính, occupational self-
efficacy(niềm tin vào khả năng thành công trong công việc) và family support, ảnh hưởng đến
career commitment ở các giai đoạn khác nhau trong sự nghiệp của nhân viên.
- Bằng cách hiểu career commitment luôn biến động, đặc biệt là ở giai đoạn đầu và sau sự
nghiệp, nghiên cứu này giúp xác định thời điểm và lý do tại sao nhân viên có thể không gắn bó,
cũng như cách các tổ chức có thể hỗ trợ họ tốt hơn để tăng cường giữ chân nhân viên.
Khoảng trống nghiên cứu là gì?
Khoảng trống nghiên cứu của bài báo này là:
- Ít nghiên cứu về sự thay đổi career commitment theo giai đoạn sự nghiệp: Các nghiên cứu
trước đây thường tập trung vào các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến cam kết nghề nghiệp ở một thời điểm
cụ thể, rất ít khi xem xét sự thay đổi của cam kết này theo thời gian và qua các giai đoạn sự
nghiệp khác nhau.
- Chưa có nhiều nghiên cứu kết hợp occupational self-efficacy và family support: Mặc dù cả hai
yếu tố này đều được coi là quan trọng, nhưng ít có nghiên cứu nào xem xét đồng thời cả hai
yếu tố này và tác động của chúng lên career commitment.
- Thiếu nghiên cứu đa cấp: Hầu hết các nghiên cứu trước đây chỉ tập trung vào cấp độ cá nhân,
trong khi bài báo này sử dụng phương pháp nghiên cứu đa cấp, cho phép phân tích cả cấp độ cá
nhân và cấp độ tổ chức, từ đó cung cấp một cái nhìn toàn diện hơn về vấn đề.
2.3 Câu hỏi nghiên cứu
- Career commitment của nhân viên khách sạn thay đổi như thế nào qua các giai đoạn sự nghiệp?
- Occupational self-efficacy và family support tác động như thế nào đến career commitment của
nhân viên khách sạn ở các giai đoạn nghề nghiệp khác nhau?
2.4 Khung nghiên cứu
Nghiên cứu để kiểm định lý thuyết. Cụ thể, bài báo này muốn kiểm định các giả thuyết về mối quan
hệ giữa time, occupational self-efficacy, family support và career commitment của nhân viên trong
ngành khách sạn.
2.4 Các tài liệu tham khảo chính
- Lent's work on social cognitive career theory, which discusses career interest, choice, and
performance(Công trình của Lent về lý thuyết nghề nghiệp nhận thức xã hội, thảo luận về sở
thích nghề nghiệp, sự lựa chọn và hiệu suất).
- Lee's meta-analytic review of occupational commitment and its relations with personal and
work-related variables(Đánh giá phân tích tổng hợp của Lee về cam kết nghề nghiệp và mối
quan hệ của nó với các biến số cá nhân và các biến số liên quan đến công việc).
- Goh's study on the emerging role of Generation Z in the hospitality

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workforce, particularly as a
pivotal demographic(Nghiên cứu của Goh về vai trò mới nổi của Thế hệ Z trong lực lượng lao
động trong ngành khách sạn, đặc biệt là với tư cách là một nhóm nhân khẩu học quan trọng).
2.6 Giả thiết nghiên cứu
H1(a): Cam kết của tổ chức sẽ điều hòa mối quan hệ giữa occupational self-efficacy và career
commitment.
H1(b): Cam kết của tổ chức sẽ điều hòa mối quan hệ giữa family support và career commitment.
H2 (a). : Nhân viên đầu sự nghiệp sẽ thể hiện mức độ career commitment tương đối cao ở giai đoạn
đầu làm việc.
H2 (b). : Một quỹ đạo thay đổi giảm dần sẽ diễn ra trong career commitment được thể hiện bởi
những nhân viên đầu sự nghiệp.
H2 (c). : Đối với những người làm việc lâu năm (nhân viên có thời gian làm việc tương đối dài) sẽ
trải qua quá trình thay đổi ngày càng tăng trong career commitment của họ.
H3 (a). : Đối với người cao tuổi, tác động tích cực của occupational self-efficacy đối với career
commitment sẽ tăng theo thời gian.
H3 (b). : Đối với những nhân viên mới vào nghề, tác động tích cực của family support đối với
career commitment sẽ giảm dần theo thời gian.
H3 (c). : Đối với những người làm việc lâu năm, tác động tích cực của cam kết với tổ chức đối với
career commitment sẽ tăng theo thời gian.
2.7 Đối tượng nghiên cứu
Đối tượng nghiên cứu là: nhân viên ngành khách sạn.
2.8 Phạm vi nghiên cứu
- Không gian: Nghiên cứu được thực hiện tại Trung Quốc.
- Thời gian: Dữ liệu được thu tại ba thời điểm khác nhau, với khoảng cách ba tháng giữa mỗi
giai đoạn thu thập dữ liệu. Bài báo không đề cập cụ thể chính xác là vào năm nào.
2.9 Cách lấy mẫu
Khảo sát trực tuyến 310 nhân viên ngành dịch vụ khách sạn tại ba thời điểm khác nhau.
2.10 Mẫu nghiên cứu
Bài nghiên cứu sử dụng dữ liệu bảng(panel data), điều này có nghĩa là cùng một nhóm nhân viên
ngành dịch vụ khách sạn đã được khảo sát tại nhiều thời điểm (với khoảng cách ba tháng giữa mỗi
cuộc khảo sát) để theo dõi những thay đổi trong career commitment của họ. Dữ liệu bảng cho phép
phân tích những thay đổi trong bản thân theo thời gian.
2.11o lường các biến chính
- Biến độc lập: time, occupational self-efficacy, family support.
- Biến phụ thuộc: career commitment.
2.12Mô hình nghiên cứu
103748
2.13ết quả nghiên cứu

- Kết quả từ mô hình tăng trưởng cho thấy career commitment giảm theo thời gian đối với nhân
viên đầu sự nghiệp nhưng tăng đối với những người đồng cấp từ giữa đến cuối sự nghiệp. Các
phát hiện cũng chỉ ra rằng cam kết của tổ chức làm trung gian cho mối quan hệ giữa career
commitment với occupational self – efficacy và family support ở cả cấp độ giữa và trong cá
nhân.
- Ảnh hưởng của occupational self – efficacy và family support: Cả hai yếu tố đều tác động tích
cực đến career commitment. Những nhân viên có niềm tin cao vào khả năng của mình và nhận
được sự hỗ trợ từ gia đình thường có mức độ cam kết nghề nghiệp cao hơn.
2.14 Đóng góp của nghiên cứu
- Đầu tiên, nghiên cứu cung cấp hiểu biết toàn diện về cách career commitment thay đổi qua các
giai đoạn nghề nghiệp khác nhau trong ngành dịch vụ khách sạn.
- Thứ hai, nghiên cứu nhấn mạnh tầm quan trọng của occupational self – efficacy và family
support trong việc ảnh hưởng đến career commitment.
- Cuối cùng, phương pháp phân tích đa cấp của nghiên cứu cho phép hiểu biết sâu sắc hơn về các
yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến career commitment, xem xét cả các yếu tố cá nhân và tổ chức.
3. Bình luận
3.1 Nhận xét về đóng góp của nghiên cứu
Nghiên cứu " Career commitment của nhân viên khách sạn thay đổi như thế nào qua các giai đoạn
nghề nghiệp? Một cuộc điều tra đa cấp về occupational self-efficacy và family support " mang đến
những đóng góp đáng kể, không chỉ về mặt thực tiễn mà còn cả trong việc phát triển lý thuyết về
career commitment.
Đóng góp về mặt lý thuyết:
- Hiểu biết động về career commitment: Theo truyền thống, career commitment được nghiên cứu
như một khái niệm tương đối tĩnh, trong đó cam kết của một cá nhân được cho là tăng đều đặn
hoặc không đổi. Nó khuyến khích các nghiên cứu trong tương lai áp dụng phương pháp tiếp
cận theo chiều dọc đối với các nghiên cứu liên quan đến nghề nghiệp thay vì dựa vào các thiết
kế cắt ngang, chỉ nắm bắt một khoảnh khắc duy nhất trong thời gian.
- Nghiên cứu tích hợp occupational self-efficacy and family support như những tiền đề chính của
career commitment. Trong khi các nghiên cứu trước đây tập trung vào các yếu tố liên quan đến
công việc như sự hài lòng trong công việc và sự hỗ trợ của tổ chức, nghiên cứu này bổ sung các
yếu tố cá nhân và tâm lý. Những phát hiện này mở ra những hướng mới để nghiên cứu cách các
yếu tố bên ngoài (gia đình) và bên trong (hiệu quả bản thân) ảnh hưởng đến quỹ đạo nghề
nghiệp dài hạn, do đó làm phong phú thêm tài liệu về động lực và phát triển nghề nghiệp.
Đóng góp về mặt thực tiễn: 103748
- Nghiên cứu cung cấp cơ sở khoa học để thiết kế các chương trình đào tạo và phát triển phù hợp
với từng giai đoạn sự nghiệp, giúp nhân viên nâng cao hiệu quả làm việc và tăng cường sự gắn
bó.
- Các nhà quản lý có thể dựa vào kết quả nghiên cứu để xây dựng các chính sách hỗ trợ nhân
viên cân bằng giữa công việc và cuộc sống, như các chương trình chăm sóc sức khỏe, các chính
sách làm việc linh hoạt,...
- Nghiên cứu cho thấy tầm quan trọng của văn hóa tổ chức trong việc tạo ra một môi trường làm
việc tích cực và khuyến khích sự gắn kết của nhân viên.
3.2 Phương pháp nghiên cứu
Tác giả sử dụng phương pháp nghiên cứu định tính kết hợp với phương pháp định lượng, chủ yếu
là phương pháp định lượng để giải quyết vấn đề. Các yếu tố chính của phương pháp luận này bao
gồm:
- Thu thập dữ liệu theo chiều dọc: Nghiên cứu đã thu thập dữ liệu tại ba thời điểm khác nhau từ
310 nhân viên khách sạn, với khoảng thời gian ba tháng giữa mỗi lần thu thập dữ liệu. Phương
pháp tiếp cận theo chiều dọc này cho phép các nhà nghiên cứu quan sát những thay đổi trong
career commitment theo thời gian.
- Phương pháp nghiên cứu khảo sát: Các cuộc khảo sát được sử dụng để thu thập dữ liệu về các
biến như career commitment, occupational self-efficacy and family support. Phương pháp này
cung cấp dữ liệu định lượng cần thiết để phân tích một cách sâu sắc và chính xác hơn.
- Nghiên cứu đa cấp: Một phương pháp tiếp cận đa cấp đã được áp dụng để điều tra cả các biến
thể trong cá nhân (cách cam kết của một cá nhân thay đổi theo thời gian) và giữa các cá nhân
(sự khác biệt giữa các cá nhân).
3.3 Phương pháp xử lý số liệu
Các công cụ thống kê được sử dụng để xử lý dữ liệu bao gồm:SPSS để xử lý dữ liệu cơ bản và phân
tích mô tả. Mô hình tuyến tính phân cấp (HLM) để phân tích bản chất đa cấp của dữ liệu, đánh giá
cách các biến ở các cấp độ khác nhau (cá nhân và tổ chức) tác động đến career commitment. Mplus
8.0 được sử dụng để lập mô hình phức tạp hơn, bao gồm thử nghiệm các hiệu ứng trung gian và các
mối quan hệ theo chiều dọc.
3.3 Hạn chế và hướng nghiên cứu tiếp theo
- Nghiên cứu chỉ được thực hiện tại Trung Quốc, mẫu được lấy từ 310 nhân viên khách sạn, dẫn
đến kết quả không thể khái quát hóa cho toàn bộ ngành khách sạn trên thế giới. Nghiên cứu tiếp
theo cần có kinh phí nhiều hơn và thời gian dài hơn, cỡ mẫu lớn hơn để dữ liệu thu thập có hiệu
quả hơn.
- Mô hình nghiên cứu chỉ xem xét tác động của các nhân tố: time, occupational self-efficacy and
family support đến career commitment, trong khi còn nhiều nhân tố khác có thể ảnh hưởng đến
career commitment của nhân viên như: văn hóa, địa lý, cơ hội thăng tiến, chính sách đãi
ngộ,...Đây cũng là một hướng cho các nghiên cứu tiếp theo.
- Nghiên cứu dựa trên dữ liệu tự báo cáo từ các cuộc khảo sát, có thể dẫn đến thiên lệch do người
tham gia có xu hướng trả lời theo cách người hỏi mong muốn hoặc không nhớ chính xác các
trải nghiệm trước đó. Điều này có thể ảnh hưởng đến độ tin cậy của dữ liệu. Thay vì chỉ dựa
vào dữ liệu tự báo cáo, các nghiên cứu sau có thể kết hợp với các nguồn dữ liệu khác như đánh
giá từ quản lý, đồng nghiệp, hoặc sử dụng các công cụ đo lường khách quan hơn để giảm thiểu
thiên lệch và cải thiện độ chính xác của dữ liệu.

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International Journal of Hospitality Management 120 (2024) 103748

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Hospitality Management

Full Length Article

How does the career commitment of hospitality employees change across

70 % of participants considered their families an important factor received

2.1. Career commitment

Career commitment, as a concept, is not a recent development.

2.6. Time-varying effect

Research conducted so far has presented conflicting findings in

2.6.2. The decelerating effect of family support

Fig. 1. Research model.

Occupational self-efficacy was captured utilizing a six-item scale

3.4. Data analysis

3.4.1. Longitudinal multilevel analysis (Between- and within-person

π0i = β00 + β01*(Covariates) + r0i π1i = β10 + β11*(Covariates)

Yti = β00 + β10*Timeti + β20*Xti + β30*Cross-product (Time*X)

4.1. Respondent profile

As shown in Table 2, the mean age of participants was 38 years,

regard to educational background, the majority of respondents (88.4

4.2. Measurement model

To inspect the validity of the measures, multilevel Confirmatory

1. OSE 5.66 0.84 1 1

OSE FS OSE FS OSE FS

Table 6 time; more specifically, for early-career employees, the effect of

M S.E. M S.E. M S.E. M S.E.

Time-1 5.59 5.49 5.48 0.08 5.15 0.09

Table 8 support on their career commitment, supplementing preceding works

Fig. 4. The Time-varying effect of occupational self-efficacy on career commitment.

Fig. 5. The time-varying effect of family support on career commitment.

Fig. 6. The time-varying effect of organizational commitment on career commitment.

current workplace, signal the likelihood of the development of a strong

1. My family is willing to listen to me when I talk about my career.

1. I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own.

Appendix B. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) at each point of time

CFA analysis (Time-1)

Time-1 Variables Standardised factor loadings Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE

Occupational self-efficacy 0.93 0.93 0.70

Time-1 Variables Standardised factor loadings Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE

Career commitment 0.95 0.95 0.72

CFA analysis (Time-2)

Time-2 Variables Standardised factor loadings Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE

Occupational self-efficacy 0.91 0.88 0.63

CFA analysis (Time-3)

Time-3 Variables Standardised factor loadings Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE

Occupational self-efficacy 0.93 0.90 0.70

Time-3 Variables Standardised factor loadings Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE

Appendix C. Zero-order correlations among the main variables

Descriptive statistics and Bivariate correlations

OSE.T1 5.67 0.92 1

2. TÓM TẮT BÀI BÁO THEO MẪU

- Goh's study on the emerging role of Generation Z in the hospitality

2.13ết quả nghiên cứu

Đóng góp về mặt thực tiễn: 103748

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π0i = β00 + β01(Covariates) + r0i π1i = β10 + β11(Covariates)

Yti = β00 + β10Timeti + β20Xti + β30Cross-product (TimeX)