Sovind Sir Chem Formula Book

SOVIND SIR CHEMISTRY FORMULAE ALL ABOUT CHEMISTRY
For XI and XII (SCIENCE)

and MHT-CET Students
CHEMISTRY
MHT-CET
FORMULAE
By
Sovind Sir
EKLAVYA PUBLICATICATION
1
INDEX
Std. XI
Chapter Chapter Name Page no.
no.
1 Some Basic Concepts of 5
Chemistry
4 Structure of Atom 8
5 Chemical Bonding 13
6 Redox Reaction 19
8 Elements of Group 1 and 2 24
10 States of Matter 27
11 Adsorption and Colloids 32
14 Basic Principles of Organic 35
Chemistry
15 Hydrocarbons 39
2
Std. XII
Chapter Chapter Name Page no.
no.
1 Solid State 44
2 Solutions 49
3 Ionic Equilibria 57
4 Chemical Thermodynamics 61
5 Electrochemistry 68
6 Chemical Kinetics 74
7 Elements of Groups 16, 17 78
and 18
8 Transition and Inner 83
Transition Elements
9 Coordination Compounds 89
10 Halogen Derivatives 94
11 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 98
12 Aldehydes, Ketones and 103
Carboxylic acids
13 Amines 108
14 Biomolecules 111
15 Introduction to Polymer 119
Chemistry
16 Green Chemistry and 122
Nanochemistry
3
CLASS 11 TH
MHT - CET
4
CHAPTER 1
SOME BASIC
CONCEPTS OF
CHEMISTRY
TO JOIN “ALL ABOUT CHEMISTRY” APP
SCAN ME
5
 Number of moles (n):
Mass of a substance
n=
Molar mass of a substance
 Number of molecules:
Number of molecules = Number of moles × Avogadro number
Number of molecules = Number of moles × 6.022 × 1023
 Molar volume of a gas at STP= 22.4 dm3 mol-1
 Number of moles (n):
Volume of a gas at STP

Number of moles (n) =
Molar volume ofa gas
Volume of a gas at STP

Number of moles (n) =
22.4 dm3 mol−1
 Physical Properties of matter:
 Mass: SI unit →kilogram (kg)

Other units → 1 kg= 1000 g
 Length : SI unit → metre (m)

Other units → 1 nm = 10-9 m, 1 pm = 10-12m
1 A0 = 10-10 m= 10-8 cm
 Volume: SI unit → (metre)3

Other units → 1 litre = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3 = 103 cm3 = 103 mL
1 mL = l cm3 = 10-6 m3
6
-3
 Density: SI unit → kg m
Other units → g cm-3, g mL-1
 Temperature : SI unit → Kelvin (K)
9
Celsius to Fahrenheit : oF = 5 (oC) + 32
Celsius to Kelvin : K = oC + 273.15
1
 1amu = × mass of one C − 12
12
1
= × 1.992648 × 10−23 𝑔 = 1.66056 × 10−24 𝑔
12
****
7
CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURE OF
ATOM
SCAN ME
8
 Number of neutrons:
N =A –Z
Where, A = mass number,

Z = atomic number
 Frequency ():
c
Frequency () =
λ
Where, = Frequency of electromagnetic radiation

c= Speed of light =3 × 108 m s-1
𝜆 = Wavelength of electromagnetic radiation
 Wave number (̅ ):

l
Wave number (̅ ) =
λ
 Energy of quantum of radiation (E):

c
Energy of quantum of radiation (E) = h = h = hc
̅
λ
Where, h = Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10-34J s
 Wave number of series of hydrogen spectrum:
̅ = RH [𝑛2 − 𝑛2] cm-1

1 1
1 2
9
Where, ̅ = wave number
RH = Rydberg constant = 109677 cm-1 = 1.09677 × 107m-1
n1 = lower energy level
n2 = higher energy level
 Different series of hydrogen spectrum:
Series n1 n2 Region
Lyman 1 2, 3, 4, .... Ultra violet
Balmer 2 3, 4, 5, .... Visible
Paschen 3 4, 5, 6, .... Infra-red
Brackett 4 5, 6, 7, .... Infra-red
Pfund 5 6, 7, 8, .... Infra-red
 Bohr's frequency rule:
ΔE E2 −E1
= =
h h
Where, E1 = Energy of lower energy state

E2 = Energy of higher energy state
 Energy of an electron (En) in the nth orbit of hydrogen
atom:
𝑍2
En = - 2.18 × 10-18 ( )J
𝑛2
Where, Z= Atomic number
10
 Radius of Bohr's orbit (rn):
n2
Radius of Bohr's orbit (rn) = 52.9 × pm
Z
 de Broglie equation:
h h
de Broglie equation: 𝜆 = =
mv p
p = mv = momentum of particle
 Heisenberg's uncertainty principle:

h
Δx Δpx ≥ 4
Where, Δx = uncertainty in position.
Δpx = uncertainty in momentum
h
Δx × Δ (mvx) ≥ 4 ( p = mvx)
h
 Δx Δvx ≥ 4
 Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers:
 The four quantum numbers are: principal quantum number

(n), azimuthal quantum number (l), magnetic quantum
number (ml) and electron spin quantum number (ms).
 Number of sub-shells in a main energy level = n
 Number of orbitals in a main energy level = n2
 Number of orbitals in a sub-shell = (2l + 1)
 Number of electrons in each orbital = 2
 Maximum number of electrons in a man shell = 2n2.
 Maximum number of electrons in a subshell = 2(2l + 1)
11
 Energy difference for an electronic transition in
hydrogen atom:
1 1
ΔE = 2.18 × 10−18 [ − ]𝐽
𝑛𝑓2 𝑛𝑖2
Where, nf = n1 = lower energy level

ni = n2 = higher energy level
Orbital Value of l (Azimuthal Quantum No.)

s 0
p 1
d 2
f 3
****
12
CHAPTER 5
CHEMICAL
BONDING
SCAN ME
13
 VSEPR theory and geometry of some molecules/ions:
No. of No. of No. of Electron pair Molecular Examples

electron lone bonding geometry geometry
pairs pairs pairs
2 0 2 Linear Linear BeBr2, CO2,
3 0 3 Trigonal Trigonal BF3, BCl3, BH3,
planar planar
4 0 4 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral CH4, NH+4,
SiCl4,
5 0 5 Trigonal Trigonal PCl5, SbF5,
bipyramidal bipyramidal AsF5,
6 0 6 Octahedral Octahedral SF6, TeF6, SeF6,
3 1 2 Trigonal Bent SO2, O3,
planar
4 1 3 Tetrahedral Trigonal NH3, PCl3,
Pyramidal
4 2 2 Tetrahedral Bent H2O, OF2, H2S,
SCl2,
5 1 4 Trigonal See-saw SF4,
bipyramidal
5 2 3 Trigonal T-shaped ClF3, BrF3, ICl3
bipyramidal
6 1 5 Octahedral Square BrF5, IF5,
14
Pyramidal
6 2 4 Octahedral Square XeF4

planar
 Types of hybridization:
sp3 sp2 sp hybridization

hybridization hybridization
Orbitals One s and One s and two p One s and one p
involved three p orbitals orbitals orbital
Angle between 109°28' 120° 180°
hybrid
orbitals (when
only bond
pairs are
present)
Example CH4 BF3 BeCl2
15
 Dipole moments and geometry of some molecules:
Types of Example Dipole moment Geometry

molecule µ (D)
Molecule AB HF 1.91 Linear
HCl 1.03 Linear
HBr 0.79 Linear
H2 0 Linear
Molecule AB2 H2O 1.85 Angular (Bent)
H2S 0.95 Angular (Bent)
CO2 0 Linear
Molecule AB3 NH3 1.47 Trigonal
NF3 0.23 pyramidal
BF3 0 Trigonal
pyramidal
Trigonal planar
Molecule AB4 CHCl3 1.04 Tetrahedral
CH4 0 Tetrahedral
CCl4 0 Tetrahedral
16
 Formal Charge:
Total number of Total no. of non- 1 Total no. of

Formal Charge (F.C.) = valence electrons - bonding or lone - bonding or
2
in free atom pairs of electrons shared electrons
FC = VE – NE – (BE/2)
 Dipole Moment:
µ=Q×r
Where, Q = charge
r = distance.
Dipole moment is usually expressed in Debye units (D)
The conversion factor is 1D = 3.33564 × 10-30 C m
Where, C is coulomb and m is meter.
 Types of Overlap of Atomic Orbitals:
 s-s overlap e.g., H2

 p-p overlap e.g., F2, Cl2,
 s-p overlap e.g., HF, HCl
17
 Bond Order:
Nb −Na
Bond Order =
2
Where, Nb = No. of electrons in bonding molecular orbitals.

Na = No. of electrons in anti – bonding molecular orbitals.
 Electronic configuration of diatomic molecules:
Molecule Electronic configuration Bond order Magnetic nature

H2 (ls)² 1 Diamagnetic
Li2 (ls)2 (*ls)2 (2s) ² 1 Diamagnetic
N2 (ls)2 (*ls)2(2s)2(*2s) ² 3 Diamagnetic
(2p)2(2py)2(2pz)?
O2 (ls)2 (*ls)2(2s)2(*2s)2 2 Paramagnetic
(o2pz)2 (2px)2
(2py)2(*2px)1
(*2px)1
F2 (ls)2 (*ls)2(2s)2(*2s)2 1 Diamagnetic
(o2pz)2 (2px)2
(2py)2(*2px)2
(*2px)2
****
18
CHAPTER 6
REDOX REACTION
SCAN ME
19
 Rules to assign oxidation number:
The following are the general rules formulated to assign an

oxidation number to an atom in any molecule or ion.
Rule – 1: The oxidation number of an atom in free uncombined

elemental state is zero. For example, each atom in the elements
such as Ca, H2, Cl2, O3, S8, P4 and so on has oxidation number of
zero.
Rule – 2: The oxidation number of an atom in a monoatomic ion is

equal to its charge.
For example,
Ba2+ Cr3+ K+ Br- S2-
+2 +3 +1 -1 -2
Rule-3: The oxidation number of H atom is either +1 or -1. When

H atom is bonded to non-metals, its oxidation number is +1, when
it is bonded to metals, it will have oxidation number of – 1.
For example.
[O – H]- H–O–H Li – H H – Ca – H
-2 +1 +1 -2 +1 +1 -1 -1 +2 -1
20
Rule-4: The oxidation number of oxygen is usually -2 in all of its
compounds except in peroxides and superoxide. The oxidation no
of oxygen in peroxide is -1 and in superoxide is -1/2.
For example.
Ca – O H–O–O–H [O – O]2- KO2
+2 -2 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -1 -1/2
In OF2, oxidation number of oxygen is +2.
Rule-5: The oxidation number of F is always -1 in all of its

compounds. The other halogens Cl, Br and I usually have oxidation
number of -1 in their compounds. The exception the compounds in
which these halogens (Cl, Br and I) are bonded to oxygen. In such
compounds oxidation number of Cl, Br or I is +1.
For example,
H–F KBr Cl – O – Cl H – O – Cl
+1 -1 +1 -1 +1 -2 +1 +1 -2 +1
Rule-6: The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the

atoms in a neutral molecule is equal to zero.
For example, in H2SO4 ion,
2 × (Oxidation no of H) + (Oxidation no of S) + 4 × (Oxidation no of O) = 0
21
Rule-7: The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the
atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the net charge of the ion.
𝟐−
For example, in SO ion,
𝟒
(Oxidation state of S) + 4 × (oxidation state of oxygen) = -2
 Tricks For Ions :

 1+ ions
H – Hydrogen
Na – Sodium HiNa Car Lekar Agra Gayi National Highway – 4
K – Potassium
Li – Lithium
Ag – Silver
NH4 – Ammonium
 2+ ions
Ba – Barium
Be – Beryllium
Mg – Magnesium
Ca – Calcium
Zn – Zinc Bahu Beta Mange Car Zen Hi gee Koi Kyo de
Hg – Mercury
Cu – Copper
Cd – Cadmium
22
 3+ ions
Al – Aluminium. Alto Car
Cr – Chromium.
 1- ions
F – Fluoride
Cl – Chloride
First Class biryani I ate ohh!! No
Br – Bromide
I – Iodide
OH – Hydroxide
NO3 – Nitrate
 2- ions
O – Oxide
S – Sulphide
SO4 – Sulphate Ohh !! Triple S Chhe
SO3 – Sulphite
CO3 – Carbonate
 3+ions
PO4 – Phosphate PaaNi
N – Nitride
****
23
CHAPTER 8
ELEMENTS OF
GROUP 1 AND 2
SCAN ME
24
 Characteristics of Isotopes of Hydrogen:
Name of the Symbol At. No. At. Neutron Abundance Stability

isotope (Z) Mass No. (N)
Hydrogen H or
1
H 1 1 0 99.98% Stable
1
or H-1
Deuterium D or
2
H 1 2 1 0.015% Stable
1
or H-2
Tritium T or
3
H 1 3 2 Trace Radioactive
1
or H-3
 Classification of s-block elements:
S-Block elements
Group 1 (Alkali metals) Group 2 (Alkaline earth metals)

Elements: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr Elements: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
General electronic configuration: ns1 General electronic configuration: ns2
Tricks for elements of Group 1 and Group 2:

Group 1 : LeeNa Ka RibenBelt Kisne Fara
Group 2: Beta Mange Car Scooter Baap Raji
25
 Anomalous properties of beryllium:
Strong lewis acid
Soluble in organic solvent

Be
Beryllium
Form covalent compounds
Forms amphoteric oxide
 Some important compounds of s-block elements:
Chemical Name Common Name Formulae

Sodium carbonate Washing soda Na2CO3.10H2O
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda NaOH
Calcium carbonate Slaked lime CaCO3
Hydrogen peroxide - H2O2
Lithium aluminium hydride - LiAlH4
****
26
CHAPTER 10
STATES OF MATTER
SCAN ME
27
 Units of gas constant (R):
Pressure (P) Volume Number Temperature Gas constant (R)

(V) of moles (T)
(n)
Pa (pascals) m3 mol K 8.314 JK-1 mol-1
atm dm3 mol K 0.0821 atm dm3 K-1mol-1
atm L mol K 0.0821 L atm K-1 mol-1
 Measurable properties of gases:
 Mass:
The mass of a gas is related to the number of moles (n) by the
expression:
mass in grams m
n= molar mass in grams
= M
 Volume:
1 L = 1000 mL= 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 103 L= 106 cm3 = 106 mL
 Pressure:
1 Pa = 1Nm-2 = 1 kg m-1s-2
1 bar = 1.00 × 105 Pa
1 atm = 76 cm of Hg =760 mm of Hg = 760 torr
(as 1 torr = 1 mm Hg)
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 101325 Pa = l.01325 ×105 Nm-2
=1.01325 bar = 14.5 psi
28
 Temperature:
T (K) = t°C+ 273.15
 Density:
m
d = { density se dil = }
V
Molar mass
Vapour density = 2
 Diffusion:
Volume of a gas diffused
Rate of diffusion of a gas = Time reguired for diffusion
 Gas Laws:
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 (at
(constant T and n))
Boyle's law
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
=
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
(constant T and n)
𝒅𝟏 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑻𝟐 at
(constant P and n)
Charle's law
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
(constant P and n)
29
 Gay Lussac's Law :
𝑃1 𝑃2
= (Constant V and n)
𝑇1 𝑇2
 Avogadro's law:
𝑉1 𝑉
= 𝑛2 (Constant P and T)
𝑛1 2
 Ideal Gas Equation:

PV= nRT
Where, P = Pressure of gas,
V = Volume of gas,
n = no. of moles of gas,
R =Gas constant,
T = Absolute temperature of gas.
 Combined Gas Law:

P1 × V1 P2 × V2
=
T1 T2
 Relationship between density (d) and molar mass (M):
dαM
𝑑𝑅𝑇
M=
𝑃
m
Where, d = (density of the gas)
V
P = Pressure of the gas
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temperature in Kelvin
30
 Dalton's law of partial pressure:
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃4 … … ..
Where, 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = total pressure of the gaseous mixture

𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 , … …= Partial pressures of the individual gases in the
mixture.
 Relationship between partial pressure of a gas and its

mole fraction :
𝑃1 = 𝑥1 × 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Where, 𝑃1 = partial pressure of gas 1,

𝑥1 = mole fraction of gas 1 in the gaseous mixture,
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = Total pressure of the gaseous mixture.
 Compressibility factor (Z):

𝑃𝑉
Z = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉
Z = 𝑉 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
 Properties of Liquid State :
The SI unit of viscosity coefficient is Nm-2s and in CGS it is
measured in poise.
1 poise = 1g cm-1s-1 = 10-1 kgm-1s-1
****
31
CHAPTER 11
ADSORPTION AND
COLLOIDS
SCAN ME
32
 Adsorption Isotherm:
The isothermal variation of extent of adsorption with pressure is
𝑥 𝑥 1
= 𝑘𝑃1⁄𝑛 𝑂𝑅 log [ ] = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑃
𝑚 𝑚 𝑛
where, x = Mass of the gas adsorbed
m = Mass of the adsorbent
p = Equilibrium pressure
k and n are constants
 Classification of colloids based on interaction or

affinity of phases:
Colloids
Lyophilic colloids Lyophobic colloids
33
 Classification of colloids based on molecular size:
Colloids
Multimolecular colloids Macromolecular Associated

colloids colloids or
micelles
 Schulze-Hardy rules:
The precipitating or flocculating power of ions

In the coagulation of negative sol: Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+
In the coagulation of positive sol: Cl- < SO42- < PO43-
****
34
CHAPTER 14
BASIC PRINCIPLES
OF ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
SCAN ME
35
 Priority order of functional group:
1. Carboxylic acid 10. Ketone

2. Sulphonic acid 11. Alcohol
3. Acid anhydride 12. Thio alcohol
4. Ester 13. Amine
5. Acyl halide 14. Alkene
6. Amide. 15. Alkyne
7. Cyanide 16. Ether
8. Iso cyanide 17. Alkyl halide
9. Aldehyde 18. Nitro
Kab Se Aayahu Edhar Aur hamari Ammi Sogayi - Isko bhi- sula do (1-8)
Ab KATya Aayega Aur Yne me-Ether milakar-Alkylhalide ke sath Nachega (9-18)
 Functional groups appearing as prefix and suffix:

Functional group Prefix Suffix
-COOH carboxy -oic acid
-COOR alkoxycarbonyl -oate
-COCI chlorocarbonyl - oyl chloride
-CONH2 carbamoyl -amide
-CN cyano -nitrile
-CHO formyl -al
-CO oxo - one
-OH hydroxy -ol
-NH2 amino -amine
36
 Comparison of free radical, carbocation and
carbanion:
Characteristic Free radical Carbocation Carbanion
Nature Neutral species Carbon atom Carbon atom
having with positive with negative
unpaired charge i.e., C+ charge i.e., 𝐶̈
electron
Stability order (CH3)3 𝐶̇ > (CH3)3C+ -
CH3 >
(CH3)2𝐶̇ H > >(CH3)2C+H > CH3CH2C- >
CH3CH2𝐶̇ >𝐶̇ H3 CH3CH2C+ > (CH3)2C-H

C+H3 >(CH3)3C-
 Inductive effect:
Substituents having +I effect Substituents having -I effect
Alkyl groups such as -CH3, - -F, -Cl, -Br, -I, -NO2, -CN, -
CH2CH3, -CH(CH3)2,-C(CH3)3, COOH, -COOR, -OAr, etc.
-C(C2H5)3, etc.
+I species donates electrons. -I species withdraw (gain)
electrons.
37
 Resonance effect:
Substituents having +R effect Substituents having-R effect
Halogen, -OH, -OR, -O-, -NH2, - -COOH, -CHO, - CO-, -CN, -
NHR, -NR2, -NHCOR, -OCOR, NO2,COOR, etc.
etc.
 Types of reagents:
Nucleophiles
Nucleophiles are Lewis bases.
e.g. NH3, H20, Carbanion, R - 𝑁̈H2, R-OH, :OH-, Cl-, CN-

Electrophiles
Electrophiles are Lewis acids e.g. BF3, AlCl3, ZnCl2, NO2+, +NH4
****
38
CHAPTER 15
HYDROCARBONS
SCAN ME
39
 Isomerism:
Chain isomerism
Arises due to the
difference in
Structural carbon chain
Isomerism length.
Isomerism due to
difference in carbon
chain length or Position
position of double isomerism
bond. Arises due to
difference in
position of double
bond in the same
Isomerism in carbon chain.
alkenes
Cis-isomer
Geometrical
Isomerism Contains identical
atoms or groups of
Isomerism due to atoms on the same
the difference in side of double
spatial bond.
arrangement of
atoms group of Trans-isomer
atoms around the Contains identical
doubly bonded atoms or groups of
carbon atom. atoms on the
opposite side of
double bond.
40
 Uses of alkanes:
(i) First four alkanes are used as a fuel mainly for heating and cooking
purpose. For example: LPG and CNG.
(ii) CNG, petrol and diesel are used as fuel for automobiles.
(iii) Lower liquid alkanes are used as solvent.
(iv) Alkanes with more than 35 C atoms (tar) are used for road surfacing.
(v) Waxes are high molecular weight alkanes. They are used as lubricants.
They are also used for the preparation of candles and carbon black that is
used in manufacture of printing ink, shoe polish, etc.
 Some Important Uses of Alkenes:

(i) Alkenes, are used as starting materials for preparation of alkyl halides,
alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids etc.
(ii) Ethene and propene are used to manufacture polythene, polypropylene
those find use in bags, toys, bottles, etc.
(iii) Ethene is used for artificial ripening of fruits, such as mangoes.
 Some Important Uses of Alkynes:

(i) Ethyne (acetylene) is used in preparation of ethanal (acetaldehyde),
propanone (acetone), ethanoic acid (acetic acid).
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of polymers, synthetic rubber, synthetic
fibre, plastic, etc.
(iii) For artificial ripening of fruits.
(iv) In oxy-acetylene (mixture of oxygen and acetylene) flame for welding
and cutting of metals.
41
 Directive influence of substituents (functional
groups) in monosubstituted benzene:
ortho and para - directing groups:
Cl, - Br, - OH, - OCH3, - NH2, - NHR, - CH3, - C2H5, - R, etc.
meta - directing groups:
- NO2, - NH3, -CN, -CHO, -COR,-COOH, -SO3H, etc.
****
42
CLASS 12 TH
MHT - CET
43
CHAPTER 1
SOLID STATES
SCAN ME
44
 Density:
𝑀𝑛
Density (p) =𝑎3 𝑁
𝐴
Where, M = molar mass of substance (g/mol),

n = number of particles in a cubic unit cell,
a = edge length (cm),
Na = Avogadro number (6.022 x 1023 mol-1)
 𝐏𝐚𝐜𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲:
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐩𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥

𝐏𝐚𝐜𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥
 Relationship between radius of atom (r) and edge

length (a):
𝑎
𝑠𝑐: 𝑟 = = 0.5000𝑎
2
√3
𝑏𝑐𝑐: 𝑟 = 𝑎 = 0.4330𝑎
4
√2
𝑓𝑐𝑐: 𝑟 = 𝑎 = 0.3535𝑎
4
45
 Relationship between the nearest neighbour distance
(D) and edge length (a) of a cubic unit cell:
sc: D = edge length = a

1 √3
𝑏𝑐𝑐: 𝐷 = 2 × 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑎
2
1 𝑎
𝑓𝑐𝑐: 𝐷 = 2 × 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 =
√2
 Volume of one particle in unit cell:

sc: 0.5237 a3
bcc: 0.34 a3
fcc: 0.185 a3
 Total volume occupied by particles in unit cell:

sc: 0.5237 a3
bcc: 0.68 a3
fcc: 0.74 a3
𝒙𝒏
 Number of atoms in x g of metal =
ρ𝒂𝟑
𝒙
 Number of unit cells in x g of metal =
ρ𝒂 𝟑
Where, ρ = density,
a3 = volume of unit cell
𝑽
 Number of unit cells in volume (V) of metal =
𝒂𝟑
46
 Conversion factors:
1A0 = 1×10-8 cm = 1 × 10-10 m = 100 pm
1pm = 1×10-10 cm
 Crystal systems:
Crystal systems: - Cubic, Orthorhombic, Tetragonal, Monoclinic,
Rhombohedral, Triclinic, Hexagonal.
Trick: O C T M R T H
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
4 3 2 2 1 1 1
(OCTober me MaRaTHon hogi)
 Total No. of Atoms per Unit Cell:
scc bcc fcc

1 1 1 1
×8=1 ×8 +1=2 ×8+ ×6=4
8 8 8 2
47
 Coordination Number and Packing Efficiency:
Type Simple bcc fcc/ccp/hcp

cubic
Coordination 6 8 12
number
Packing 52.4 % 68 % 74
efficiency
 Number of tetrahedral voids - 2 × No. of atoms

 Number of octahedral voids - No. of atoms
****
48
CHAPTER 2
SOLUTIONS
SCAN ME
49
 Henry’s law:
S = KHP
Where,
S = solubility,
P = pressure of the gas
KH = Henry's constant
 Raoult's law:
For a binary solution of two volatile components:
P1 = P10x1
P2 = P20x2
 Dalton's law of partial pressures:

P = P1 + P2
OR
P = P10x1 + P20x2
Where, P is the total pressure of solution.
 Partial pressures in vapour phase (Composition of

vapour phase): P1 = y1P
P2 = y2P
Where, y1 and y2 as the mole fractions of two components in the vapour.
P1 and P2 are the partial pressures of two components in the vapour.
P is the total vapour pressure.
50
 For a solution containing a non-volatile solute:
P1 = P10x1
Where, P1 = is the vapour pressure of the solution,
P10 = is the vapour pressure of pure solvent
x1 = is its mole fraction in solution.
 Relative lowering of vapour pressure:

ΔP P10 − P1
=
P10 P10
Where, P10 = vapour pressure of pure solvent
P1 = vapour pressure of solution
 Molecular mass determination from lowering of

vapour pressure:
ΔP P10 − P1 n2
0 = x 2 = 0 =
P1 P1 n1 + n2
Where, P10 = Vapour pressure of pure solvent

P1 = Vapour pressure of solution
x2 = Mole fraction of solute
n1 = Moles of solvent
n2 = Moles of solute
51
𝑊2 𝑊1
𝑛2 = 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑛1 =
𝑀2 𝑀1
Where, W2 = Mass of solute,
W1 = Mass of solvent.
M2 = Molar mass of solute,
M1 = Molar mass of solvent
 Relative lowering of vapour pressure:

P01 −P1 ΔP 𝑊2 𝑀1
= = ×
P01 P01 𝑀2 𝑊1
 Elevation of boiling point:

ΔTb = Tb - Tb0
Where, ΔTb = Elevation in boiling point,
Tb = Boiling point of solution,
Tb0= Boiling point of pure solvent.
ΔTb = Kb × m
Where, m = Molality of solution
Kb = boiling point elevation constant
1000 Kb W2
ΔTb =
M 2 W1
Where, ΔTb = Elevation in boiling point,

Kb = Molal elevation constant,
W1 = Mass of solvent,
52
W2 = Mass of solute,
M2 = Molar mass of solute
 Depression of freezing point:

ΔTf = Tf0 – Tf
Where, ΔTf = Depression in freezing point,
Tf = Freezing point of solution,
Tf0= Freezing point of pure solvent.
ΔTf = Kfm
Where, m = Molality of solution
Kf = Freezing point elevation constant
1000 Kf W2
ΔTf =
M 2 W1
Where, ΔTf = Depression in freezing point.

Kf = Molal depression constant,
W1 = Mass of solvent,
W2 = Mass of solute,
M2 = Molar mass of solute
53
 Modified equations for colligative properties by
inclusion of van't Hoff factor:
𝑊2 𝑀1
ΔP = i P10x2 = i ×
𝑀2 𝑊1
1000 Kb W2
ΔTb = Kbm = i
M2 W1
1000 Kf W2
ΔTf = Kf m = i
M 2 W1
RT W2
Π = iMRT = i
M2 V
 Degree of dissociation (α):

i−1
𝛂=
n−1
Where, α = Degree of dissociation
i = van't Hoff factor,
n = Moles of ions obtained from dissociation of l mole of electrolyte
 Different Types of Solutions:

Gaseous solution:
i. Gas in gas e.g. air.
ii. Liquid in gas e.g. CHCl3 mixed with N2 gas
iii. Solid in gas. e.g. fumes, smoke
54
Liquid Solution:
i. Gas in liquid e.g. CO2 in water
ii. Liquid in liquid e.g. Alcohol in water
iii. Solid in liquid e.g. NaCl or sugar in water
Solid Solution:
i. Gas in Solid e.g. H2 gas in palladium metal
ii. Liquid in solid e.g. sodium amalgam
iii. Solid in solid e.g. Metal alloys such as brass, bronze
Isotonic Solutions: The solutions having same osmotic pressure

are called isotonic solutions.
Π1 = M1RT, Π2 = M2RT
Since, Π1 = Π2, M1 = M2
𝑛1 𝑛2
=
𝑉1 𝑉2
If the solutes are present in equal volumes of the solutions, then
V1 = V2, n1 = n2
Hypotonic Solution: Among two solutions, one having a lower
osmotic pressure is said to be hypotonic to another. Hence if
concentrations are M1 and M2 then, M1 < M2 or n1 < n2.
Hypertonic Solution: Among two solutions, one having higher
osmotic pressures is said to be hypertonic to another.
Hence, M1 > M2 or n1 > n2.
55
 Osmotic Pressure and Concentration of Solution:
Π = MRT
Where, M= Molarity
𝑛 RT W2
Π = RT =
𝑉 M2 V
Where, W2= Mass of solute, M2 = Molar mass of solute
****
56
CHAPTER 3
IONIC
EQUALIBRIA
SCAN ME
57
 Degree of dissociation (∝):
Number of moles dissociated
∝=
Number of moles dissociated
 Ostwald's dilution law:
1
∝ ∝
√C
OR
∝ ∝ √V
Where, c = Concentration in mol dm-3
V = Volume in dm3
 Acid dissociation constant (K):

[H+ ][A− ]
For weak acid HA, 𝐾𝑎 =
[HA]
Ka = ∝2 /𝑉 and Ka = ∝2 𝑐
 Base dissociation constant (Kb):
[B+ ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
For weak base B0H, Kb =
[BOH]
Kb = ∝2 /𝑉 and Kb = ∝2 𝑐
 Ionic product of water (Kw):
Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-14
58
 pH of solution:
pH = -log10[H3O+]
 pOH of solution:
pOH = -log10[OH-]
 Relation between pH and pOH:
pH + pOH = 14
 Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Acidic buffer:
[salt]
pH = pKa + log10
[acid]
pKa = - log10 pKa

Basic buffer:
[salt]
pOH = pKb + log10
[base]
pKb = - log10 pKb

 Solubility product (Ksp):
For salt BxAy:
Ksp = [B y+ ]𝑥 [𝐴𝑥− ]𝑦
 Molar solubility, S (mol/L):
Solubility in g/L
𝑆 =
Molar mass in g/mol
59
 Relation between Ksp and S:
Ksp = x x y y Sx+y
 Strong acid:
HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
 Strong base:
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
 Weak acid:
HF, CH3COOH, H2CO3, HCN
 Weak base:
NH4OH, Cu(OH)2
****
60
CHAPTER 4
CHEMICAL
THERMODYNAMICS
SCAN ME
61
 Pressure-volume work:
W= -Pext
ΔV = - Pext (V2 - V 1)
Where, W= Work done,
Pext = External pressure
ΔV = V2 - V1
V2 = Final volume
V1 = Initial volume
 Maximum work done isothermal expansion:

𝑉2
Wmax = -2.303nRT log10
𝑉1
𝑃2
= -2.303nRT log10
𝑃1
Where, Wmax = Maximum work done,

R = Gas constant,
n = Number of moles
V2 and V1 = Final and initial volume respectively,
P2 and P1 = Final and initial pressure respectively.
 Internal energy:
ΔU = U2 - U1
Where, U1 and U2 are internal energies of initial and final states,
respectively.
62
 First law of thermodynamics:
ΔU = Q + W
 For an isothermal process:
ΔU = 0, ΔT = 0, Q ≠ 0
Temperature is constant; Q = - W
Exchange of heat is possible with the surroundings.
 Sign conventions:
Quantity Sign When applicable

W - Work done by the
system (expansion)
W + Work done on the
system
(compression)
Q + Heat absorbed by
the system
Q - Heat given out by
the system
ΔU + Energy absorbed by
the system
ΔU - Energy given out by
the system
63
 For an adiabatic process:
ΔU ≠ 0, ΔT ≠ 0, Q = 0 and ΔU = W
Exchange of heat with surroundings is not possible.
 For an isochoric process:
ΔV = 0, QV = ΔU
 For an isobaric process (constant pressure):
Q = ΔH = ΔU + Pext ΔV = ΔU+ PΔV = ΔU – W
 Enthalpy (H):
Change in enthalpy is given by,

ΔH = ΔU+ PΔV
For a gaseous reaction or reaction involving at least one gas component
ΔH = ΔU + Δn RT
Where, Δng = number of moles of gaseous products - number of moles of
gaseous reactants
 Work done in chemical reaction:

W = -ΔngRT
 Enthalpy of sublimation (ΔsubH):

ΔsubH = ΔfusH + ΔvapH
Where, ΔfusH = Enthalpy of fusion,
ΔvapH = Enthalpy of vapourization
64
 Enthalpy of solution:
ΔsolnH = ΔLH + ΔhydH
Where, ΔLH = Crystal lattice enthalpy,
ΔhydH = Enthalpy of hydration
 Enthalpy of chemical reaction:

ΔrH° = ∑ H (products) - ∑ H (reactants)
Where, ∑ H (products) = Sum of enthalpies of products
∑ H (reactants) = Sum of enthalpies of reactants
 Standard enthalpy of reaction from standard enthalpies

of formation:
ΔrH° = ∑ ΔfH° (products) - ∑ ΔfH° (reactants)
Where, ∑ ΔfH° (products) = Sum of standard enthalpies of formation of
products
∑ ΔfH° (reactants) = Sum of standard enthalpies of formation of
reactants
 Bond enthalpy and enthalpy of reaction:
ΔrH° = ∑ ΔH° (reactants) - ∑ ΔH° (products)

Where, ∑ ΔH° (products) = Sum of standard bond enthalpies of products
∑ ΔH° (reactants) = Sum of standard bond enthalpies of reactants
65
 Entropy:
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣
ΔS =
𝑇
Where, Qrev = The amount of heat transferred to system at temperature (T)

Kelvin.
 Second law of thermodynamics:

ΔStotal = ΔSsys + ΔSsurr > 0
For the process to be spontaneous,
Where, ΔStotal = Total entropy,
ΔSsys =Entropy of system
ΔSsurr = Entropy of surroundings.
 Gibbs energy:
G=H–TS
Change in Gibbs energy is given as,
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
Gibbs energy change for a chemical reaction is given as,
ΔG = ΔG° - RT ln Q
Where, G = Gibbs energy,
ΔG = Gibbs energy change,
ΔG° = Standard Gibbs energy change,
H = Enthalpy,
ΔH = Enthalpy change of the system,
S = = Entropy,
66
ΔS = = Entropy change of the system,
Q = Reaction quotient
 Relation between standard Gibbs energy and equilibrium

constant:
Δ G° = - 2.303 RT log1o Kc
OR
Δ G° = - 2.303 RT log1o KP
Where, Kc = KP = Equilibrium constant,
R = Gas constant,
 Hess’s law of constant Heat summation:
Δ H= Δ H1 + Δ H2 + Δ H3
****
67
CHAPTER 5
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
SCAN ME
68
 Electric conductance (G):
1
𝐺 =
R
Where, R= resistance
 Resistivity (ρ):
l
R=ρ
a
Where,
l = distance between the electrodes,
a = area of cross section of the electrode.
 Conductivity (k):
l 1 l
k=G =
a R a
 Molar conductivity (^):

1000k
^=k𝑉=
c
Where, k = conductivity,
V = volume of the solution in cm3
c = concentration of the solution in mol L-1
69
 Kohlrausch's law:
^0 =n + λ°+ + n - λ°−
Where,
^0 = molar conductivity at concentration or at infinite dilution,

λ°+ = molar conductivity of cation
λ°− = molar conductivity of anion.
 Degree of dissociation (α):

^𝑐
α=
^°
Where,
^𝑐 = Molar conductivity,
^° = Limiting molar conductivity
 Dissociation constant (K):
^2𝑐 𝑐
K=
^° (^° −^𝑐 )
 Cell constant:
l
Cell constant =
a
70
 Electrochemical cell:
Type Energy change Anode Cathode
Electrolytic Electrical energy→ + -
cell chemical energy
Galvanic cell Chemical energy → - +
(voltaic)
Electrical energy
 Quantitative aspect of electrolysis:
 Quantity of electricity passed:
Q = It
Where, Q = quantity of electricity,
I= quantity of electric current and
t= time
 Number of electrons passed in moles:
Q(C)
Number of electrons actually passed =
96500(𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 − )
Where, 96500 is the charge of one mole electron.

 Number of moles of product formed:
Number of moles of the product formed = number of moles of electrons
actually passed × mole ratio.
moles of product formed in half reaction
Where, mole ratio =
moles of electrons required in half reaction
71
 Mass of product formed:
I(A)×𝑡(𝑠)
Moles of the substance produced = × mole ratio
96500(𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 − )
I(A)×𝑡(𝑠)
Mass of the substance produced = × mole ratio × molar
96500(𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 − )
mass of the substance
 Suppose two cells containing different electrolytes are

connected in series and the same quantity of electricity is
passed through them then the masses of the substance liberated
at the electrodes of the two cells are related as :
𝑊1 𝑊2
=
(mole ratio)1 × 𝑀1 (mole ratio)2 × 𝑀2
 Emf of a cell:
0 0 0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐸𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
0
Where, 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = Standard cell potential,
0
𝐸𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = Standard potential of anode,
0
𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 = Standard potential of cathode.
 Nernst equation:
2.303nRT [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠]
E = E0 - log10
𝑛𝐹 [𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
72
Where,
E0 = Standard potential of electrode or cell,
n = Number of moles of electrons used in reaction,
F = Faraday = 96500 C/mole,
[Products] = Concentration of products,
[Reactants] = Concentration of reactants,
T = temperature in K
R = gas constant = 8.314 JK-1 mol-1
At 25 °C, the Nernst equation becomes
0.0592 [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠]
E = E0 - log10
𝑛 [𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
 Cell potential and Gibbs energy changes for cell

reaction:
0
Δ G° = - nF𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
Where, Δ G° = standard Gibb's energy change,
n = number of electrons gain or lost
E0 = standard electrode potential
 Thermodynamics of Galvanic cells:
Δ G= - RT ln K (K= Equilibrium constant)
 Standard cell potential and equilibrium constant:
0 0.0592
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = log10 𝐾
𝑛
Where, K= equilibrium constant
****
73
CHAPTER 6
CHEMICAL
KINETICS
SCAN ME
74
 Average rate of reaction:
Total change in concentration of a species
𝑟𝑎𝑣 =
Time taken for the change
Δc
=
Δt
 For the reaction, aA + bB cC + dD :
Instantaneous rate of reaction
1 d[A]
=−
a dt
1 d[B]
=−
b dt
1 d[C]
=+
c dt
1 d[D]
=+
d dt
d[A]
Rate of disappearance of A = − dt
d[B]
Rate of disappearance of B = − dt
d[C]
Rate of formation of C = + dt
d[D]
Rate of formation of D = + dt
75
 Differential rate law:
Rate of the reaction = k [A]x [B]y
Where, x and y are experimentally determined exponents of concentrations
on which the rate of reaction depends.
Order of reaction = x + y
 Integrated rate law:
[𝐴]0 − [𝐴]𝑡
For zero order reaction: 𝐾 = t
[𝐴]
For first order reaction: K = 2.303log10 [𝐴]0
𝑡
a
= 2.303log10 a−x
Where, [𝐴]0 = a = Initial concentration of the reactants
[𝐴]𝑡 = (a - x) = Concentration of reactants at time t,
k= Rate constant,
t = time
 The units of k will be mol dm-3 t-1 [Zero order reaction]
 The units of k will be s-1, min-1 or (hour)-1 [First order
reaction]
 Half-life period:
[𝐴]0
For zero order reaction t 1⁄2 = 2𝑘
0.693
For first order reaction t1⁄2= 𝑘
 The half-life of the zero order reaction is proportional to the
initial concentration of reactant.
 The half-life of the first order reaction is independent to the
initial concentration of reactant.
76
 Arrhenius equation:
−𝐸𝑎⁄ 𝐸
k= 𝐴𝑒 𝑅𝑇 or log10 k= log10 A - 2.303𝑎 𝑅𝑇
Where k = Rate constant,
A = Frequency factor or pre-exponential factor,
Ea = Activation energy,
R=Gas constant = 8.314 JK-1 mol-1
 The fraction of successful collisions:

−𝐸𝑎
f = 𝑒 ⁄𝑅𝑇
Where, f = fraction of successful collisions
 Temperature dependence of reaction rates:

For two different temperatures T1 and T2.
𝐾2 𝐸𝑎 1 1
log10 = [ − ]
𝐾1 2.303 𝑅𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
Where, k1 and k2 are rate constants at temperatures T1 and T2

respectively.
****
77
CHAPTER 7
ELEMENTS
OF GROUP
16, 17 & 18
SCAN ME
78
 Elements of groups 16, 17 and 18:
ELEMENTS OF
GROUPS 16, 17
AND 18
Group 16 Group 18 (Noble gases)

(Chalcogens) Group 17 (Halogens)
Elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr,
Elements: 0, S, Se, Elements: F, Cl, Br, I, Xe, Rn
Te, Po At
Trick:
Group 16: Ohh!! Style Se Table Polish
Group 17: First Class Biryani I Ate
Group 18: HeeNa Aur Kareena ki X-ray Rangin
 Valence shell electronic configuration:
Valence shell
electronic
configuration
Group 16 Group 17 Group 18

ns2 np4 ns2 np5 ns2 np6
79
 Oxidation state:
Group 16 Group 17 Group 18
Group Oxidation
-2 -1 0
State
ddd ddd ddd

Common Oxidation -2, +2, + 4, -1, +3, +5, +4, +6 (in
state: +6 +7 xenon)
Allotropes: O: O2, O3
ddd ddd ddd ddd
S: rhombic, monoclinic
Se: red, grey
Te: crystalline, amorphous
Po: α, β (both metallic)
 Properties of hydrides:
Properties of hydrides
Group 16 Group 17
Acidic character: H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te Acidic strength:HF < HCl < HBr < HI
Thermal stability: H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te Thermal stability:HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Bond energy: H-O > H-S > H-Se > H-Te Bond energy:HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Reducing property: H2S < H2Se < H2Te
80
 Types of oxides:
Types of oxides
Acidic
Basic Amphoteric Neutral
SO2, SO3, CO2,
Na2O, CaO, BaO Al2O3 CO, NO, N2O
N2O5, Cl2O7
 Oxoacids of Sulphur:
i. Sulphurous acid – H2SO3
ii. Sulphuric acid – H2SO4
iii. Di or pyrosulphuric acid – H2S2O7
iv. Peroxy monosulphuric acid – H2S05
v. Peroxy disulphuric acid – H2S2O8
vi. Thiosulphuric acid – H2S2O3
 Oxoacids of chlorine:
Oxoacids of chlorine
HOCl HClO2 HClO3 HClO4

Hypochlorous acid Chlorous acid Chloric acid Perchloric acid
81
 Interhalogen Compounds:
Interhalogen
compounds
XX'(ICl)
XX'3(BrF3)
Structure: XX'5(IF5) XX'7(IF7)
trigonal
linear square pentagonal
bipyramidal
pyramidal bipyramidal
(or T-shaped)
 Oxidation states of central halogen atom in

interhalogen compounds
O.S. No. of lone pairs of Examples
central electrons
Halogen
+7 0 IF7
+5 1 ClF5, BrF5, IF5
+3 2 ClF3, BrF3, IF3, I2Cl6
+1 3 ClF, BrF, IF, BrCl, ICl, IBr
****
82
CHAPTER 8
TRANSITION AND
INNER TRANSITION
ELEMENTS
SCAN ME
83
 Electronic Configuration Trick:
1s2 2p6 3d10 4f14
L←R
1s -
2s -
3s 2p -
4s 3p -
5s 4p 3d -
6s 5p 4p -
7s 6p 5d 4f
8s 7p 6d 5f
 d and f-Block elements:
d-block elements Transition elements

(group 3 to 12)
Third transition Fourth transition

First transition Second transition
(5d) series (6d) series
(3d) series (4d) series
elements (period elements (period
elements (period elements (period
6) 7)
4) 5)
[La(Z = 57) to [Ac(Z = 89) to
[Sc(Z = 21) to [Y(Z = 39) to
Hf(Z = 72) to Rf(Z = 104) to
Zn(Z = 30)] Cd(Z = 48)]
Hg(Z = 80)] Cn(Z = 112)]
84
 f-block elements Inner Transition elements:
f-block elements Inner

Transition elements
Lanthanoids Actinoids
(First inner transition (Second inner transition series
series elements) elements)
(group 3 and period 6) (group 3 and period 7)
[Ce(Z = 58) to Lu (Z=71)] [Th(Z = 90) to Lr (Z= 103)]
 Electronic Configuration of 3d-Series:
Element Symbol Atomic Electronic Oxidation no.
No. Configuration
Scandium Sc 21 [Ar]3d14s2 +2, +3

Titanium Ti 22 [Ar]3d24s2 +2, +3, +4
Vanadium V 23 [Ar]3d34s2 +2, +3, +4, +5
Chromium Cr 24 [Ar]3d54s1 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6
Manganese Mn 25 [Ar]3d54s2 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7
Iron Fe 26 [Ar]3d64s2 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6
Cobalt Co 27 [Ar]3d74s2 +2, +3, +4, +5
Nickel Ni 28 [Ar]3d84s2 +2, +3, +4
Copper Cu 29 [Ar]3d104s1 +1, +2
Zinc Zn 30 [Ar]3d104s2 +2
Trick: Science Teacher Very Crazy Man FeCoNi Kyo Zee

85
 Electronic configuration of lanthanoids:
General electronic configuration of lanthanoids is [Xe] 4f0-14 5d0-2 6s2.
(Atomic number of Xe = 54)
Element Symbol Atomic Expected Electronic Observed

number Configuration Electronic
Configuration
Lanthanum La 57 [Xe] 4f0 5d1 6s2 [Xe] 4f0 5d1 6s2
Cerium Ce 58 [Xe] 4f2 6s2 [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2
Praseodymium Pr 59 [Xe] 4f3 6s2 [Xe] 4f3 6s2
Neodymium Nd 60 [Xe] 4f4 6s2 [Xe] 4f4 6s2
Promethium Pm 61 [Xe] 4f5 6s2 [Xe] 4f5 6s2
Samarium Sm 61 [Xe] 4f6 6s2 [Xe] 4f6 6s2
Europium Eu 63 [Xe] 4f7 6s2 [Xe] 4f7 6s2
Gadolinium Gd 64 [Xe] 4f8 6s2 [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2
Terbium Tb 65 [Xe] 4f9 6s2 [Xe] 4f9 6s2
Dysprosium Dy 66 [Xe] 4f10 6s2 [Xe] 4f10 6s2
Holmium Ho 67 [Xe] 4f11 6s2 [Xe] 4f11 6s2
Erbium Er 68 [Xe] 4f12 6s2 [Xe] 4f12 6s2
Thulium Tm 69 [Xe] 4f13 6s2 [Xe] 4f13 6s2
Ytterbium Yb 70 [Xe] 4f14 6s2 [Xe] 4f14 6s2
Lutetium Lu 71 [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2 [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2
Trick: Lal Chunariya Pahanake Naachi Pyari Sonam Eae Gauri Tera
Dahej Hai Etna Tum Ye Lo
86
 Electronic configuration of actinoids:
General electronic configuration of actinoids is [Rn] 5f0-14 6d0-2 7s2.
(Atomic number of Rn = 86)
Element Symbol Atomic number Observed electronic

configuration
Actinium Ac 89 [Rn] 5f0 6d1 7s2
Thorium Th 90 [Rn] 5f0 6d2 7s2
Protactinium Pa 91 [Rn] 5f2 6d1 7s2
Uranium U 92 [Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2
Neptunium Np 93 [Rn] 5f4 6d1 7s2
Plutonium Pu 94 [Rn] 5f6 6d0 7s2
Americium Am 95 [Rn] 5f7 6d0 7s2
Curium Cm 96 [Rn] 5f7 6d1 7s2
Berkelium Bk 97 [Rn] 5f9 6d0 7s2
Californium Cf 98 [Rn] 5f10 6d0 7s2
Einsteinium Es 99 [Rn] 5f11 6d0 7s2
Fermium Fm 100 [Rn] 5f12 6d0 7s2
Mendelevium Md 101 [Rn] 5f13 6d0 7s2
Nobelium No 102 [Rn] 5f14 6d0 7s2
Lawrencium Lr 103 [Rn] 5f14 6d1 7s2
Trick: Arre Thoda Poem Unhe sunatehai - Nayi Purani Apni Car Bekar Kyo Esse
Faltu Me Nazar Lagate hai
87
 Spin-only formula for magnetic moment:
 = √𝑛(𝑛 + 2) BM
Where, n = no. of unpaired electrons
 Minerals and ores of some transition metals:
Metals Mineral Ore

Iron Haematite: Fe2O3 Haematite
Magnetite: Fe3O4
Limonite: 2Fe2O3, 3H2O
Iron pyrites: FeS2
Siderite: FeCO3
Copper Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2 Chalcopyrite
Chalcocite: Cu2S Chalcocite
Cuprite: Cu2O
Zinc Zinc blende: ZnS
Zincite: ZnO
Calamine: ZnCO3
****
88
CHAPTER 9
COORDINATION
COMPOUNDS
SCAN ME
89
 Names of common ligands in coordination
compounds:
Anionic IUPAC Anionic ligand IUPAC name

ligand name
Br-,Bromide Bromo CO32-,Carbonate Carbonato
Cl-, Chloride Chloro OH-, Hydroxide Hydroxo
F-, Fluoride Fluoro C2O42-, Oxalate Oxalato
I-, Iodide Iodo NO2- Nitrite Nitro (For N -
bonded ligand)
CN-, Cyanide Cyano ONO-, Nitrite Nitrito(For O-bonded
ligand)
SO42-, Sulphato SCN-, Thiocyanate Thiocyanato (For
Sulphate ligand donor atom S)
NO3-. Nitro Nitrato NCS-, Thiocyanate Isothiocyanato (For
ligand donor atom N)
90
 Names of neutral ligands in coordination
compounds
 Neutral IUPAC Neutral ligand IUPAC name

ligand name
NH3, Ammonia Ammine H2O, water Aqua
CO, Carbonyl en, Ethylene Ethylenediamine
Carbon diamine
monoxide
 IUPAC names of metals in anionic complexes

Metal IUPAC name Metal IUPAC name
Aluminium, Al Aluminate Chromium, Cr Chromate
Cobalt, Co Cobaltate Copper, Cu Cuprate
Gold, Au Aurate Iron, Fe Ferrate
Manganese, Mn Maganate Nickel, Ni Nickelate
Platinum, Pt Platinate Zinc, Zn Zincate
91
Rule: (IUPAC Nomenclature)
Cation (L.H.S) + Ligand with prefix + Central metal atom with
oxidation no. (Roman) + Anion (R.H.S)
 If coordination compound is Anionic Metals name should
be changed
 It ligands are-
en (ethylene diamine)
EDTA (ethylene diamine tetraacetate)
 2 – bis
 3 - tris
 4 – tetrakis
 Irving William order of stability:

For same ligands, the stability of complexes formed by M2+ ions follows
the order:
Cu2+ > Ni2+ > Co2+ > Fe2+ > Mn2+ > Cd2+
 Spectrochemical series: Increasing order of ligand

field:
I- < Br- < Cl- < S2- < F- < OH- < C2O42- < H2O < NCS- < EDTA < NH3 < en
< CN- < CO
92
 Effective atomic number (EAN):
EAN = Z – X + Y
Where,
Z = Atomic number of metal
X = Number of electrons lost by metal to form the ion
Y = Number of electrons donated by ligands
 High spin ligands (do not get paired):

F, Cl, Br, I, SCN, C2O4
 Low spin ligands (get paired):

CN, NC, CO, NH3, EDTA
 Types of hybridization
Types of hybridization Geometry
sp hybridisation Linear
sp2 hybridisation Triangular
sp3 hybridisation Tetrahedral
dsp2 hybridisation Square planar
dsp3 hybridisation Trigonal bipyramidal
d2sp2 hybridisation Octahedral
d3sp3 hybridisation Pentagonal bipyramidal
****
93
CHAPTER - 10
HALOGEN
DERIVATIVES
SCAN ME
94
 Preparation:
1] From alcohols:
HCl (Anhyd. ZnCl2)
A] From HX HBr (NaBr + H2SO4)
HI (NaI / H3PO4)
Anhydrous ZnCl2 + Conc. HCl = Lucas reagent
PCl3
B] From PX3 PBr3 (P+Br2)
PI3 (P + I2)
C] From PCl5
D] From SOCl2 (Using Pyridine) / Darzen Method
2] From hydrocarbon:
Chlorination
[u. v. light]
A] From alkanes
Bromination
95
B] From alkenes
Symmetrical alkene → HX
Markwonikoff’s Rule
Unsymmetrical alkene
Anti-Markwonikoff’s Rule
[Only for HBr]
3] From halogen exchange:
A] Finkelstein reaction [NaI / dry acetone]
B] Swarts reaction [Using AgF, Hg2F2, AsF3, SbF3]
For Haloarenes:
HCl / CuCl
1] Sandmeyer’s reaction
Diazonium
salt
HBr / CuBr
2] Electrophilic substitution : Bromination of toluene [Fe/dark]
 Chemical reaction of haloalkane:

1] Nucleophilic substitution
A] Action of aq. KOH/ NaOH (Formation of alcohol)
B] Action of moist Ag2O (AgOH) (Formation of alcohol)
C] Action of alc. KCN (Formation of alkyl cyanide)
D] Action of alc. AgCN (Formation of alkyl isocyanide)
E] Action of ammonia (Formation of primary amine)
96
F] Action of sodium alkoxide(Williamson's synthesis)/(Formation of ether)
G] Action of silver nitrite [Ag−O−N=O] (Formation of R−NO2)
H] Action of potassium nitrile [K−O−N=0] (Formation of R−O−N=0)
2] By Dehydrohalogenation reaction
Action of alc. KOH (Formation of alkene)
3] By Wurtz-coupling reaction [Action of sodium metal]
Formation of higher alkane / dry ether
4] Action of magnesium metal
Formation of Grignard reagent / Formation of alkane

 Chemical reaction of Haloarenes:
i] Wurtz-Fittig reaction (Formation of alkyl benzene)
i] Halogenation (in presence of anhydrous FeCl3)
ii] Nitration (Conc. H2SO4)
iii] Sulphonation
iv] Friedel - Craft reaction
Alkylation Acylation
Anhyd. AlCl3 Anhyd. AlCl3
****
97
CHAPTER 11
ALCOHOLS,
PHENOLS AND
ETHERS
SCAN ME
98
 Preparation of Alcohols:
1] From alkyl halide
A] Action of aq. KOH / NaOH
B] Action of AgOH (Moist Ag2O)
2] By acid – Catalyst hydration (From alkene)
3] By hydroboration – oxidation (From alkene)
4] From carbonyl compound [By reduction]
 Using aldehyde & ketone
 Hydrogenation using nickel
 Reduction using LiAlH4
 From Carboxylic acid (using LiAlH4)
 From ester (Hydrogenation using Ni)
5] From Grignard reagent:
Aldehyde (Formaldehyde) + G.R → 1o alcohol
Aldehyde (other than formaldehyde) + G.R. → 2o alcohol
Ketone + G.R. → 3o alcohol
99
 Chemical reaction of Alcohol:
1] Esterification
A] Using carboxylic acid
B] Using acyl chloride
C] Using acid – anhydride.
2] Action of HX
3] Action of PX3
4] Action of PCl5
5] Action of SOCl2
6] Dehydration of alcohol (Formation of alkene)
A] Using Conc. H2SO4
B] Using Al2O3
7] Oxidation
A] By using 1o alcohol (PCC) (Formation of aldehyde)
B] By using 2o alcohol (K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4) (Formation of ketone)
8] Oxidation / Dehydrogenation (by using Cu powder)
100
 Preparation of Phenol:
1] From Chlorobenzene (Dow process)
2] From Cumene (Commercial method)
3] From Benzene sulfonic acid
4] From Aniline (Diazotization)
 Chemical reaction of Phenol:

1] Bromination
A] By using Br2 / H2O (Formation of 2, 4, 6, - Tribromophenol)
B] By using Br2 / CS2 (Formation of o & p – bromophenol)
2] Nitration
A] By using dilute HNO3 (o & p – nitrophenol)
B] By using conc. HNO3 (2, 4, 6 – trinitrophenol / picric acid)
3] Sulfonation
A] At room temperature (o – hydroxy benzene sulfonic acid)
B] At 373k (p – Hydroxy benzene sulfonic acid)
4] Riemer – Tiemann reaction (Formation of Salicylaldehyde)
5] Kolbe’s reaction (Formation of Salicylic acid)
101
6] Oxidation of phenol (Na2Cr2O7 / H2SO4) (Formation of Benzoquinone)
7] Hydrogenation of Phenol (Formation of Cyclohexane)
8] Action of zinc (Formation of Benzene)
 Preparation of Ethers:
1] From alcohol (By dehydration of alcohol)
2] From Williamson’s synthesis
 Chemical reaction of Ethers:

1] Oxidation of Ether (Formation of peroxide of ether)
2] Action of PCl5 (Formation of Alkyl chloride)
3] Reaction with hot conc. HI
4] By hydrolysis of ether (Formation of Alcohol)
 Electrophilic substitution in aromatic ether
5] Bromination (Using CH3COOH)
6] Fridel – Craft reaction.
A) Fridel – Craft alkylation. (Anhyd.AlCl3)
B) Fridel – Craft acylation. (Anhyd.AlCl3)
7] Nitration (Using conc. H2SO4)
****
102
CHAPTER 12
ALDEHYDES,
KETONES AND
CARBOXYLIC
ACIDS
SCAN ME
103
 Preparation of aldehyde & ketone:
1] From Alcohol (By Oxidation)
PCC
1o alcohol → aldehyde
𝐾 𝐶𝑟 𝑂
2o alcohol 𝑑𝑖𝑙.𝐻
2 2 7
ketone
2𝑆𝑂 4
2] By Dehydrogenation of alcohols:
𝐶𝑢
1o alcohol 573𝑘 aldehyde
𝐶𝑢
2o alcohol 573𝑘 ketone.
3] From Unsaturated hydrocarbons:

A] Ozonolysis of alkene
B] Hydration of alkyne
4] From Acyl chloride
A] Rosenmund reduction (Pd/BaSO4) / Formation of Aldehyde
B] Action of Grignard reagent (CdCl2) / Formation of Ketone
5] From Alkyl cyanide
A] Stephen reduction [SnCl2/HCl]
Formation of Aldehyde
B] Reduction using DIBAl-H
C] Using Grignard reagent / Formation of Ketone
104
6] From Aromatic hydrocarbon:
A] Etard reaction (Using Chromyl Chloride)
B] Oxidation of toluene (Using acid anhydride)
C] Side Chlorination of toluene (Commercial method to prepare
benzaldehyde)
D] Gatterman - Koch formylation reaction.
E] Friedel – Craft Acylation / Formation of Ketone
7] Reduction of ester [using DIBAI – H]
 Chemical reaction of aldehydes & ketones:

1] Nucleophilic addition
A] Addition of HCN (Formation of cyanohydrin)
B] Addition of NaHSO3
C] Addition of alcohol (Formation of acetal / ketal)
D] Addition of Grignard reagent (Formation of alcohol)
E] Addition of derivatives of ammonia:
i]Addition of hydroxyl amine (Formation of oxime)
ii] Addition of hydrazine (Formation of hydrazone)
iii] Addition of phenyl hydrazine (Formation of phenyl
hydrazone)
iv] Addition of 2,4 – Dinitrophenyl hydrazine
(Formation of 2,4 – Dinitrophenyl hydrazone)
v] Addition of semicarbazide (Formation of Semicarbazone)
105
F] Haloform reaction (NaOX / NaOH+X2)
G] Aldol Condensation (Formation of α,β – unsaturated
aldehyde/ketone)
H] Cannizzaro’s reaction (Disproportionation reaction)
2] Oxidation
A] Oxidation of aldehyde using K2Cr2O7
B] Oxidation of ketone using CrO3
3] Reduction
A] Clemmensen reduction (Zn-Hg / HCl) (Formation of alkane)

B] Wolf – Kishner reduction (Using hydrazine) / Formation of alkane
4] Electrophilic substitution
A] Nitration of benzaldehyde (Using conc. H2SO4)/ Formation of
m-nitrobenzaldehyde
 Trick For Common Name of Carboxylic Acid
HOOC-COOH – oxalic acid
HOOC-CH2-COOH – malonic acid
HOOC-CH2- CH2-COOH – succinic acid
HOOC-CH2- CH2- CH2-COOH – glutaric acid
HOOC-CH2- CH2- CH2- CH2-COOH – adipic acid
Trick : O Mere Sanam G Aao
106
 Preparation of carboxylic acid:
1] From Alkyl Cyanide (By hydrolysis)
2] From Amide (By hydrolysis)
3] By Acyl chloride [By hydrolysis]
4] By Acid anhydride [By hydrolysis]
5] From Ester
A] Using acid hydrolysis
B] Using alkaline hydrolysis (Saponification)
6] From Aromatic hydrocarbon. (By Oxidation) [Using KOH / KMnO4]

7] From Alkene [Using H2SO4 / KMnO4]
8] By Dry ice and Grignard reagent
 Chemical reaction of carboxylic acid:

1] Esterification (Action of alcohol)
2] Action of PCl3 (Formation of acyl chloride)
3] Action of PCl5 (Formation of acyl chloride)
4] Action of SOCl2 (Formation of acyl chloride)
5] Action of ammonia (Formation of amide)
6] Dehydration (P2O5 / Formation of acid anhydride)
7] Action of Sodium hydroxide / CaO (Formation of alkane)
8] Reduction using LiAlH4 (Formation of Alcohol)
107
CHAPTER 13
AMINES
SCAN ME
108
 Preparation of amines:
1] Alkyl halide (By ammonolysis)
2] By reduction of nitro alkane
A] By Using Sn / HCl
B] LiAlH4
3] From alkyl cyanide
A] By Using Na / ethanol (Mendius reduction)
B] LiAlH4
4] Gabriel – phthalimide synthesis
5] Hoffmann bromamide degradation (Step down reaction)
 Chemical reaction of amine:

1] Hoffman exhaustive alkylation
2] Hoffmann elimination reaction [Formation of alkene]
3] Acylation of amines [Formation of amide]
A] Using acyl chloride
B] Using acid – anhydride
4] By carbylamine test [Only for primary amine]/[Formation of isocyanide]
5] By Hinsberg’s test (Action of benzene sulfonyl chloride)
6] Action of nitrous acid (Formation of diazonium salt)
109
7] Halogenation
A] Polybromination [Using bromine water]
B] Monobromination [Using acyl chloride]
8] Nitration
A] Polynitration [Using conc. H2SO4]
B] Mononitration [ Using acid anhydride]
9] Sulphonation [Formation of Zwitter ion]
 Chemical reaction of benzene diazonium chloride:

1] Sandmeyer reaction (Formation of haloarene)
2] Gatterman reaction (Formation of haloarene)
3] Action of KI (Formation of iodobenzene)
4] Action HOH / H3PO2 (Formation of benzene)
5] Action of ethanol (Formation of benzene)
6] Action of water (Formation of phenol)
7] Action of HBF4 (Formation of fluorobenzene)
8] Action of NaNO2 (Formation of nitrobenzene)
9] Azo – coupling reaction
****
110
CHAPTER 14
BIOMOLECULES
SCAN ME
111
 Formula for Carbohydrates :- CX(H2O)y
Trick to remember sugar - combination
Smith S Sucrose ∝G 𝛽𝐹
Michael M Maltose ∝G ∝G
Lord L Lactose 𝛽G 𝛽Gt
Smith Michael Lord ki ek GirlFriend thi jo GoodGirl thi aur wo GGt me
padhati thi
Cellobiose 𝛽G 𝛽G
Cellulose 𝛽G 𝛽G (polymer)
Amylose ∝G ∝G (Linear-polymer)
Amylopection ∝G ∝G (Branched Polymer)
 Disaccharides: Sucrose [Glucose + Fructose]
 Trisaccharides: Raffinose [Glucose + Fructose + Galactose]
 Tetrasaccharide: Stachyose [Glucose + Fructose + 2 Unit of

galactose]
 Trick for aldoses:
First C → CHO
Last C → CH2OH
All C → OH (R.H.S.) till 5C
For 6 C → 3rd C – OH (L.H.S.)
112
 No. of carbon = 3
CHO
H OH
CH2OH
Aldotriose
(Glyceraldehyde)
CHO
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
Aldotetrose
(Erythrose)
113
CHO
H OH
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
Aldopentose
(Ribose)
CHO
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
Aldohexose
114
(Glucose)
 Trick for ketose:
1st C and last C → CH2OH
2nd C → C → C =O
All C – OH (R.H.S.) till 5C
For 6 C → 3rd C – OH (L.H.S.)
CH2OH
C=O
CH2OH
Ketotriose
(Dihydroxy acetone)
115
CH2OH
C=O
H OH
CH2OH
Ketotetrose
(Erythrulose)
CH2OH
C=O
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
Ketopentose
116
(Ribulose)
CH2OH
C=O
HO H
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
Ketohexose
(Fructose)
117
* - Essential  amino acid
Type Name R Three One

letter letter
symbol symbol
Neutral 1.Glycine H- Gly G
2.Alanine CH3- Ala A
∝- 3.Valine* Me2CH- Val V
amino 4.Leucine* Me2CH-CH2- Leu L
acids 5.Isoleucine* CH3-CH2-CH(Me)- Ile I
6.Asparagine H2N-CO-CH2 – Asn N
7.Glutamine H2N-CO-CH2-CH2- Gin Q
8.Serine HO-CH2- Ser S
9.Threonine* CH3-CHOH- Thr T
10.Cysteine HS-CH2 - Cys C
11.Methionine* Me-S-CH2-CH2 Met M
12.Phenyalanin Ph-CH2- Phe F
e* p-HO-C6H4-CH2- Tyr Y
13.Tyrosine
Trp W
*
14.Tryptophan
Pro P
15.Proline
Acidic 16. Aspartic HOOC-CH2 – Asp D

acid HOOC-CH2-CH2- Glu G
17. Glutamic
acid
Basic 18. Lysine* H2N-(CH2)4- Lys K
19. Arginine* HN = C(NH2) - NH - Arg R
(CH2)-
20.Histidine* His H
118
CHAPTER 15
INTRODUCTION
TO POLYMER
CHEMISTRY
SCAN ME
119
Trade name Monomer Polymer structure Applications
Perspex/acrylic methyl lenses, paint, security
glass methacrylate barrier, LCD screen,
shatter resistant glass
Buna N Butadiene and adhesives, rubber

Acrylonitrile belts, shoe soles, O-
rings, gaskets
PVC (polyvinyl vinyl chloride water pipes, rain

chloride) coats, flooring
Polyacrylamide Acrylamide Polyacrylamide gel

used in
electrophoresis
Urea- a. urea unbreakable dinner
formaldehyde b. formaldehyde ware, decorative
resin laminates
Glyptal a. ethylencglycol paints and lacquers
b. phthalic acid
Polycarbonate a. bisphenol electrical and

b. phosgene tele-communication
hardware, food grade
plastic containers
Thermocol (made Styrene non-biodegradable

from airfilled thin styrene can leach
walled beads of when heated.
polystyrene) Therefore, it is
banned.
120
Polymers
Based on Based on inter Based on mode
based on No.of
source or molecular of Biodegradability
structure monomers
origin forces polymerization
Natural Linear Elastomers Addition Homopolymers Biodegradable
Synthetic Branched chain Fibres Condensation Non - biodegradable

Copolymers
Semisynthetic Cross - linked Thermoplastic Ring opening
Thermosetting
 Catalyst Used in HDPE: Zieglar -Natta [ (C2H5)3 Al + TiCl4 ]

 Monomer of Teflon: Tetrafluoroethene
 Monomer of Orlon: Acrylonitrile
 Monomer of Nylon -6: -Caprolactum
 Monomer of Nylon-6,6: Hexaethylene diamine and adipic acid
 Monomer of Terylene (Dacron): Ethylene glycol and terephalic acid
 Monomer of bakelite: Phenol and formaldehyde
 Monomer of Melamine -formaldehyde polymer: Melamine and
formaldehyde
 Monomer of SBR (Buna -S): 1,3-Butadiene and styrene
 Monomer of ABS plastic: Acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene
 Monomer of PHBV: -Hydroxy butyric acid and -hydroxy valeric acid
 Monomer of Dextron: Lactic acid (-hydroxy propionic acid ) and
glycolic acid (-hydroxy acetic acid)
 Monomer of Nylon-2 -nylon-6: Glycine and -amino caproic acid
 Monomer of natural rubber: Isoprene
 Monomer of Neoprene: Chloroprene
 Monomer of butyl rubber: Isobutylene and isoprene
****
121
CHAPTER 16
GREEN CHEMISTRY
AND
NANOCHEMISTRY
SCAN ME
122
 The 12 principles of green chemistry:
i. Prevention of waste or by products
ii. Atom economy
iii. Less hazardous chemical synthesis
iv. Designing safer chemicals
v. Use of safer solvent and auxiliaries
vi. Design for energy efficiency
vii. Use of renewable feed stocks
viii. Reduce derivatives (Minimization of steps)
ix. Use of catalysis
x. Design for degradation
xi. Real-time analysis pollution prevention
xii. Safer chemistry for accident prevention
 Formula of atom economy:
123
 Use of catalysis:
Reaction Name of Catalyst used
1. Hydrogenation of oil (Hardening) Ni
2. Haber’s process of manufacture of Mo/Fe
ammonia
3. Manufacture of HDPE polymer Zieglar -Natta
4. Manufacture of H2SO4 by contact V2O5
process
5. Fischer-Tropsch process (synthesis of Co-Th alloy
gasoline)
Name of technique Information obtained

UV-visible spectroscopy Preliminary confirmation of formation
of nanoparticles
X-ray diffraction (XRD) Particle size, crystal structure,
geometry
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Structure of surface of material i.e.
morphology
Transmission Emission Microscopy Particle size
(TEM)
Fourier Transform Infrared Absorption of functional groups and
Spectroscopy (FTIR) binding nature
****
124

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SOVIND SIR CHEMISTRY FORMULAE ALL ABOUT CHEMISTRY

For XI and XII (SCIENCE)

 Molar volume of a gas at STP= 22.4 dm3 mol-1

 Number of moles (n):

Volume of a gas at STP

Volume of a gas at STP

 Physical Properties of matter:

 Mass: SI unit →kilogram (kg)

 Length : SI unit → metre (m)

 Volume: SI unit → (metre)3

 Temperature : SI unit → Kelvin (K)

Celsius to Kelvin : K = oC + 273.15

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Where, A = mass number,

Where, = Frequency of electromagnetic radiation

 Wave number (̅ ):

 Energy of quantum of radiation (E):

Where, h = Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10-34J s

 Wave number of series of hydrogen spectrum:

̅ = RH [𝑛2 − 𝑛2] cm-1

 Different series of hydrogen spectrum:

Where, E1 = Energy of lower energy state

Where, Z= Atomic number

 Heisenberg's uncertainty principle:

 Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers:

 The four quantum numbers are: principal quantum number

Where, nf = n1 = lower energy level

Orbital Value of l (Azimuthal Quantum No.)

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No. of No. of No. of Electron pair Molecular Examples

6 2 4 Octahedral Square XeF4

sp3 sp2 sp hybridization

Types of Example Dipole moment Geometry

Total number of Total no. of non- 1 Total no. of

 Types of Overlap of Atomic Orbitals:

 s-s overlap e.g., H2

Where, Nb = No. of electrons in bonding molecular orbitals.

 Electronic configuration of diatomic molecules:

Molecule Electronic configuration Bond order Magnetic nature

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The following are the general rules formulated to assign an

Rule – 1: The oxidation number of an atom in free uncombined

Rule – 2: The oxidation number of an atom in a monoatomic ion is

Rule-3: The oxidation number of H atom is either +1 or -1. When

Rule-5: The oxidation number of F is always -1 in all of its

Rule-6: The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the

 Tricks For Ions :

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Name of the Symbol At. No. At. Neutron Abundance Stability

 Classification of s-block elements:

Group 1 (Alkali metals) Group 2 (Alkaline earth metals)

Tricks for elements of Group 1 and Group 2:

Strong lewis acid

Soluble in organic solvent

Forms amphoteric oxide

 Some important compounds of s-block elements:

Chemical Name Common Name Formulae

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Pressure (P) Volume Number Temperature Gas constant (R)

 Measurable properties of gases: