IHCI MIDTERM EXAM Study Note Reviewer

1. Course Overview
○ Why Design for Usability? Usability design is crucial for market success, reliability, and
accessibility of any product. Products with good usability are more likely to be adopted
and used effectively by users, leading to increased satisfaction, productivity, and reduced
errors.
○ Historical Perspective Understanding the history of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
is essential to appreciate how the field has evolved. Key milestones include the invention
of machinery, the development of the Personal Computer (PC), the emergence of the
Graphical User Interface (GUI), and the rise of the Web. These advancements have
shaped the way humans interact with computers and inform current design principles.
■ Machinery: The early days of HCI focused on designing machinery for efficiency and
safety. Principles from ergonomics and human factors were applied to improve
workplace productivity and reduce accidents.
■ The PC: The advent of the personal computer brought computing power to
individuals, leading to new challenges in interface design. The focus shifted towards
making computers more user-friendly and accessible to a wider audience.
■ The GUI: The graphical user interface revolutionized HCI by introducing visual
elements like icons, windows, and menus, making it easier for people to interact with
computers. This led to the development of operating systems like Windows and
macOS, which are widely used today.
■ The Web: The World Wide Web brought unprecedented connectivity and access to
information, creating new challenges in interface design for websites and web
applications. The emphasis became creating intuitive and engaging online
experiences.
■ Possible Futures: HCI is a constantly evolving field, and it's important to consider the
future of human-computer interaction. Emerging technologies like virtual reality,
augmented reality, and artificial intelligence are likely to shape the next generation of
interfaces and user experiences.

2. Human Perception and Information Presentation

○ Perception: Human perception plays a crucial role in how we interpret and interact with
information presented on an interface. Understanding how humans perceive visual and
auditory stimuli is fundamental to designing effective interfaces.
■ Gestalt perception: Gestalt principles describe how humans perceive visual
elements as organized patterns and groups, rather than individual components. These
principles include:
■ Proximity: Elements close together are perceived as a group.
■ Similarity: Elements that look alike are perceived as a group.
■ Closure: We tend to see complete figures even when parts are missing.
■ Continuity: We perceive elements as smooth, continuous lines or patterns.
 ■ Figure-ground: We distinguish between a figure (the object of focus) and the
ground (the background).
■ Typography: Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written
language legible, readable, and appealing. It involves selecting typefaces, font sizes,
line spacing, and letter spacing to enhance the visual presentation of text. Key
components include:
■ Typefaces: The design of the letters (e.g., Arial, Times New Roman).
■ Font sizes: The size of the letters (measured in points).
■ Line spacing: The vertical space between lines of text.
■ Letter spacing: The space between individual letters.
○ Color: Color is a powerful tool for communication and can evoke emotions and
associations. Understanding color theory and how colors interact is crucial for creating
visually appealing and informative interfaces.
■ Color theory: This explores how colors interact and create different effects. Key
concepts include:
■ Hue: The pure color (e.g., red, blue, green).
■ Saturation: The intensity of the color.
■ Value: The lightness or darkness of the color.
■ Color schemes: Combinations of colors that work well together (e.g.,
complementary, analogous, triadic).
○ Graphic design: Graphic design principles guide the arrangement of visual elements on
an interface. These principles include:
■ Balance: Visual weight is distributed evenly.
■ Contrast: Elements stand out from each other.
■ Emphasis: Certain elements are given more importance.
■ Movement: The way the eye is led through the design.
■ Pattern: Repeating visual elements.
■ Rhythm: Creating a sense of movement through repetition.
■ Unity: All elements work together harmoniously.
○ Displays, Paper, and other Output Devices: The choice of output devices affects how
information is presented and perceived. Different displays have varying resolutions, color
gamuts, and refresh rates, which can impact the user experience. Paper-based output
also has considerations like paper size, weight, and texture.
■ Displays:
■ Resolution: The number of pixels (dots) that create the image.
■ Color gamut: The range of colors that can be displayed.
■ Refresh rate: How often the image is updated per second.
■ Paper:
■ Size: Standard paper sizes (e.g., A4, letter).
■ Weight: The thickness of the paper.
■ Texture: The surface quality of the paper.
○ Information Visualization: Information visualization techniques present complex data in
a visual format, making it easier to understand and analyze. Charts, graphs, maps, and
 diagrams are commonly used to visualize data and reveal patterns and trends.
■ Charts and graphs:
■ Bar charts: Compare categories using bars of different lengths.
■ Line graphs: Show trends over time.
■ Pie charts: Represent proportions of a whole.
■ Scatter plots: Show the relationship between two variables.
■ Maps:
■ Geographical maps: Show locations and spatial relationships.
■ Heatmaps: Use color to represent data values on a map.
■ Diagrams:
■ Flowcharts: Illustrate steps in a process.
■ Network diagrams: Show relationships between entities.

3. The Human Body and Device Design

○ Input Devices and Ergonomics: Input devices are hardware components that allow
users to interact with a computer. Keyboards, mice, touchscreens, and game controllers
are examples of input devices. Ergonomics is the study of people's efficiency in their
working environment. It focuses on designing and arranging workplaces, products, and
systems so that they fit the people who use them.
○ Virtual Reality, Low-Level Human: Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that creates
immersive, interactive experiences for users. It typically involves wearing a headset that
displays a computer-generated environment, and users can interact with this
environment using handheld controllers or other input devices.

4. Low-level Human Cognition

○ Time-scales and the Illusion of Multi-Tasking: Human cognition operates on different
time scales, from immediate perception to long-term memory. The illusion of multitasking
refers to the human brain's limited ability to handle multiple tasks simultaneously. While
we may feel like we're multi-tasking, we're often switching between tasks rapidly, which
can reduce efficiency and increase errors.
■ Cognitive time scales:
■ Perception: Immediate processing of sensory information.
■ Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli.
■ Working memory: Holding and manipulating information in mind.
■ Long-term memory: Storing information for later retrieval.
■ Multi-tasking:
■ Task switching: Rapidly switching between tasks.
■ Cognitive overload: The brain's limited capacity to handle multiple tasks
simultaneously.
○ GOMS Keystroke-Level Modeling: GOMS is a family of predictive models of human
performance that can be used to improve the efficiency of human-computer interaction. It
stands for Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection rules. GOMS keystroke-level
 modeling is a technique used to estimate the time it takes for a user to complete a task
using a computer interface. It breaks down the task into individual keystrokes and mouse
movements and assigns a time value to each action.
■ Goals: The user's overall objectives.
■ Operators: The individual actions the user performs.
■ Methods: The sequences of operators used to achieve a goal.
■ Selection rules: The rules for choosing between alternative methods.
○ Hypothesis Testing and Statistical Significance: Hypothesis testing is a statistical
method used to determine whether there is enough evidence to support a claim about a
population. It involves formulating a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis and
then collecting data to test the hypotheses. Statistical significance refers to a finding that
is unlikely to have occurred by chance.
■ Null hypothesis: The default assumption that there is no effect.
■ Alternative hypothesis: The claim that there is an effect.
■ Statistical significance: A finding that is unlikely to have occurred by chance.
○ Higher Cognition and Interaction Styles: Higher cognition refers to complex mental
processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, and language processing.
Interaction styles refer to the different ways users can interact with a computer interface.
Common interaction styles include command-line interfaces, menus, direct manipulation,
and natural language interfaces. *

5. Higher Cognition and Interaction Styles

○ Metaphor: Metaphors are used in interface design to leverage users'

existing knowledge and mental models. By using familiar concepts and
objects, metaphors can make interfaces more intuitive and easier to learn.
■ Types of metaphors:
■ Interface metaphors: Use familiar concepts to represent
interface elements (e.g., desktop, trash can).
■ Interaction metaphors: Use familiar actions to represent
interactions (e.g., drag and drop, copy and paste).
○ Direct Manipulation: Direct manipulation is an interaction style that
allows users to interact with objects on the screen directly, using actions
like dragging, dropping, and resizing. This style of interaction is often more
intuitive and engaging for users.
■ Principles:
■ Continuous representation: Objects are always visible on
the screen.
■ Physical actions: Users interact with objects using physical
actions (e.g., dragging, clicking).
 ■ Rapid, incremental, reversible actions: Actions are quick,
have immediate feedback, and can be undone.
○ Widget Survey: Widgets are graphical user interface (GUI) elements that
provide a specific function or display information. A widget survey is a
research method used to gather information about users' preferences and
opinions on different types of widgets.
○ Command Languages: Command languages allow users to interact with
a computer by typing commands. This interaction style is often more
efficient for experienced users but can have a steeper learning curve for
beginners.
○ Other Interaction Styles: There are various other interaction styles,
including form fill-in, natural language interfaces, and gesture-based
interfaces. Each style has its strengths and weaknesses and is suited for
different types of tasks and user populations.
○ Choosing Among Interaction Styles: Selecting the appropriate
interaction style depends on factors like the task, user population, and
platform. It's important to consider the trade-offs between different styles
and choose the one that best meets the needs of the users and the
system.

6. Observing Users

Mindset: The mindset of the observer is crucial when conducting user research. It's
about approaching the observation with the right attitude and perspective. Here are
some key mindsets to consider:

● User-centered mindset: Prioritize the needs and experiences of the users.

● Analytical mindset: Focus on gathering and analyzing data objectively.
● Empathetic mindset: Understand and share the users' feelings and
perspectives.
● Critical mindset: Question assumptions and evaluate design choices.
● Open mindset: Be receptive to new ideas and feedback.
● Holistic mindset: Consider the broader context of the user experience.
Subject-Running Techniques: Subject-running techniques are methods used to recruit
and manage participants in user research studies. These techniques include screening
potential participants, scheduling sessions, and providing clear instructions.
Usability Studies: Usability studies are research methods used to evaluate the
usability of a product or system. They typically involve observing users as they perform
tasks and gathering data on their performance, satisfaction, and errors.

7. Usability Analysis

○ Error Handling, Error Prevention: Error handling and prevention are

crucial aspects of usability design. Systems should be designed to prevent
errors from occurring in the first place and provide clear and helpful
guidance when errors do occur.
○ Cognitive Walkthroughs: A cognitive walkthrough is a usability
evaluation method in which evaluators simulate a user's thought process
as they navigate through an interface. This method helps identify potential
usability issues and areas where users might get confused or make errors.
○ Heuristic Evaluation: Heuristic evaluation is a usability inspection
method in which experts evaluate an interface based on a set of
established usability principles (heuristics). This method is a quick and
efficient way to identify potential usability problems.
○ Usability Guidelines: Usability guidelines provide general
recommendations for designing user-friendly interfaces. These guidelines
cover various aspects of interface design, such as navigation, layout, and
content presentation.
○ Choosing Among Usability Methods: The choice of usability evaluation
method depends on factors like the stage of development, the type of
product, and the available resources. It's important to select the most
appropriate method to gather meaningful data and identify potential
usability issues.

By Google’s