Introduction to Statistical

Hypothesis Testing in R
A statistical hypothesis is an assumption made by the researcher
about the data of the population collected for any experiment.
It is not mandatory for this assumption to be true every time.
Hypothesis testing, in a way, is a formal process of validating the
hypothesis made by the researcher.
In order to validate a hypothesis, it will consider the entire
population into account. However, this is not possible practically.
Thus, to validate a hypothesis, it will use random samples from a
population.

On the basis of the result from testing over the sample data, it
either selects or rejects the hypothesis.

Statistical Hypothesis Testing can be categorized into two types

as below:

 Null Hypothesis – Hypothesis testing is carried out in

order to test the validity of a claim or assumption that is
made about the larger population. This claim that
involves attributes to the trial is known as the Null
Hypothesis. The null hypothesis testing is denoted
by H0.
 Alternative Hypothesis – An alternative hypothesis
would be considered valid if the null hypothesis is
fallacious. The evidence that is present in the trial is
basically the data and the statistical computations that
accompany it. The alternative hypothesis testing is
denoted by H or H .
1 a

Let’s take an example of the coin. We want to conclude that a

coin is unbiased or not. Since null hypothesis refers to the
natural state of an event, thus, according to the null hypothesis,
there would an equal number of occurrences of heads and tails,
if a coin is tossed several times. On the other hand, the
alternative hypothesis negates the null hypothesis and refers that
the occurrences of heads and tails would have significant
differences in number.
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Hypothesis Testing in R
Statisticians use hypothesis testing to formally check whether
the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. Hypothesis testing is
conducted in the following manner:

1. State the Hypotheses – Stating the null and

alternative hypotheses.
2. Formulate an Analysis Plan – The formulation of an
analysis plan is a crucial step in this stage.
3. Analyze Sample Data – Calculation and interpretation
of the test statistic, as described in the analysis plan.
4. Interpret Results – Application of the decision rule
described in the analysis plan.
Hypothesis testing ultimately uses a p-value to weigh the
strength of the evidence or in other words what the data are
about the population. The p-value ranges between 0 and 1. It can
be interpreted in the following way:

 A small p-value (typically ≤ 0.05) indicates strong

evidence against the null hypothesis, so you reject it.(5%
of error)
 A large p-value (> 0.05) indicates weak evidence against
the null hypothesis, so you fail to reject it.
A p-value very close to the cutoff (0.05) is considered to be
marginal and could go either way.

TRUE-Experimental FALSE-Exp.

TRUE-Ther True Positive Case False Positive(type-

II)

FALSE-Theor False Negative True Negative

Case(type-1 Error)

Decision Errors in R
The two types of error that can occur from the hypothesis
testing:

 Type I Error – Type I error occurs when the researcher

rejects a null hypothesis when it is true. The term
significance level is used to express the probability of
Type I error while testing the hypothesis. The
significance level is represented by the symbol α (alpha).
 Type II Error – Accepting a false null hypothesis H is 0

referred to as the Type II error. The term power of the

test is used to express the probability of Type II error
while testing hypothesis. The power of the test is
represented by the symbol β (beta).
Using the Student’s T-test in R
The Student’s T-test is a method for comparing two samples. It
can be implemented to determine whether the samples are
different. This is a parametric test, and the data should be
normally distributed.

R can handle the various versions of T-test using

the t.test() command. The test can be used to deal with two- and
one-sample tests as well as paired tests.
Listed below are the commands used in the Student’s t-test and
their explanation:

 t.test(data.1, data.2) – The basic method of applying a

t-test is to compare two vectors of numeric data.
 var.equal = FALSE – If the var.equal instruction is set
to TRUE, the variance is considered to be equal and the
standard test is carried out. If the instruction is set to
FALSE (the default), the variance is considered unequal
and the Welch two-sample test is carried out.
 mu = 0 – If a one-sample test is carried out, mu
indicates the mean against which the sample should be
tested.
 alternative = “two.sided” – It sets the alternative
hypothesis. The default value for this is “two.sided” but
a greater or lesser value can also be assigned. You can
abbreviate the instruction.
 conf.level = 0.95 – It sets the confidence level of the
interval (default = 0.95).
 conf.level = 0.99 p<.01 Ho: is get rejected else
Accepted
  paired = FALSE – If set to TRUE, a matched pair T-test
is carried out.
 t.test(y ~ x, data, subset) – The required data can be
specified as a formula of the form response ~ predictor.
In this case, the data should be named and a subset of
the predictor variable can be specified.
 subset = predictor %in% c(“sample.1”,
sample.2”) – If the data is in the form response ~
predictor, the two samples to be selected from the
predictor should be specified by the subset instruction
from the column of the data.
Two-Sample T-test with Unequal
Variance
The t.test() command is generally used to compare two vectors of
numeric values. The vectors can be specified in a variety of ways,
depending on how your data objects are set out.
The default form of the t.test() command does not assume that
the samples have equal variance. As a result, the two-sample test
is carried out unless specified otherwise. The two-sample test
can be on any two datasets using the following command:

#Author DataFlair
x = rnorm(10)
y = rnorm(10)
t.test(x,y)

Output:
The default clause in the t.test() command can be overridden. To
do so, add the var.equal = TRUE. This is an instruction that is
added to the t.test() command. This instruction forces the t.test()
command to assume that the variance of the two samples is
equal.

The magnitude of the degree of freedom is unmodified as well as

the calculations of t-value makes use of the pooled variance.

As a result, the p-value is slightly different from the Welch

version. For example:

t.test(x, y, var.equal = TRUE)

Output:
As per the samples estimate, the default clause in the t.test()
command can be overridden. To do so, add the var.equal = TRUE
instruction to the standard t.test() command. This instruction
forces the t.test() command to assume that the variance of the
two samples is equal.

One-Sample T-testing in R
To perform analysis, it collects a large amount of data from
various sources and tests it on random samples. In several
situations, when the population of collected data is unknown,
researchers test samples to identify the population. The one-
sample T-test is one of the useful tests for testing the sample’s
population.

This test is used for testing the mean of samples. For example,
you can use this test to compare that a sample of students from a
particular college is identical or different from the sample of
general students. In this situation, the hypothesis tests that the
sample is from a known population with a known mean (m) or
from an unknown population.

To carry out a one-sample T-test in R, the name of a single vector

and the mean with which it is compared is supplied.
The mean defaults to 0.

The one-sample T-test can be implemented as follows:

#Author DataFlair
t.test(x, mu = 5)

Output:

Using Directional Hypotheses in R

You can also specify a “direction” to your hypothesis.

In many cases, you are simply testing to see if the means of two
samples are different, but you may want to know if a sample
mean is lower or greater than another sample mean. You can use
the alternative equal to (=) instruction to switch the emphasis
from a two-sided test (the default) to a one-sided test. The
choices you have are between ″two.sided″, ″less″, or ″greater″,
and the choice can be abbreviated, as shown in the following
command:

#Author DataFlair
t.test(y, mu = 5, alternative = 'greater')

Output:
Formula Syntax and Subsetting
Samples in the T-test in R
As discussed in the previous sections, the T-test is designed to
compare two samples.

So far, we have seen how to carry out the T-test on separate

vectors of values; however, your data may be in a more
structured form with a column for the response variable and a
column for the predictor variable.

When the data is available in a more structured form with a

separate column for the response variable and predictor
variable, the data can be set in a more sensible and flexible
manner. You need a new way to deal with the layout.

R deals with the layout by using a formula syntax.

In this section, we will use the grass dataset:

You can download the dataset from here – Grass Dataset

You can create a formula by using the tilde (~) symbol.
Essentially, your response variable goes to the left of the ~ and
the predictor goes to the right, as shown in the following
command:

> t.test(rich ~ graze, data = grass)

If your predictor column contains more than two items, the T-test
cannot be used; however, you can still carry out a test by
subsetting this predictor column and specifying the two samples
you want to compare.

The subset = instruction should be used as a part of the t.test()

command, as follows:

Formula Syntax in R – The following example illustrates how to

do this using the same data as in the previous example:
> t.test(rich ~ graze, data = grass, subset = graze %in% c('mow‘, 'unmow'))

Output:
You first specify the column from which you want to take your
subset and then type %in%. This tells the command that the list
that follows is in the graze column. Note that, you have to put the
levels in quotes; here you compare ″mow″and ″unmow″and your
result is identical to the one you obtained before.

μ-test in R
When you have two samples to compare and your data is
nonparametric, you can use the μ-test. This goes by various
names and may be known as the Mann—Whitney μ-test or
Wilcoxon sign rank test. The wilcox.test() command can carry out
the analysis.
The wilcox.test() command can conduct two-sample or one-
sample tests, and you can add a variety of instructions to carry
out the test.

Given below are the main options available in

the wilcox.test() command with their explanation:
 test(sample.1, sample.2) – It carries out a basic two-
sample μ-test on the numerical vectors specified.
 mu = 0 – If a one-sample test is carried out, mu
indicates the value against which the sample should be
tested.
 alternative = “two.sided” – It sets the alternative
hypothesis. “two.sided” is the default value, but a
greater or lesser value can also be assigned. You can
abbreviate the instruction but you still need the quotes.
  int = FALSE – It sets whether confidence intervals
should be reported or not.
 level = 0.95 – It sets the confidence level of the interval
(default = 0.95).
 correct = TRUE – By default, the continuity correction
is applied. This can also be set to FALSE.
 paired = FALSE – If set to TRUE, a matched pair μ-test
is carried out.
 exact = NULL – It sets whether an exact p-value should
be computed. The default is to do so for less than 50
items.
 test(y ~ x, data, subset) – The required data can be
specified as a formula of the form response ~ predictor.
In this case, the data should be named and a subset of
the predictor variable can be specified.
 subset = predictor %in% c(″1″, ″sample.2″) – If the
data is in the form response ~ predictor, the subset
instruction can specify the two samples to select from
the predictor column of the data.
Two-Sample μ-test in R
The basic way of using wilcox.test() command is to specify the
two samples you want to compare as separate vectors, as shown
in the following command:
>x;y
> wilcox.test(x, y)

Output:
By default, the confidence intervals are not calculated and the p-
value is adjusted using the “continuity correction”; a message
tells you that the latter has been used. In this case, you see a
warning message because you have tied values in the data. If you
set exact = FALSE, this message would not be displayed because
the p-value would be determined from a normal approximation
method.

Any doubts in Hypothesis Testing in R, till now? Share your

queries in the comment section.

One-Sample μ-test in R
When you specify a single numerical vector, then it carries out a
one-sample μ-test. The default is to set mu = 0. For example:

> #Author DataFlair

> wilcox.test(y, exact = FALSE)

Output:

In this case, the p-value is a normal approximation because it

uses the exact = FALSE instruction. The command has assumed
mu = 0 because it is not specified explicitly.
Formula Syntax and Subsetting
Samples in the μ-test in R
It is better to have data arranged into a data frame where one
column represents the response variable and another represents
the predictor variable. In this case, the formula syntax can be
used to describe the situation and carry out
the wilcox.test() command on your data. The method is similar to
what is used for the T-test.
The basic form of the command is:

wilcox.test(response ~ predictor, data = my.data)

You can also use additional instructions as you could with the
other syntax. If the predictor variable contains more than two
samples, you cannot conduct a μ-test and use a subset that
contains exactly two samples.

Notice that in the preceding command, the names of the samples

must be specified in quotes in order to group them together. The
μ-test is one of the most widely used statistical methods, so it is
important to be comfortable in using the wilcox.test()command.
In the following activity, you try conducting a range of μ-tests for
yourself. The μ-test is a useful tool for comparing two samples
and is one of the most widely used tools of all simple statistical
tests. Both the t.test()and wilcox.test()commands can also deal
with matched-pair data.

Correlation and Covariance in R

When you have two continuous variables, you can look for a link
between them. This link is called a correlation.

The cor() command determines correlations between two vectors,

all the columns of a data frame, or two data
frames. The cov() command examines covariance.
The cor.test() command carries out a test of significance of the
correlation.
You can add a variety of additional instructions to these
commands, as given below:

 cor(x, y = NULL) – It carries out a basic correlation

between x and y. If x is a matrix or data frame, we can
 omit y. One can correlate any object against any other
object as long as the length of the individual vectors
matches up.
 cov(x, y = NULL) – It determines covariance between x
and y. If x is a matrix or data frame, one can omit y.
 cov2cor(V) – It takes a covariance matrix V and
calculates the correlation.
 method = – The default is “pearson”, but “spearman” or
“kendall” can be specified as the methods for correlation
or covariance. These can be abbreviated but you still
need the quotes and note that they are lowercase.
 var(x, y = NULL) – It determines the variance of x. If x
is a matrix or data frame and y is specified, it also
determines the covariance.
 test(x, y) – It carries out a significance test of the
correlation between x and y. In this case, you can now
specify only two data vectors, but you can use a formula
syntax, which makes it easier when the variables are
within a data frame or matrix. The Pearson product-
moment is the default, but it can also use Spearman’s
Rho or Kendall’s Tau tests. You can use the subset
command to select data on the basis of a grouping
variable.
 alternative = “two.sided” – The default is for a two-
sided test but the alternative hypothesis can be given as
“two.sided”, “greater”, or “less”.
 level = 0.95 – If the method = “pearson” and n > 3, it
will show the confidence intervals. This instruction sets
the confidence level and defaults to 0.95.
Simple Correlation in R
Simple correlations are between two continuous variables and
use the cor() command to obtain a correlation coefficient, as
shown in the following command:
#Author DataFlair
count = c(9,25,15,2,14,25,24,47)
speed = c(2,3,5,9,14,24,29,34)
cor(count, speed)
cor(count, speed, method = 'spearman')

Output:
This example used the Spearman Rho correlation but you can
also apply Kendall’s tau by specifying method = ″kendall″. Note
that you can abbreviate this but you still need the quotes. You
also have to use lowercase.

If your vectors are within a data frame or some other object, you
need to extract them in a different fashion.

Covariance in R
The cov() command uses syntax similar to the cor() command to
examine covariance.
We can use the cov() command as:

set.seed(5)
x <- rnorm(30, sd=runif(30, 2, 50))
mat <- matrix(x,10)
V <- cov(mat)
V

Output:
The cov2cor() command determines the correlation from a matrix
of covariance, as shown in the following command:
> cov2cor(V)

Output:
Significance Testing in Correlation
Tests
You can apply a significance test to your correlations by using
the cor.test() command. In this case, you can compare only two
vectors at a time, as shown in the following command:
> #DataFlair
> cor.test(women$height, women$weight)

Output:
In the previous example, you can see that the Pearson
correlation is between height and weight in the data of women
and the result also shows the statistical significance of the
correlation.

You must definitely learn about Descriptive Statistics in R

Formula Syntax in R
If your data is in a data frame, using
the attach() or with() command is tedious, as is using the $
syntax. A formula syntax is available as an alternative, which
provides a neater representation of your data, as shown in the
following command:
> data(cars)
> cor.test(~ speed + dist, data = cars, method = 'spearman', exact = F)

Output:

Here you examine the data of cars, which comes built-in in R.

The formula is slightly different from the one that you used
previously. Here you specify both variables to the right of the ~.
You also give the name of the data as a separate instruction. All
the additional instructions are available while using the formula
syntax as well as the subset instruction.

Tests for Association in R

When you have categorical data, you can look for associations
between categories by using the chi-squared test. Routines to
achieve this is possible by using the chisq.test() command.
The various additional instructions that you can add to the
chisq.test() command are:

test(x, y = NULL) – A basic chi-squared test is carried

out on a matrix or data frame. If it provides x as a
vector, a second vector can be supplied. If x is a single
vector and y is not given, a goodness of fit test is carried
out.
 correct = TRUE – It applies Yates’ correction if the data
forms a 2 n 2 contingency table.
 p = – It is a vector of probabilities for use with a
goodness of fit test. If p is not given, the goodness of fit
tests that the probabilities are all equal.
 p = FALSE – If TRUE, p is rescaled to sum to 1. For use
with the goodness of fit tests.
 p.value = FALSE – If set to TRUE, a Monte Carlo
simulation calculates p-values.
 B = 2000 – The number of replicates to use in the
Monte Carlo simulation.
Get a deep insight into Contingency Tables in R
Goodness of Fit Tests in R
While fitting a statistical model for observed data, an analyst
must identify how accurately the model analysis the data. This is
done with the help of the chi-square test.

The chi-square test is a type of hypothesis testing methodology

that identifies the goodness-of-fit by testing whether the
observed data is taken from the claimed distribution or not. The
two values included in this test are observed value, the frequency
of a category from the sample data, and expected frequency that
is calculated on the basis of an expected distribution of the
sample population. The chisq.test() command can be used to
carry out the goodness of fit test.
In this case, you must have two vectors of numerical values, one
representing the observed values and the other representing the
expected ratio of values. The goodness of fit tests the data
against the ratios you specified. If you do not specify any, the
data is tested against equal probability.
The basic form of the chisq.test() command will operate on a
matrix or data frame.

By enclosing the command completely within parentheses, you

can get the result object to display immediately. The results of
many commands are stored as a list containing several elements,
and you can see what is available by using
the names() command and view them by using the $syntax.
The p-value can be determined using a Monte Carlo simulation
by using the simulate.p.value and B instructions. If the data form
a 2 n 2 contingency, then Yates’ correction is automatically
applied but only if the Monte Carlo simulation is not used.

To conduct goodness of fit test, you must specify p, the vector of

probabilities; if this does not add to 1, you will get an error
unless you use rescale.p = TRUE. You can use a Monte Carlo
simulation on the goodness of fit test. If a single vector is
specified, a goodness of fit test is carried out but the
probabilities are assumed to be equal.