Chapter 4.

Amplitude and Frequency Accuracy

Now let’s look at amplitude accuracy, or perhaps better, amplitude uncertainty. Most
spectrum analyzers are specified in terms of both absolute and relative accuracy.
However, relative performance affects both, so let’s look first at factors affecting relative
measurement uncertainty.

Before we discuss these uncertainties, let’s look again at the block diagram of
an analog swept-tuned spectrum analyzer, shown in Figure 4-1, and see which
components contribute to the uncertainties. Later in this chapter, we will see how a
digital IF and various correction and calibration techniques can substantially reduce
measurement uncertainty.

Components that contribute to uncertainty:

• Input connector (mismatch)

• RF input attenuator
• Mixer and input filter (flatness)
• IF gain/attenuation (reference level)
• RBW filters
• Display scale fidelity
• Calibrator (not shown)

Impedance mismatch is an important factor in measurement uncertainty that is often

overlooked. Analyzers do not have perfect input impedances, and signal sources do
not have ideal output impedances. When a mismatch exists, the incident and reflected
signal vectors may add constructively or destructively.

RF input Log Envelope

attenuator Mixer IF gain IF filter amp detector
Input
signal

Pre-selector, or Video
low-pass filter filter
Local
oscillator

Reference
oscillator

Sweep
generator Display

Figure 4-1. Spectrum analyzer block diagram

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Thus the signal received by the analyzer can be larger or smaller than the original signal.
In most cases, uncertainty due to mismatch is relatively small. However, as spectrum
analyzer amplitude accuracy has improved dramatically in recent years, mismatch
More information:
uncertainty now constitutes a more significant part of total measurement uncertainty. In
For more information
any case, improving the match of either the source or analyzer reduces uncertainty.
about how improving the
match of either the source
The general expression used to calculate the maximum mismatch error in dB is:
or analyzer reduces
Error (dB) = –20 log[1 ± |(ρanalyzer)(ρsource)|] where ρ is the reflection coefficient. uncertainty, see the
Keysight PSA Performance
Spectrum analyzer data sheets typically specify the input voltage standing wave ratio Spectrum Analyzer Series
Amplitude Accuracy
(VSWR). Knowing the VSWR, we can calculate ρ with the following equation:
– Technical Overview
literature number
(VSWR–1) 5980-3080EN.
ρ=
(VSWR+1)

As an example, consider a spectrum analyzer with an input VSWR of 1.2 and a device
under test (DUT) with a VSWR of 1.4 at its output port. The resulting mismatch error
would be ±0.13 dB.

Since the analyzer’s worst-case match occurs when its input attenuator is set to 0 dB,
we should avoid the 0 dB setting if we can. Alternatively, we can attach a well-matched
pad (attenuator) to the analyzer input and greatly reduce mismatch as a factor. Adding
attenuation is a technique that works well to reduce measurement uncertainty when the
signal we wish to measure is well above the noise. However, in cases where the signal-
to-noise ratio is small (typically ≤ 7 dB), adding attenuation will increase measurement
error because the noise power adds to the signal power, resulting in an erroneously
high reading.

Let’s turn our attention to the input attenuator. Some relative measurements are made
with different attenuator settings. In these cases, we must consider the input attenuation
switching uncertainty. Because an RF input attenuator must operate over the entire
frequency range of the analyzer, its step accuracy varies with frequency. The attenuator
also contributes to the overall frequency response. At 1 GHz, we expect the attenuator
performance to be quite good; at 26 GHz, not as good.

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The next component in the signal path is the input filter. Spectrum analyzers use a fixed
low-pass filter in the low band and a tunable bandpass filter called a preselector (we will
discuss the preselector in more detail in Chapter 7) in the higher frequency bands. The
low-pass filter has a better frequency response than the preselector and adds a small
amount of uncertainty to the frequency response error. A preselector, usually a YIG-
tuned filter, has a larger frequency response variation, ranging from 1.5 dB to 3 dB at
millimeter-wave frequencies.

Following the input filter are the mixer and the local oscillator, both of which add to the
frequency response uncertainty.

Figure 4-2 illustrates what the frequency response might look like in one frequency
band. Frequency response is usually specified as ± x dB relative to the midpoint
between the extremes. The frequency response of a spectrum analyzer represents
the overall system performance resulting from the flatness characteristics and
interactions of individual components in the signal path up to and including the first
mixer. Microwave spectrum analyzers use more than one frequency band to go above
3.6 GHz. This is done by using a higher harmonic of the local oscillator, which will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 7. When making relative measurements between signals
in different frequency bands, you must add the frequency response of each band to
determine the overall frequency response uncertainty. In addition, some spectrum
analyzers have a band switching uncertainty which must be added to the overall
measurement uncertainty.

Frequency response
Signals in the same harmonic band
+0.5 dB

- 0.5 dB
BAND 1
Specification: 0.5 dB

Figure 4-2. Relative frequency response in a single band

After the input signal is converted to an IF, it passes through the IF gain amplifier and IF
attenuator, which are adjusted to compensate for changes in the RF attenuator setting
and mixer conversion loss. Input signal amplitudes are thus referenced to the top line of
the graticule on the display, known as the reference level.

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The IF amplifier and attenuator work only at one frequency and, therefore, do not
contribute to frequency response. However, some amplitude uncertainty is always
introduced and it depends on how accurately the IF amplifier and attenuator can be set
to a desired value. This uncertainty is known as reference level accuracy.

Another parameter we might change during the course of a measurement is resolution

bandwidth. Different filters have different insertion losses. Generally, we see the greatest
difference when switching between LC filters (typically used for the wider resolution
bandwidths) and crystal filters (used for narrow bandwidths). This results in resolution
bandwidth switching uncertainty.

The most common way to display signals on a spectrum analyzer is to use a logarithmic
amplitude scale, such as 10 dB per div or 1 dB per div. Therefore, the IF signal usually
passes through a log amplifier. The gain characteristic of the log amplifier approximates
a logarithmic curve. So any deviation from a perfect logarithmic response adds to the
amplitude uncertainty. Similarly, when the spectrum analyzer is in linear mode, the
linear amplifiers do not have a perfect linear response. This type of uncertainty is called
display scale fidelity.

Relative uncertainty
When we make relative measurements on an incoming signal, we use either some part
of the same signal or a different signal as a reference. For example, when we make
second harmonic distortion measurements, we use the fundamental of the signal as
our reference. Absolute values do not come into play; we are interested only in how the
second harmonic differs in amplitude from the fundamental.

In a worst-case relative measurement scenario, the fundamental of the signal may occur
at a point where the frequency response is highest, while the harmonic we wish to
measure occurs at the point where the frequency response is the lowest. The opposite
scenario is equally likely. Therefore, if our relative frequency response specification is
± 0.5 dB, as shown in Figure 4-2, then the total uncertainty would be twice that value,
or ± 1.0 dB.

Perhaps the two signals under test are in different frequency bands of the spectrum
analyzer. In that case, a rigorous analysis of the overall uncertainty must include the sum
of the flatness uncertainties of the two frequency bands.

Other uncertainties might be irrelevant in a relative measurement, like RBW switching

uncertainty or reference level accuracy, which apply to both signals at the same time.

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Absolute amplitude accuracy
Almost all spectrum analyzers have a built-in calibration source that provides a known
reference signal of specified amplitude and frequency. We rely on the relative accuracy
of the analyzer to translate the absolute calibration of the reference to other frequencies
and amplitudes. Spectrum analyzers often have an absolute frequency response
specification, where the zero point on the flatness curve is referenced to this calibration
signal. Many Keysight spectrum analyzers use a 50-MHz reference signal. At this
frequency, the specified absolute amplitude accuracy is extremely good: ± 0.24 dB for
the high-performance X-Series signal analyzer.

It is best to consider all known uncertainties and then determine which ones can be
ignored when making a certain type of measurement. The range of values shown in
Table 4-1 represents the specifications of a variety of spectrum analyzers.

Some of the specifications, such as frequency response, are frequency-range dependent.

A 3-GHz RF analyzer might have a frequency response of ± 0.38 dB, while a microwave
spectrum analyzer tuning in the 26-GHz range could have a frequency response of
± 2.5 dB or higher. On the other hand, other sources of uncertainty, such as changing
resolution bandwidths, apply equally to all frequencies.

Amplitude uncertainties (± dB)

Relative
RF attenuator switching uncertainty 0.18 to 0.7
Frequency response 0.38 to 2.5
Reference level accuracy (IF attenuator/gain change) 0.0 to 0.7
Resolution bandwidth switching uncertainty 0.03 to 1.0
Display scale fidelity 0.07 to 1.15
Absolute
Calibrator accuracy 0.24 to 0.34
Table 4-1. Representative values of amplitude uncertainty for common spectrum analyzers

Improving overall uncertainty

When we look at total measurement uncertainty for the first time, we may well be
concerned as we add up the uncertainty figures. The worst-case view assumes each
source of uncertainty for your spectrum analyzer is at the maximum specified value, and
all are biased in the same direction at the same time. The sources of uncertainty can be
considered independent variables, so it is likely that some errors will be positive while
others will be negative. Therefore, a common practice is to calculate the root sum of
squares (RSS) error.

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Regardless of whether we calculate the worst-case or RSS error, we can take steps to
improve the situation. First of all, we should know the specifications for our particular
spectrum analyzer. These specifications may be good enough over the range in which
we are making our measurement. If not, Table 4-1 suggests some opportunities to
improve accuracy.

Before taking any data, we can step through a measurement to see if any controls can
be left unchanged. We might find that the measurement can be made without changing
the RF attenuator setting, resolution bandwidth or reference level. If so, all uncertainties
associated with changing these controls drop out. We may be able to trade off reference
level accuracy against display fidelity, using whichever is more accurate and eliminating
the other as an uncertainty factor. We can even get around frequency response if we are
willing to go to the trouble of characterizing our particular analyzer 1. You can accomplish
this by using a power meter and comparing the reading of the spectrum analyzer at the
desired frequencies with the reading of the power meter.

The same applies to the calibrator. If we have a more accurate calibrator, or one
closer to the frequency of interest, we may wish to use that in lieu of the built-in
calibrator. Finally, many analyzers available today have self-calibration routines. These
routines generate error coefficients (for example, amplitude changes versus resolution
bandwidth) that the analyzer later uses to correct measured data. As a result, these
self-calibration routines allow us to make good amplitude measurements with a
spectrum analyzer and give us more freedom to change controls during the course of
a measurement.

Specifications, typical performance and nominal values

When evaluating spectrum analyzer accuracy, it is important to have a clear understanding
of the many different values found on an analyzer data sheet. Keysight defines three
classes of instrument performance data:

Specifications describe the performance of parameters covered by the product

warranty over a temperature range of 0 to 55 °C (unless otherwise noted). Each
instrument is tested to verify it meets the specification and takes into account the
measurement uncertainty of the equipment used to test the instrument. All of the units
tested will meet the specification.

Some test equipment manufacturers use a “2 sigma” or 95% confidence value

for certain instrument specifications. When evaluating data sheet specifications
for instruments from different manufacturers, it is important to make sure you are
comparing like numbers in order to make an accurate comparison.

1. Should we do so, then mismatch may become a more significant error.

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Typical performance describes additional product performance information that is not
covered by the product warranty. It is performance beyond specification that 80% of the
units exhibit with a 95% confidence level over the temperature range 20 to 30 °C.

Typical performance does not include measurement uncertainty. During manufacture, all
instruments are tested for typical performance parameters.

Nominal values indicate expected performance or describe product performance that

is useful in the application of the product, but is not covered by the product warranty.
Nominal parameters generally are not tested during the manufacturing process.

Digital IF architecture and uncertainties

As described in the previous chapter, a digital IF architecture eliminates or minimizes
many of the uncertainties experienced in analog spectrum analyzers.

Reference level accuracy (IF gain uncertainty)

Spectrum analyzers with an all-digital IF, such as the Keysight X-Series, do not have
IF gain that changes with reference level. Therefore, there is no IF gain uncertainty.

Display scale fidelity

A digital IF architecture does not include a log amplifier. Instead, the log function
is performed mathematically, and traditional log fidelity uncertainty does not exist.
However, other factors, such as RF compression (especially for input signals above
–20 dBm), ADC range gain alignment accuracy and ADC linearity (or quantization error)
contribute to display scale uncertainty. The quantization error can be improved by the
addition of noise, which smoothes the average of the ADC transfer function. This added
noise is called dither. While the dither improves linearity, it does slightly degrade the
displayed average noise level. In the X-Series signal analyzers, we generally recommend
you use dither when the measured signal has a signal-to-noise ratio of greater than or
equal to 10 dB.

When the signal-to-noise ratio is less than 10 dB, the degradations to accuracy of any
single measurement (in other words, without averaging) that come from a higher noise
floor are worse than the linearity problems solved by adding dither, so dither is best
turned off.

RBW switching uncertainty

The digital IF in the X-Series signal analyzers includes an analog prefilter set to 2.5 times
the desired resolution bandwidth. This prefilter has some uncertainty in bandwidth,
gain and center frequency as a function of the RBW setting. The rest of the RBW

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filtering is done digitally in an ASIC in the digital IF section. Though the digital filters are
not perfect, they are very repeatable, and some compensation is applied to minimize
the error. This results in a tremendous overall improvement to the RBW switching
uncertainty compared to analog implementations.

Amplitude uncertainty examples

Let’s look at some amplitude uncertainty examples for various measurements. Suppose
we want to measure a 1-GHz RF signal with an amplitude of –20 dBm. If we use a
Keysight PXA X-Series signal analyzer with Atten = 10 dB, RBW = 1 kHz, VBW =
1 kHz, Span = 20 kHz, Ref level = –20 dBm, log scale, and coupled sweep time, and
an ambient temperature of 20 to 30 °C, the specifications tell us that the absolute
uncertainty equals ± 0.24 dB plus the absolute frequency response. The MXA X-Series
signal analyzer measuring the same signal using the same settings would have a
specified uncertainty of ± 0.33 plus the absolute frequency response. These values are
summarized in Table 4-2.

At higher frequencies, the uncertainties get larger. In this example, we want to measure
a 10-GHz signal with an amplitude of –10 dBm. In addition, we also want to measure its
second harmonic at 20 GHz.

Source of uncertainty Absolute uncertainty of 1-GHz, –20-dBm signal

N9030A PXA N9020A MXA N9010A EXA
Absolute amplitude accuracy ± 0.24 dB ± 0.33 dB ± 0.40 dB
Frequency response ± 0.35 dB ± 0.45 dB ± 0.60 dB
Total worst-case uncertainty ± 0.59 dB ± 0.78 dB ± 1.00 dB
Total RSS uncertainty ± 0.42 dB ± 0.56 dB ± 0.72 dB

Table 4-2. Amplitude uncertainties when measuring a 1-GHz signal

Assume the following measurement conditions: 0 to 55 °C, RBW = 300 kHz,

Atten = 10 dB, Ref level = –10 dBm. In Table 4-3, we compare the absolute and relative
amplitude uncertainty of two different Keysight spectrum and signal analyzers, an
8563EC (with analog IF) and N9030A PXA (with digital IF).

Frequency accuracy
So far, we have focused almost exclusively on amplitude measurements. What about
frequency measurements? Again, we can classify two broad categories, absolute
and relative frequency measurements. Absolute measurements are used to measure
the frequencies of specific signals. For example, we might want to measure a radio
broadcast signal to verify it is operating at its assigned frequency.

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 Source of uncertainty Measurement of a 10-GHz signal at –10 dBm
Absolute uncertainty of Relative uncertainty of second
fundamental at 10 GHz harmonic at 20 GHz
8563EC N9030A PXA 8563EC N9030A PXA
Calibrator ± 0.3 dB N/A N/A N/A
Absolute amplitude accuracy N/A ± 0.24 dB N/A N/A
Attenuator N/A N/A N/A N/A
Frequency response ± 2.9 dB ± 2.0 dB ± (2.2 + 2.5) dB ± (2.0 + 2.0) dB
Band switching uncertainty N/A N/A ± 1.0 dB N/A
IF gain N/A N/A N/A N/A
RBW switching N/A ± 0.03 dB N/A N/A
Display scale fidelity N/A ± 0.07 dB ± 0.85 dB ± 0.07 dB
Total worst-case uncertainty ± 3.20 dB ± 2.34 dB ± 6.55 dB ± 4.07 dB
Total RSS uncertainty ± 2.91 dB ± 2.02 dB ± 3.17 dB ± 2.83 dB

Table 4-3. Absolute and relative amplitude accuracy comparison (8563EC and N9030A PXA)

Absolute measurements are also used to analyze undesired signals, such as when you
search for spurs. Relative measurements, on the other hand, are useful for discovering
the distance between spectral components or the modulation frequency.

Up until the late 1970s, absolute frequency uncertainty was measured in megahertz
because the first LO was a high-frequency oscillator operating above the RF range
of the analyzer, and there was no attempt to tie the LO to a more accurate reference
oscillator. Today’s LOs are synthesized to provide better accuracy. Absolute frequency
uncertainty is often described under the frequency readout accuracy specification and
refers to center frequency, start, stop and marker frequencies.

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With the introduction of the Keysight 8568A in 1977, counter-like frequency accuracy
became available in a general-purpose spectrum analyzer, and ovenized oscillators were
used to reduce drift. Over the years, crystal reference oscillators with various forms
of indirect synthesis have been added to analyzers in all cost ranges. The broadest
definition of indirect synthesis is that the frequency of the oscillator in question is in
some way determined by a reference oscillator. This includes techniques such as phase
lock, frequency discrimination and counter lock.

What we care about is the effect these changes have had on frequency accuracy (and
drift). A typical readout accuracy might be stated:

± [(freq readout x freq ref error) + A% of span + B% of RBW + C Hz]

Note that we cannot determine an exact frequency error unless we know something
about the frequency reference. In most cases, we are given an annual aging rate, such
as ± 1 x 10 –7 per year, though sometimes aging is given over a shorter period (for
example, ± 5 x 10–10 per day). In addition, we need to know when the oscillator was
last adjusted and how close it was set to its nominal frequency (usually 10 MHz). Other
factors that we often overlook when we think about frequency accuracy include how
long the reference oscillator has been operating. Many oscillators take 24 to 72 hours
to reach their specified drift rate. To minimize this effect, some spectrum analyzers
continue to provide power to the reference oscillator as long as the instrument is
plugged into the AC power line. In this case, the instrument is not really turned “off.”
It is more accurate to say it is on “standby.”

We also need to consider the temperature stability, as it can be worse than the drift
rate. In short, there are a number of factors to consider before we can determine
frequency uncertainty.

In a factory setting, there is often an in-house frequency standard available that is

traceable to a national standard. Most analyzers with internal reference oscillators
allow you to use an external reference. The frequency reference error in the foregoing
expression then becomes the error of the in-house standard.

When you make relative measurements, span accuracy comes into play. For Keysight
analyzers, span accuracy generally means the uncertainty in the indicated separation
of any two spectral components on the display. For example, suppose span accuracy
is 0.5% of span and we have two signals separated by two divisions in a 1-MHz span
(100 kHz per division). The uncertainty of the signal separation would be 5 kHz. The
uncertainty would be the same if we used delta markers and the delta reading was
200 kHz. So we would measure 200 kHz ± 5 kHz.

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When making measurements in the field, we typically want to turn our analyzer on,
complete our task, and move on as quickly as possible. It is helpful to know how the
reference in our analyzer behaves under short warm-up conditions. For example, the
Keysight ESA-E Series portable spectrum analyzers will meet published specifications
after a 5-minute warm up.

Most analyzers offer markers you can put on a signal to see amplitude and absolute frequency.

However, the indicated frequency of the marker is a function of the frequency calibration
of the display, the location of the marker on the display and the number of display points
selected. Also, to get the best frequency accuracy, we must be careful to place the
marker exactly at the peak of the response to a spectral component. If we place the
marker at some other point on the response, we will get a different frequency reading.
For the best accuracy, we may narrow the span and resolution bandwidth to minimize
their effects and to make it easier to place the marker at the peak of the response.

Many analyzers have marker modes that include internal counter schemes to eliminate
the effects of span and resolution bandwidth on frequency accuracy. The counter does
not count the input signal directly, but instead counts the IF signal and perhaps one
or more of the LOs, and the processor computes the frequency of the input signal. A
minimum signal-to-noise ratio is required to eliminate noise as a factor in the count.
Counting the signal in the IF also eliminates the need to place the marker at the exact
peak of the signal response on the display. If you are using this marker counter function,
placement anywhere near the peak of the signal sufficiently out of the noise will do.
Marker count accuracy might be stated as:

± [(marker freq x freq ref error) + counter resolution]

We must still deal with the frequency reference error, as we previously discussed.
Counter resolution refers to the least-significant digit in the counter readout, a factor
here just as with any simple digital counter. Some analyzers allow you to use the counter
mode with delta markers. In that case, the effects of counter resolution and the fixed
frequency would be doubled.

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Chapter 5. Sensitivity and Noise

Sensitivity
One of the primary ways engineers use spectrum analyzers is for searching out
and measuring low-level signals. The limitation in these measurements is the noise
generated within the spectrum analyzer itself. This noise, generated by the random
electron motion in various circuit elements, is amplified by multiple gain stages in the
analyzer and appears on the display as a noise signal. On a spectrum analyzer, this
noise is commonly referred to as the displayed average noise level, or DANL1. The
noise power observed in the DANL is a combination of thermal noise and the noise
figure of the spectrum analyzer. While there are techniques to measure signals slightly
below the DANL, this noise power ultimately limits our ability to make measurements
of low-level signals.

Let’s assume a 50-ohm termination is attached to the spectrum analyzer input to

prevent any unwanted signals from entering the analyzer. This passive termination
generates a small amount of noise energy equal to kTB, where:

k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10–23 joule/K)

T = temperature, in Kelvin

B = bandwidth in which the noise is measured, in Hertz

The total noise power is a function of measurement bandwidth, so the value is typically
normalized to a 1-Hz bandwidth. Therefore, at room temperature, the noise power
density is –174 dBm/Hz. When this noise reaches the first gain stage in the analyzer, the
amplifier boosts the noise, plus adds some of its own.

As the noise signal passes on through the system, it is typically high enough in amplitude
that the noise generated in subsequent gain stages adds only a small amount to the
total noise power. The input attenuator and one or more mixers may be between the
input connector of a spectrum analyzer and the first stage of gain, and all of these
components generate noise. However, the noise they generate is at or near the absolute
minimum of –174 dBm/Hz, so they do not significantly affect the noise level input to the
first gain stage, and its amplification is typically insignificant.

1. Displayed average noise level is sometimes confused with the term “sensitivity.” While related,
these terms have different meanings. Sensitivity is a measure of the minimum signal level that
yields a defined signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or bit error rate (BER). It is a common metric of
radio receiver performance. Spectrum analyzer specifications are always given in terms of
the DANL.

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While the input attenuator, mixer and other circuit elements between the input connector
and first gain stage have little effect on the actual system noise, they do have a marked
effect on the ability of an analyzer to display low-level signals because they attenuate
the input signal. That is, they reduce the signal-to-noise ratio and so degrade sensitivity.

We can determine the DANL simply by noting the noise level indicated on the display
when the spectrum analyzer input is terminated with a 50-ohm load. This level is the
spectrum analyzer’s own noise floor. Signals below this level are masked by the noise
and cannot be seen. However, the DANL is not the actual noise level at the input, but
rather the effective noise level. An analyzer display is calibrated to reflect the level of
a signal at the analyzer input, so the displayed noise floor represents a fictitious or
effective noise floor at the input.

The actual noise level at the input is a function of the input signal. Indeed, noise is
sometimes the signal of interest. Like any discrete signal, a noise signal is much easier
to measure when it is well above the effective (displayed) noise floor. The effective input
noise floor includes the losses caused by the input attenuator, mixer conversion loss,
and other circuit elements prior to the first gain stage. We cannot do anything about the
conversion loss of the mixers, but we can change the RF input attenuator. This enables
us to control the input signal power to the first mixer and thus change the displayed
signal-to-noise floor ratio. Clearly, we get the lowest DANL by selecting minimum (zero)
RF attenuation.

Because the input attenuator has no effect on the actual noise generated in the system,
some early spectrum analyzers simply left the displayed noise at the same position
on the display regardless of the input attenuator setting. That is, the IF gain remained
constant. In this case, the input attenuator affected the location of a true input signal on
the display. As input attenuation was increased, further attenuating the input signal, the
location of the signal on the display went down while the noise remained stationary.

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Beginning in the late 1970s, spectrum analyzer designers took a different approach.
In newer analyzers, an internal microprocessor changes the IF gain to offset changes
in the input attenuator. Thus, signals present at the analyzer’s input remain stationary
on the display as we change the input attenuator, while the displayed noise moves up
and down. In this case, the reference level remains unchanged, as shown in Figure 5-1.
As the attenuation increases from 5 to 15 to 25 dB, the displayed noise rises while the
–30-dBm signal remains constant. In either case, we get the best signal-to-noise ratio
by selecting minimum input attenuation.

Resolution bandwidth also affects signal-to-noise ratio, or sensitivity. The noise

generated in the analyzer is random and has a constant amplitude over a wide
frequency range. Since the resolution, or IF, bandwidth filters come after the first gain
stage, the total noise power that passes through the filters is determined by the width of
the filters. This noise signal is detected and ultimately reaches the display. The random
nature of the noise signal causes the displayed level to vary as:

10 log (BW2/BW 1) where

BW1 = starting resolution bandwidth

BW2 = ending resolution bandwidth

So if we change the resolution bandwidth by a factor of 10, the displayed noise level
changes by 10 dB, as shown in Figure 5-2. For continuous wave (CW) signals, we get
best signal-to-noise ratio, or best sensitivity, using the minimum resolution bandwidth
available in our spectrum analyzer 2.

Figure 5-1. In modern signal analyzers, reference levels Figure 5-2. Displayed noise level changes as 10 log
remain constant when you change input attenuation (BW 2 /BW1 )

2. Broadband, pulsed signals can exhibit the opposite behavior, where the SNR increases as the bandwidth gets larger.

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A spectrum analyzer displays signal plus noise, and a low signal-to-noise ratio makes
the signal difficult to distinguish. We noted previously that the video filter can be used
to reduce the amplitude fluctuations of noisy signals without affecting constant signals.
Figure 5-3 shows how the video filter can improve our ability to discern low-level
signals. The video filter does not affect the average noise level and so does not, by this
definition, affect the sensitivity of an analyzer.

In summary, we get best sensitivity for narrowband signals by selecting the minimum
resolution bandwidth and minimum input attenuation. These settings give us the best
signal-to-noise ratio. We can also select minimum video bandwidth to help us see a
signal at or close to the noise level 3. Of course, selecting narrow resolution and video
bandwidths does lengthen the sweep time.

Figure 5-3. Video filtering makes low-level signals more discernible

3. For the effect of noise on accuracy, see “Dynamic range versus measurement
uncer tainty” in Chapter 6.

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Noise floor extension
While lowering an analyzer’s inherent noise floor through hardware design and
component choices is obviously beneficial for dynamic range, there are practical limits,
and another approach offers significant improvement. With sufficient processing and
other technical innovations, the noise power in a signal analyzer can be modeled and
subtracted from measurement results to reduce the effective noise level. In the high-
performance X-Series signal analyzer this operation is called noise floor extension (NFE).

Generally, if you can accurately identify the noise power contribution of an analyzer,
you can subtract this power from various kinds of spectrum measurements. Examples
include signal power or band power, ACPR, spurious, phase noise, harmonic
and intermodulation distortion. Noise subtraction techniques do not improve the
performance of vector analysis operations such as demodulation or time-domain
displays of signals.

Keysight has been demonstrating noise subtraction capability for some time, using
trace math in vector signal analyzers to remove analyzer noise from spectrum and
band power measurements. (Similar trace math is available in the Keysight X-Series
signal analyzers.)

This capability is effective, though somewhat inconvenient. It involves disconnecting

the signal from the analyzer, measuring analyzer noise level with a large amount
of averaging, reconnecting the signal and using trace math to display a corrected
result. It is necessary to re-measure the analyzer noise power every time the
analyzer configuration (frequency center/span, attenuator/input range, resolution
bandwidth) changed.

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The high-performance X-Series signal analyzers dramatically improve this measurement
technique for many measurement situations. Critical parameters that determine the
analyzer’s noise floor are measured when it is calibrated, and these parameters are used
More information:
(with current measurement information such as analyzer temperature) to fully model
For more information on
the analyzer’s noise floor, including changes in analyzer configuration and operating
using noise floor exten-
conditions. The analyzer’s noise power contribution is then automatically subtracted sion, please refer to, Using
from spectrum and power measurements. This process is called noise floor extension Noise Floor Extension in
and is enabled in the Mode Setup menu. An example is shown in Figure 5-4. the PXA Signal Analyzer –
Application Note, literature
The effectiveness of NFE can be expressed in several ways. Average noise power in number 5990-5340EN.
the display (DANL) is usually reduced by 10 to 12 dB in the analyzer’s low band (below
3.6 GHz) and about 8 dB in its high band (above 3.6 GHz). While the apparent noise
level will be reduced, only the analyzer’s noise power is being subtracted. Therefore, the
apparent power of signals in the display will be reduced if the analyzer’s noise power is
a significant part of their power, and not otherwise.

Thus measurements of both discrete signals and the noise floor of signal sources
connected to high-performance X-Series signal analyzers are more accurately
measured with NFE enabled. NFE works with all spectrum measurements regardless
of RBW or VBW, and it also works with any type of detector or averaging.

Figure 5-4. Noise floor extension view of harmonics

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Noise figure
Many receiver manufacturers specify the performance of their receivers in terms of
noise figure, rather than sensitivity. We will show you how the two can be equated.
A spectrum analyzer is a receiver, and we will examine noise figure on the basis of a
sinusoidal input.

Noise figure can be defined as the degradation of signal-to-noise ratio as a signal

passes through a device, a spectrum analyzer in our case. We can express noise
figure as:

S i /N i
F =
S o /N o

where

F = noise figure as power ratio (also known as noise factor)

Si = input signal power
Ni = true input noise power
So = output signal power
No = output noise power

We can simplify this expression for our spectrum analyzer. First of all, the output signal
is the input signal times the gain of the analyzer. Second, the gain of our analyzer is
unity because the signal level at the output (indicated on the display) is the same as the
level at the input (input connector). So our expression, after substitution, cancellation
and rearrangement, becomes:

F = N o /N i

This expression tells us that all we need to do to determine the noise figure is compare
the noise level as read on the display to the true (not the effective) noise level at the
input connector. Noise figure is usually expressed in terms of dB, or:

NF = 10 log(F) = 10 log(N o ) – 10 log(N i ).

We use the true noise level at the input, rather than the effective noise level, because
our input signal-to-noise ratio was based on the true noise. As we saw earlier, when
the input is terminated in 50 ohms, the kTB noise level at room temperature in a 1-Hz
bandwidth is –174 dBm.

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We know the displayed level of noise on the analyzer changes with bandwidth. So all
we need to do to determine the noise figure of our spectrum analyzer is to measure
the noise power in some bandwidth, calculate the noise power that we would have
measured in a 1-Hz bandwidth using 10 log ( BW 2 /BW1), and compare that to –174 dBm.

For example, if we measured –110 dBm in a 10-kHz resolution bandwidth, we would get:

NF = [measured noise in dBm] – 10 log(RBW/1) – kTB B=1 Hz

–110 dBm –10 log (10,000/1) – (–174 dBm) –110 – 40 + 174 = 24 dB

Noise figure is independent of bandwidth 4 . Had we selected a different resolution

bandwidth, our results would have been exactly the same. For example, had we chosen
a 1-kHz resolution bandwidth, the measured noise would have been –120 dBm and
10 log (RBW/1) would have been 30. Combining all terms would have given –120 – 30 +
174 = 24 dB, the same noise figure as above.

The 24- dB noise figure in our example tells us that a sinusoidal signal must be 24 dB
above kTB to be equal to the displayed average noise level on this particular analyzer.
Thus we can use noise figure to determine the DANL for a given bandwidth or to
compare DANLs of different analyzers with the same bandwidth.5

Preamplifiers
One reason for introducing noise figure is that it helps us determine how much benefit
we can derive from the use of a preamplifier. A 24-dB noise figure, while good for a
spectrum analyzer, is not so good for a dedicated receiver. However, by placing an
appropriate preamplifier in front of the spectrum analyzer, we can obtain a system
(preamplifier/spectrum analyzer) noise figure lower than that of the spectrum analyzer
alone. To the extent that we lower the noise figure, we also improve the system
sensitivity.

When we introduced noise figure in the previous discussion, we did so on the basis of
a sinusoidal input signal. We can examine the benefits of a preamplifier on the same
basis. However, a preamplifier also amplifies noise, and this output noise can be higher

4. This may not always be precisely true for a given analyzer because of the way resolution
bandwidth filter sections and gain are distributed in the IF chain.
5. The noise figure computed in this manner cannot be directly compared to that of a receiver
because the “measured noise” term in the equation understates the actual noise by 2.5 dB. See
the section titled “Noise as a signal” later in this chapter.

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than the effective input noise of the analyzer. In the “Noise as a signal” section later in
this chapter, you will see how a spectrum analyzer using log power averaging displays a
random noise signal 2.5 dB below its actual value. As we explore preamplifiers, we shall
account for this 2.5 dB factor where appropriate.

Rather than develop a lot of formulas to see what benefit we get from a preamplifier, let
us look at two extreme cases and see when each might apply. First, if the noise power
out of the preamplifier (in a bandwidth equal to that of the spectrum analyzer) is at least
15 dB higher than the DANL of the spectrum analyzer, then the sensitivity of the system
is approximately that of the preamplifier, less 2.5 dB. How can we tell if this is the case?
Simply connect the preamplifier to the analyzer and note what happens to the noise on
the display. If it goes up 15 dB or more, we have fulfilled this requirement.

On the other hand, if the noise power out of the preamplifier (again, in the same
bandwidth as that of the spectrum analyzer) is 10 dB or more lower than the displayed
average noise level on the analyzer, the noise figure of the system is that of the
spectrum analyzer less the gain of the preamplifier. Again we can test by inspection.
Connect the preamplifier to the analyzer; if the displayed noise does not change, we
have fulfilled the requirement.

Testing by experiment means we must have the equipment at hand. We do not need
to worry about numbers. We simply connect the preamplifier to the analyzer, note the
average displayed noise level and subtract the gain of the preamplifier. Then we have
the sensitivity of the system.

However, we really want to know ahead of time what a preamplifier will do for us. We
can state the two cases above as follows:

If NFpre + Gpre ≥ NFSA + 15 dB, Then NFsys = NF pre – 2.5 dB

And

If NFpre + Gpre ≤ NFSA – 10 dB, Then NFsys = NF SA – Gpre

Using these expressions, we’ll see how a preamplifier affects our sensitivity. Assume
that our spectrum analyzer has a noise figure of 24 dB and the preamplifier has a gain
of 36 dB and a noise figure of 8 dB. All we need to do is to compare the gain plus noise
figure of the preamplifier to the noise figure of the spectrum analyzer.

The gain plus noise figure of the preamplifier is 44 dB, more than 15 dB higher than the
noise figure of the spectrum analyzer, so the sensitivity of the preamplifier/spectrum-
analyzer combination is that of the preamplifier, less 2.5 dB.

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In a 10 kHz resolution bandwidth, our preamplifier/analyzer system has a sensitivity
(displayed average noise level, DANL) of:

kTB B =1 + 10log (NBW/1Hz) + NF SYS + LogCorrectionFactor

In this expression, kTB = −174 dBm/Hz, so kTBB=1 is −174 dBm. The noise bandwidth
(NBW) for typical digital RBW’s is 0.2 dB wider than the RBW, thus 40.2 dB. The noise
figure of the system is 8 dB. The LogCorrectionFactor is −2.5 dB. So the sensitivity is
−128.3 dBm. This is an improvement of 18.3 dB over the –110 dBm noise floor without
the preamplifier.

However, there might be a drawback to using this preamplifier, depending upon our
ultimate measurement objective. If we want the best sensitivity but no loss of measurement
range, this preamplifier is not the right choice. Figure 5-5 illustrates this point. A spectrum
analyzer with a 24-dB noise figure will have an average displayed noise level of –110 dBm in a
10-kHz resolution bandwidth. If the 1-dB compression point 6 for that analyzer is 0 dBm,
the measurement range is 110 dB. When we connect the preamplifier, we must reduce the
maximum input to the system by the gain of the preamplifier to –36 dBm. However, when we
connect the preamplifier, the displayed average noise level will rise by about 17.5 dB because
the noise power out of the preamplifier is that much higher than the analyzer’s own noise
floor, even after accounting for the 2.5 dB factor. It is from this higher noise level that we now
subtract the gain of the preamplifier. With the preamplifier in place, our measurement range is
92.5 dB, 17.5 dB less than without the preamplifier. The loss in measurement range equals the
change in the displayed noise when the preamplifier is connected.

Spectrum analyzer Spectrum analyzer and preamplifier

1 dB compression
0 dBm
Gpre
System 1 dB compression
–36 dBm
110 dB
spectrum
analyzer
range 92.5 dB
system
range DANL
–92.5 dBm
DANL
–110 dBm Gpre
System sensitivity
–128.5 dBm

Figure 5-5. If displayed noise goes up when a preamplifier is connected,

measurement range is diminished by the amount the noise changes

6. See the section titled “Mixer compression” in Chapter 6.

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Finding a preamplifier that will give us better sensitivity without costing us measurement
range dictates that we must meet the second of the above criteria; that is, the sum
of its gain and noise figure must be at least 10 dB less than the noise figure of the
spectrum analyzer. In this case, the displayed noise floor will not change noticeably
when we connect the preamplifier, so although we shift the whole measurement range
down by the gain of the preamplifier, we end up with the same overall range we started
with. To choose the correct preamplifier, we must look at our measurement needs. If
we want absolutely the best sensitivity and are not concerned about measurement
range, we would choose a high-gain, low-noise-figure preamplifier so that our system
would take on the noise figure of the preamplifier, less 2.5 dB. If we want better
sensitivity but cannot afford to give up any measurement range, we must choose a
lower-gain preamplifier.

Interestingly enough, we can use the input attenuator of the spectrum analyzer to
effectively degrade the noise figure (or reduce the gain of the preamplifier, if you
prefer). For example, if we need slightly better sensitivity but cannot afford to give up
any measurement range, we can use the above preamplifier with 30 dB of RF input
attenuation on the spectrum analyzer.

This attenuation increases the noise figure of the analyzer from 24 to 54 dB. Now the
gain plus noise figure of the preamplifier (36 + 8) is 10 dB less than the noise figure of
the analyzer, and we have met the conditions of the second criterion above.

The noise figure of the system is now:

NFsys = NFSA – G PRE

= 54 dB – 36 dB

= 18 dB

This represents a 6-dB improvement over the noise figure of the analyzer alone with
0 dB of input attenuation. So we have improved sensitivity by 6 dB and given up virtually
no measurement range.

Of course, there are preamplifiers that fall in between the extremes. Figure 5-6 enables
us to determine system noise figure from a knowledge of the noise figures of the
spectrum analyzer and preamplifier and the gain of the amplifier. We enter the graph of
Figure 5-6 by determining NFPRE + GPRE – NF SA. If the value is less than zero, we find
the corresponding point on the dashed curve and read system noise figure as the left
ordinate in terms of dB above NFSA – GPRE. If NFPRE + G PRE – NF SA is a positive value, we
find the corresponding point on the solid curve and read system noise figure as the right
ordinate in terms of dB above NFPRE.

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 NFSA – Gpre + 3 dB NFpre + 3 dB

NFSA – Gpre + 2 dB NFpre + 2 dB

System noise
NFSA – Gpre + 1 dB NFpre + 1 dB
figure (dB)

NFSA – Gpre NFpre

NFpre – 1 dB

NFpre – 2 dB
NFpre – 2.5 dB
–10 –5 0 +5 +10
NFpre + Gpre – NFSA (dB)

Figure 5-6. System noise figure for sinusoidal signals

Let’s first test the two previous extreme cases.

As NFPRE + GPRE – NFSA becomes less than –10 dB, we find that system noise figure
asymptotically approaches NFSA – GPRE. As the value becomes greater than +15 dB,
system noise figure asymptotically approaches NFPRE less 2.5 dB.

Next, let’s try two numerical examples. Above, we determined that the noise figure
of our analyzer is 24 dB. What would the system noise figure be if we add a Keysight
8447D amplifier, a preamplifier with a noise figure of about 8 dB and a gain of 26 dB?
First, NFPRE + G PRE – NFSA is +10 dB. From the graph of Figure 5-6 we find a system
noise figure of about NFPRE – 1.8 dB, or about 8 – 1.8 = 6.2 dB. The graph accounts
for the 2.5-dB factor. On the other hand, if the gain of the preamplifier is just 10 dB,
then NFPRE + G PRE – NFSA is –6 dB. This time the graph indicates a system noise figure
of NFSA – G PRE + 0.6 dB, or 24 – 10 + 0.6 = 14.6 dB. (We did not introduce the 2.5-dB
factor previously when we determined the noise figure of the analyzer alone because
we read the measured noise directly from the display. The displayed noise included the
2.5-dB factor.)

Many modern spectrum analyzers have optional built-in preamplifiers available.

Compared to external preamplifiers, built-in preamplifiers simplify measurement
setups and eliminate the need for additional cabling.

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Measuring signal amplitude is much more convenient with a built-in preamplifier,
because the preamplifier/spectrum analyzer combination is calibrated as a system, and
amplitude values displayed on screen are already corrected for proper readout. With an
More information:
external preamplifier, you must correct the spectrum analyzer reading with a reference
For more details on noise
level offset equal to the preamp gain. Most modern spectrum analyzers allow you to
figure, see
enter the gain value of the external preamplifier from the front panel. The analyzer then Fundamentals of RF
applies this gain offset to the displayed reference level value, so you can directly view and Microwave Noise
corrected measurements on the display. Figure Measurements
– Application Note,
literature number
Noise as a signal 5952-8255E.
So far, we have focused on the noise generated within the measurement system
(analyzer or analyzer/preamplifier). We described how the measurement system’s
displayed average noise level limits the overall sensitivity. However, random noise
is sometimes the signal we want to measure. Because of the nature of noise, the
superheterodyne spectrum analyzer indicates a value that is lower than the actual value
of the noise. Let’s see why this is so and how we can correct for it.

By random noise, we mean a signal whose instantaneous amplitude has a Gaussian

distribution versus time, as shown in Figure 5-7. For example, thermal or Johnson
noise has this characteristic. Such a signal has no discrete spectral components, so we
cannot select some particular component and measure it to get an indication of signal
strength. In fact, we must define what we mean by signal strength. If we sample the
signal at an arbitrary instant, we could theoretically get any amplitude value. We need
some measure that expresses the noise level averaged over time. Power, which is of
course proportionate to rms voltage, satisfies that requirement.

5-7 5-8
Figure 5-7. Random noise has a Gaussian amplitude distribution
Figure 5-8. The envelope of band-limited Gaussian noise has a Rayleigh distribution

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We have already seen that both video filtering and video averaging reduce the peak-to-peak
fluctuations of a signal and can give us a steady value. We must equate this value to either
power or rms voltage. The rms value of a Gaussian distribution equals its standard deviation, σ.

Let’s start with our analyzer in the linear display mode. The Gaussian noise at the input
is band limited as it passes through the IF chain, and its envelope takes on a Rayleigh
distribution (Figure 5-8). The noise we see on our analyzer display, the output of the
envelope detector, is the Rayleigh-distributed envelope of the input noise signal. To get
a steady value, the mean value, we use video filtering or averaging. The mean value of a
Rayleigh distribution is 1.253 σ.

However, our analyzer is a peak-responding voltmeter calibrated to indicate the rms

value of a sine wave. To convert from peak to rms, our analyzer scales its readout by
0.707 (–3 dB). The mean value of the Rayleigh-distributed noise is scaled by the same
factor, giving us a reading of 0.886 σ (l.05 dB below σ). To equate the mean value
displayed by the analyzer to the rms voltage of the input noise signal, we must account
for the error in the displayed value. Note, however, that the error is not an ambiguity; it
is a constant error that we can correct for by adding 1.05 dB to the displayed value.

In most spectrum analyzers, the display scale (log or linear in voltage) controls the
scale on which the noise distribution is averaged with either the VBW filter or with trace
averaging. Normally, we use our analyzer in the log display mode, and this mode adds
to the error in our noise measurement.

The gain of a log amplifier is a function of signal amplitude, so the higher noise values
are not amplified as much as the lower values. As a result, the output of the envelope
detector is a skewed Rayleigh distribution, and the mean value that we get from video
filtering or averaging is another 1.45 dB lower. In the log mode, then, the mean or
average noise is displayed 2.5 dB too low. Again, this error is not an ambiguity, and we
can correct for it 7.

This is the 2.5-dB factor we accounted for in the previous preamplifier discussion,
when the noise power out of the preamplifier was approximately equal to or greater than
the analyzer’s own noise.

Another factor that affects noise measurements is the bandwidth in which the
measurement is made. We have seen how changing resolution bandwidth affects the
displayed level of the analyzer’s internally generated noise. Bandwidth affects external
noise signals in the same way. To compare measurements made on different analyzers,
we must know the bandwidths used in each case.

7. In X-Series analyzers, the averaging can be set to video, voltage or power (rms), independent of
display scale. When using power averaging, no correction is needed, since the average rms level
is determined by the square of the magnitude of the signal, not by the log or envelope of the
voltage.

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Not only does the 3-dB (or 6-dB) bandwidth of the analyzer affect the measured
noise level, the shape of the resolution filter also plays a role. To make comparisons
possible, we define a standard noise-power bandwidth: the width of a rectangular
filter that passes the same noise power as our analyzer’s filter. For the near-Gaussian
filters in Keysight analyzers, the equivalent noise-power bandwidth is about 1.05 to
1.13 times the 3-dB bandwidth, depending on bandwidth selectivity. For example, a
10-kHz resolution bandwidth filter has a noise-power bandwidth in the range of 10.5
to 11.3 kHz.

If we use 10 log(BW 2 /BW 1 ) to adjust the displayed noise level to what we would
have measured in a noise-power bandwidth of the same numeric value as our 3-dB
bandwidth, we find that the adjustment varies from:

10 log(10,000/10,500) = –0.21 dB

to

10 log(10,000/11,300) = –0.53 dB

In other words, if we subtract something between 0.21 and 0.53 dB from the indicated
noise level, we have the noise level in a noise-power bandwidth that is convenient
for computations. For the following examples, we will use 0.5 dB as a reasonable
compromise for the bandwidth correction 8.

Let’s consider the various correction factors to calculate the total correction for each
averaging mode:

Linear (voltage) averaging:

Rayleigh distribution (linear mode): 1.05 dB

3-dB/noise power bandwidths: –0.50 dB

Total correction: 0.55 dB

Log averaging:

Logged Rayleigh distribution: 2.50 dB

3-dB/noise power bandwidths: –0.50 dB

Total correction: 2.00 dB

8. The X-Series analyzers specify noise power bandwidth accuracy to within 0.5% (± 0.022 dB).

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Power (rms voltage) averaging:

Power distribution: 0.00 dB

3-dB/noise power bandwidths: –0.50 dB

Total correction: –0.50 dB

Many of today’s microprocessor-controlled analyzers allow us to activate a noise

marker. When we do so, the microprocessor switches the analyzer into the power
(rms) averaging mode, computes the mean value of a number of display points about
the marker 9, normalizes and corrects the value to a 1-Hz noise-power bandwidth and
displays the normalized value.

The analyzer does the hard part. It is easy to convert the noise-marker value to other
bandwidths. For example, if we want to know the total noise in a 4-MHz communication
channel, we add 10 log(4,000,000/1), or 66 dB to the noise-marker value10.

Preamplifier for noise measurements

Noise signals are typically low-level signals, so we often need a preamplifier to have
sufficient sensitivity to measure them. However, we must recalculate sensitivity of our
analyzer first. We previously defined sensitivity as the level of a sinusoidal signal that is
equal to the displayed average noise floor. Since the analyzer is calibrated to show the
proper amplitude of a sinusoid, no correction for the signal was needed. But noise is
displayed 2.5 dB too low, so an input noise signal must be 2.5 dB above the analyzer’s
displayed noise floor to be at the same level by the time it reaches the display. The input
and internal noise signals add to raise the displayed noise by 3 dB, a factor of two in
power. So we can define the noise figure of our analyzer for a noise signal as:

NF SA(N) = (noise floor) dBm/RBW – 10 log (RBW/1) – kTB B = 1 + 2.5 dB

If we use the same noise floor we used previously, –110 dBm in a 10-kHz resolution
bandwidth, we get:

NF SA (N) = –110 dBm – 10 log (10,000/1) – (–174 dBm) + 2.5 dB = 26.5 dB

As was the case for a sinusoidal signal, NFSA(N) is independent of resolution bandwidth
and tells us how far above kTB a noise signal must be to be equal to the noise floor of
our analyzer.

9. For example, the X-Series analyzers compute the mean over half a division, regardless of the
number of display points.
10. Most moder n spectrum analyzers make this calculation even easier with the channel power
function. You enter the integration bandwidth of the channel and center the signal on the analyzer
display. The channel power function then calculates the total signal power in the channel.

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 NFSA – Gpre + 3 dB NFpre + 3 dB

System noise
NFSA – G pre + 2 dB NFpre + 2 dB
figure (dB)

NFSA – Gpre + 1 dB NFpre + 1 dB

NFSA – Gpre NFpre

–10 –5 0 +5 +10
NFpre + Gpre– NFSA (dB)

Figure 5-9. System noise figure for noise signals

When we add a preamplifier to our analyzer, the system noise figure and sensitivity
improve. However, we have accounted for the 2.5-dB factor in our definition of NFSA(N),
so the graph of system noise figure becomes that of Figure 5-9. We determine system
noise figure for noise the same way that we did previously for a sinusoidal signal.

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