ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

➢ comes from the Greek words endon (meaning

within or inside) and crinis (meaning secrete).

➢ a group of glands that secrete chemical substances

called hormones into the circulatory system that
regulate bodily functions such as growth,
metabolism, reproduction, and mood.

Endocrinology is a branch of scientific study that

deals with the endocrine system and its diseases.
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Secrete their product (hormones) into the
interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory
cells rather than into ducts

Hormones diffuse into capillaries

Blood carries them to target cells

 HORMONE
➢ Intercellular chemical signals secreted by
endocrine glands

➢ Greek word “hormon” meaning to “set into

motion”

➢ Mediator molecule that is released in one part of

the body but regulates the activity of cells in
other parts of the body
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE GLANDS HORMONE-SECRETING CELLS
 Functions of Endocrine System
1. Water Balance
2. Uterine contractions & milk release
3. Growth, metabolism, & tissue maturation
4. Ion regulation
5. Heart rate & blood pressure regulation
6. Blood glucose control
7. Immune system regulation
8. Reproductive functions control
Endocrine glands are regulated by:

1. Signals from the nervous system

2. Chemical changes in blood
3. Other hormones
 Chemical Signals
➢a.k.a Ligands
➢Molecules released from one location that
move to another location to produce
signals
➢Could be intracellular or intercellular
 Chemical Signals
• Intracellular – produced in one part of a cell,
such as cell membrane, and travel to another
part of the same cell and bind to receptors,
either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus of the
cell

• Intercellular – released from one cell, are

carried in the intercellular fluid, and bind to
their receptors, which are found in some cells,
but usually not in all cells of the body
 Classification of Intercellular Chemical Signals
Autocrine Secreted by cells in a local area and Eicosanoids (prostaglandins,
influences the activity of the same cell thromboxanes, leukotrienes)
type from which it was secreted
Paracrine Produced by a wide variety of tissues and Somatostatin, histamine,
secreted into tissue spaces; usually has a eicosanoids
localized effect on other tissues
Hormone Secreted into the blood by specialized Thyroid hormones, GH,
cells; travels some distance to target insulin, epinephrine,
tissues; influences specific activities estrogen, progesterone,
testosterone
Neurohormone Produced by neurons and functions like Oxytocin, ADH, hypothalamic
hormones – IH and RH
Neurotransmitter or Produced by neurons and secreted into Acetylcholine, epinephrine
neuromodulator extracellular spaces by presynaptic nerve
terminals; travels short distances;
influences postsynaptic cells

Pheromone Secreted into the environment; modifies Sex pheromones

physiology and behavior of other
individuals
 HORMONE RECEPTORS
• Hormone only affects target cells,
influencing them by binding to specific
protein or glycoprotein receptors

Ex: TSH binds to receptors on cells of the thyroid

gland, but it does not bind to cells of the ovaries
because they do not have TSH receptors
 HORMONE RECEPTORS
➢Target cell has 2,000-100,000 receptors
for a particular hormone
 HORMONE RECEPTORS
DOWN REGULATION- if a hormone is present in
excess, the number of target-cell receptors
may decrease; makes a target cell less
sensitive to a hormone

UP REGULATION- when a hormone is deficient,

the number of receptors may increase
Circulating Hormones
➢Pass from the secretory cells that
make them into interstitial fluid and
then into the blood
 Local Hormones
➢ Act locally on a neighboring cell or on
the same cell that secreted them
without first entering the blood
stream
Paracrines - act on neighboring cells

Autocrines - act on the same cell that secreted them

 Hormone Transport in the Blood
• Most water-soluble hormone molecules
circulate in the watery blood plasma in a
“free” form
• Most lipid-soluble hormone molecules are
bound to transport proteins
✓Make lipid-soluble hormones temporarily water-
soluble
✓Delay passage of small hormone molecules in the
kidneys, slowing the rate of loss in urine
✓Provide a ready reserve of hormone
Neuroendocrine Regulation
• Endocrine system works with the
nervous system to regulate overall
body function to maintain homeostasis

Ex: keeps internal body temperature at or near

37oC even when environmental temperatures
are higher or lower; keep the serum sodium
level within normal regardless of the amount of
sodium intake
Negative Feedback Control
• Hormone secretion is dependent on
the need of the body for the final
action of that hormone
• The hormone causes the opposite
action of the initial change in condition

Ex: elevated blood glucose levels

 Classification of Hormones
Amines
➢ simple hormones with structural variation of the
amino acid tyrosine (T4, Epinephrine, NorEpinephrine)
Proteins
➢ hormones with chains of amino acids (Insulin, GH,
Calcitonin, peptides: ADH & Oxytocin)
Steroids
➢ hormones with cholesterol as its precursor (Cortisol,
Aldosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone)
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland
Adrenal Glands
Pancreatic Islets
Pineal Gland
HYPOTHALAMUS & PITUITARY GLAND
Hypothalamus
major link between nervous system and
endocrine system; receives input from limbic
system, cerebral cortex, thalamus, RAAS,
sensory signals from internal organs

Pituitary (master gland)- secrete 7

hormones
The HYPOTHALAMUS
secretes hormones that
either stimulate or stop the
production of other
hormones.
PITUITARY GLAND
➢ The pituitary gland is a pea-sized
gland found in a bony hollow at
the base of the brain behind the
nose bridge.

➢ It is also referred to as the master

gland because it controls most of
the other endocrine glands and
the bodily processes they
regulate.

➢ The gland’s functions include, but

are not limited to, regulating the
body’s growth, metabolism,
reproduction, and blood pressure.
 PITUITARY GLAND
(Hypophysis)
Anterior Pituitary Posterior Pituitary
(Adenohypophysis) (Neurohypophysis)
Regulate growth and reproduction Does not synthesize, only
1. Somatotrophs store and release:
• HGH (somatotropin)
2. Thyrotrophs
1. Oxytocin
• TSH (thyrotropin) 2. ADH (vasopressin)
3. Gonadotrophs
• FSH, LH
4. Lactotrophs
• Prolactin (PRL)
5. Corticotrophs
• ACTH/ corticotropin
• MSH
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Growth hormone (GH) Adrenocorticotropic
➢ a general metabolic hormone, directed hormone (ACTH)
to the growth of skeletal muscles and ➢ regulates the endocrine activity
long bones of the body; a protein- of the cortex portion of the
sparing and anabolic hormone that adrenal gland.
causes amino acids to be built into
proteins and stimulates most target
cells to grow in size and divide.

Thyroid-stimulating
Prolactin (PRL) hormone (TSH)
➢ a protein hormone structurally similar ➢ TSH, also called thyrotropin
to growth hormone; its only known hormone influences the growth
target in humans is the breast and activity of the thyroid gland.
because, after childbirth, it stimulates
and maintains milk production by the
mother’s breast.
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Gonadotropic hormones Luteinizing
➢ regulate the hormonal activity of hormone (LH)
gonads (ovaries and testes). ➢ triggers the ovulation
of an egg from the
Follicles-stimulating ovary and causes the
hormone (FSH) ruptured follicle to
produce progesterone
➢ stimulates follicle development in and some estrogen; in
the ovaries; as the follicles men, it stimulates
mature, they produce estrogen testosterone
and eggs that are readied for production by the
ovulation; in men, it stimulates interstitial cells of the
sperm development by the testes. testes.
 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

Oxytocin Antidiuretic hormone

➢ is released in significant (ADH)
amounts only during ➢ causes the kidneys to
childbirth and in nursing reabsorb more water from
women; it stimulates the forming of urine; as a
powerful contractions of result, urine volume
the uterine muscle during decreases and blood volume
labor, during sexual increases; in larger amounts,
relations, and during
breastfeeding and also ADH also increases blood
causes milk ejection (let- pressure by causing
down reflex) in a nursing constriction of the arterioles,
woman. so it is sometimes referred to
as vasopressin.
THYROID GLAND
➢is an endocrine gland
shaped like a butterfly and
is found in the neck below
the Adam’s apple.

➢releases thyroxine,
triiodothyronine, and
calcitonin.
 THYROID GLAND
Follicular cells stimulated by TSH to produce:
1. Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine T4)
2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
Results in:
▪ ↑BMR- stimulate ATP production, ↑ body
temperature (calorigenic effect)
▪ Lipolysis (↓ cholesterol)
▪ Enhance catecholamines (↑ HR, BP, forceful
heartbeat)
 THYROID GLAND
Parafollicular cells/ C cells
1. Calcitonin
▪ calcium homeostasis
▪ decrease Ca level in blood by inhibiting
action of osteoclasts
PARATHYROID
GLAND
➢ are four pea-sized
glands located behind
the thyroid gland.
➢ produces the
parathyroid hormone.
➢ responsible for
regulating the calcium
levels in the body.
➢ takes effect in the
kidneys and in the
bones.
 PARATHYROID GLAND
▪ Parathormone
▪ Major regulator of levels of Ca2+, Mg2+,
HPO4- ions in the blood
▪ Increase activity of osteoclasts
▪ In kidneys: ↓ Ca2+, Mg2+ loss, ↑ HPO4-
loss
▪ Calcitriol- active form of Vit D which
increase Ca2+ and Mg2+ absorption from GI
tract into the blood
 ADRENAL GLANDS
• also called suprarenal glands, are glands
found above the kidneys that produce
hormones such as adrenaline, cortisol, and
aldosterone.

Adrenaline
➢ is released during a stressful situation and
prompts the body’s fight-or-flight response.

Cortisol
➢ regulates the body’s metabolism and
response to stress.

Aldosterone
➢ helps manage blood pressure.
 ADRENAL CORTEX
ZONA GLOMERULOSA
Mineralocorticoids
• Aldosterone
▪ Regulate Na, K
▪ Adjust BP and blood volume
▪ Promotes H excretion in urine
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE
SYSTEM (RAAS)
 ADRENAL CORTEX
ZONA FASCICULATA Effects:
Glucocorticoids ▪ Protein breakdown
-regulate metabolism ▪ Glucose formation
and resistance to ▪ Lipolysis
stress ▪ Resistance to stress
▪ Cortisol ▪ Anti-inflammatory
(hydrocortisone) 95%
▪ Depression of
▪ Corticosterone
immune response
▪ Cortisone
 ADRENAL CORTEX
ZONA RETICULARIS
Androgen
• dehydroepiandrosterone
▪ Females- converted to estrogen
by other body tissues
 ADRENAL MEDULLA
▪ A sympathetic nerve ganglion that
has secretory cells
▪ Stimulation of the SNS results in
the release of medullary
hormones (catecholamines)
▪ Play a role in physiologic stress
response
 Functions of Catecholamines
Organ/Tissue Receptors Effects
Heart Beta-1 Chronotropic and inotropic action

Blood vessels Alpha Vasoconstriction

Beta-2 Vasodilation
GI Tract Alpha Increased sphincter tone
Beta Decreased motility
Kidney Beta-2 Increased renin release
Bronchioles Beta-2 Relaxation; dilation
Bladder Alpha Sphincter contractions
Beta-2 Relaxation of detrusor muscle
 Functions of Catecholamines
Organ/Tissue Receptors Effects
Skin Alpha Increased sweating
Fat cells Beta Increased lipolysis
Liver Alpha Increased gluconeogenesis and
glycogenolysis
Pancreas Alpha Decreased glucagon and insulin
release
Beta Increased glucagon and insulin
release
Eyes Alpha Dilation of pupils
PANCREAS
▪ both an endocrine and exocrine gland.
▪ function as an endocrine gland which mainly release
insulin, somatostatin, glucagon, and pancreatic
polypeptide into the blood.

Insulin and glucagon

➢ are hormones that regulate the body’s blood sugar
levels.
Somatostatin
➢ known as the growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
because it prevents the secretion of other hormones.
Pancreatic polypeptide
➢ is a self-regulating hormone produced in response to
changes in blood sugar levels.
 PANCREATIC ISLETS
Pancreatic islets

alpha (A cells) beta (B cells)

Glucagon Insulin

Delta (D cells) F cells

Somatostatin pancreatic polypeptide

 GONADS (Ovaries & Testes)
Ovaries
▪ produce the reproductive hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Estrogen
➢ is vital in the regulation and development of the female reproductive
tissues.

Progesterone
➢ plays a role in a woman’s menstrual cycle and pregnancy by regulating
the conditions of the uterus’ inner lining.

Testicles
▪ also known as testes, are found in the scrotum.
▪ produce the testosterone hormone which is responsible in the
regulation and development of male reproductive tissues.
 OVARIES & TESTES
Gonads

Ovaries Testes

Estrogen Testosterone
Progesterone Androgen
 PINEAL GLAND
Melatonin
• derived from serotonin, and that
more melatonin is released in
darkness and less in strong sunlight

The pineal gland is situated at the center of

the brain.
It produces the hormone melatonin which
regulates sleep patterns.
 THYMUS GLAND

Thymosin
• Helps in the development of certain
white blood cell (T cells)
Summary of Pituitary Hormones
Hormone & Target Tissue Principal Actions

hGH/somatotropin Stimulate liver, muscle, cartilage,

bone, and other tissue to synthesize
and secrete insulin-like growth factors
to promote growth of body cells,
protein synthesis, tissue repair,
lipolysis, and elevation of blood
glucose concentration.
TSH/thyrotropin Stimulates synthesis and secretion of
thyroid hormones by thyroid gland.
Summary of Pituitary Hormones
Hormone & Target Principal Actions
Tissue
FSH (ovaries, testes) Females: initiates development of
oocytes and induces ovarian
secretion of estrogen.
Males: stimulates testes to produce
sperm.
LH (ovaries, testes) Females: stimulate secretion of
estrogen and progesterone,
ovulation, and formation of corpus
luteum.
Males: stimulates testes to produce
testosterone.
 Summary of Pituitary Hormones
Hormone & Target Principal Actions
Tissue

Prolactin (mammary Together with other hormones,

glands) promotes milk secretion by the
mammary glands.

Adenocorticotropic Stimulates secretion of

hormone (ACTH)/ glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) by
corticotropin (adrenal adrenal cortex.
cortex)
Summary of Pituitary Hormones
Hormone & Target Principal Actions
Tissue

Melanocyte- May influence brain activity;

stimulating hormone when present in excess, may
(MSH) (brain) cause skin darkening.
 General Assessment
Changes in energy level
• Ask about any change in ability to
perform ADLs and assess current
energy level
• Fatigue, sleeping longer,
generalized weakness
Heat and cold tolerance
 General Assessment
Sexual function, secondary sex
characteristics
• Ask women changes in menstrual cycle
• Ask men if they experience impotence
• Changes in libido
 General Assessment
Elimination
• Ask for urinary frequency, nocturia,
dysuria
Sex and Reproduction
• Ask for changes in menstrual cycle,
impotence, change in libido, or fertility
problems
 Physical Assessment
• Change in skin texture
• Eye changes (exopthalmos)
• Changes in physical appearance
(hirsutism, moon face, buffalo hump)
• Voice quality
• Secondary sex characteristics
 Inspection
• Prominent forehead or jaw
• Round or puffy face
• Dull or flat expression
• Skin changes (vitiligo, bruising, petechiae,
increased pigmentation)
• Fingernail malformation (thickness,
brittleness)
• Truncal obesity, buffalo hump
 Palpation
Thyroid Gland:
• Posterior approach
• Place thumbs of both
hands on the back of
client’s neck and fingers
curved around the front
of the neck on either
side of the trachea
• Ask client to swallow
and locate the isthmus
of the thyroid as you feel
it rising