Radiographic Physics

RAD 2326 Week 1

1. Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its
motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as
energy and force. One of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, the
main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves.
Week 1: Measurement Systems & Mechanics

• Introductions
• Course Syllabus and overview of expectations
• Lecture, discussion and assigned reading on
measurement systems and on concepts of velocity,
acceleration and force.
• Introduce Service-Learning Project
• Formation of Groups
 Content

• Measurement Systems
• Mechanics
Velocity
Acceleration
Force/Weight
Work
Power
Energy
Heat
• Math Review
 Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lecture,
the student will be able to:

• 1. List the SI units of mass, length, and time.

• 2. List the SI units for velocity, acceleration,
force/weight, work/energy, power and momentum.
• 3. State verbal definition and define formula for
velocity and average velocity.
• 4. Define Newton's laws of inertia, dynamics and
reciprocity.
 Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lecture,
the student will be able to:

• 5. State verbal definitions and define formula for

force, work, power, energy and weight.
• 6. Perform basic mathematical calculations
• 7. Define momentum.
 Radiography: an Art and a Science?

• Radiography as art
• Scientific method
• Natural science
• Physical science: non-living matter
• Physics
• Biological science: living matter
• Anatomy and physiology

0
 Physics Definition?
• According to Bushong: study of interactions of
matter and energy in all their diverse forms.
Physicists strive for exactness or certainty in
describing these interactions.
 Matter?
• Anything that occupies space. The material
substance with mass of which physical objects are
composed. Building blocks of matter are atoms and
molecules.

Mass is the quantity of matter as described by

its energy equivalence.
 Energy?
• Energy (from the Greek ἐνέργεια - energeia, "activity,
operation", from ἐνεργός - energos, "active,
working") is a scalar physical quantity that describes
the amount of work that can be performed by a force,
an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a
conservation law.

Ability to do work.
 Measurement Systems
• Two dissimilar measurement systems are used in the
world today:
• The Metric System
• The English System
• For this course, and in most of radiography, we use
the metric system. Specifically, we use the extended
MKS system called the SI (Systeme Internationale).
 MKS Stands for:
• Meter
• Kilogram
• Second
 MKS Units of Measurement

• Base Quantities
• Derived (Secondary) Quantities
• Special Quantities (in Radiology)
 (4) Base Quantities & Units

• 1. Length meter (m)

• 2. Mass kilogram (kg)
• 3. Time second (s)
• 4. Electrical Current ampere (A)
Base Quantities
Table 2-1 System of Units
British
SI MKS CGS

Length Meter (m) Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Foot (ft)

Mass Kilogram (kg) Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Pound (lb)†

Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)

 Derived Units

• Combination of one or more of the

base quantities.
• Examples:
• Area = length x width (m2)
• Physical density = mass/volume
(kg/m3)
 Derived Units
• Many derived units are complex and the units
have special names; i.e.:

• (1) Force is measured in Newton (N)

• (2) Work is measured in Joule (J)

 Special Units

• 1. Exposure
• 2. Dose
• 3. Dose equivalent
• 4. Activity
 Exposure
• measure of the ability of a source of x-rays to
ionize air

• unit of exposure = coulombs per kilogram (C/kg) or

roentgens (R)
 Dose Dose Equivalent

● Dose equivalent - product of the

• Dose - absorbed • Dose equivalent -
absorbed dose and radiation quality
energy per unit mass product of the absorbed
factor.
•unit of dose equivalent = Sievert (Sv)
dose and radiation
or rem
quality factor.
• unit of dose = gray or
rad • unit of dose equivalent =
Sievert (Sv) or rem
 Activity
• The number of nuclear transformations per unit
of time.

• unit of activity = Becquerels or Curies

 Mechanics
• The segment of physics that deals with the motion
of objects. Basic terminology include:

• Mass – resistance to acceleration (inertia) of matter or the

amount of matter object contains

• Inertia - tendency for an object to remain at rest, or

continue in motion. The inertia principle is Newton's first
law of motion.
Inertia
Mechanics

• Friction - the force

opposing the body in
motion.
 Mechanics
• Scalar- quantities or measurements that has magnitude
(size) only.
• ie: Speed is a scalar quantity which refers to "how fast an object is
moving." Speed can be thought of as the rate at which an object covers
distance.

• Vector- is a quantity or measurement that has magnitude,

unit and direction.
• ie: Velocity is a vector quantity which refers to "the rate at which an
object changes its position.” As such, velocity is direction aware.
When evaluating the velocity of an object, one must keep track of
direction.
• Velocity - speed
The rate of change of the position of an object
with time or the rate of motion.

Measured in meters/sec
v = d/t
• Acceleration - rate of change of velocity with
time; or the rate of “speeding up” or “slowing
down”.
• The SI unit = m/s2

• (a = vf - v0)/t where vf = final velocity, v0 = initial

velocity, and t = time in seconds.

• Example: If the portable needs 4 seconds to speed

up from an initial velocity of 0 m/s to a final
velocity of 0.5 m/s, what is the acceleration? (0.5-
0.0)/4 = 0.125 m/s2.
Velocity
 Which car/s accelerate/s?

• Green and blue are accelerating.

• Red car moves with a constant speed.
• Force - the push or pull on a object
• SI unit of force is the Newton (N)
F = ma

• F = ma where m = mass in kg and a =

acceleration in m/s2. Example: (ignoring
friction) If the portable has a mass of 1000 kg
and is traveling with an acceleration of 0.125
m/s2, what is the force which it would exert on
an unlucky pedestrian standing in the hall? F=
1000 x 0.125 = 125 N.
• F = ma is Newton's second law.
• Weight - is a special type of force: the force exerted
by an object because of the downward
acceleration of gravity.
• Wt = mg where m = mass in kg and g = the
acceleration of gravity: 9.8 m/s2. Example: What is
the weight of a 100 kg man on earth? Wt = 100 x
9.8 = 980 N.
• Momentum - the product of the mass of an
object and its velocity. Momentum is conserved
during interactions. The SI unit of momentum is
kg-m/s. The formula is: p = mv.

• We will not do this calculation.

• Work - is the product of the force and distance
moved
• SI unit of work is the joule (J)

• W = Fd where F = force and d = distance. Example:

(ignoring friction) If it requires 125 N of force to
push the portable for 10 meters down the hall, how
much work is done? Work = 125 x 10 = 1250
Joules.
• Power - the rate of doing work. The work
performed over a period of time.
• SI unit of power is watt (W)

• P = Work/t where work = work in Joules and t is

the time it takes to do the work. Example: The
work needed to push the portable 10 meters was
1250 J. If that work was done in 25 seconds, how
much power was needed? P = 1250/25 = 50 watts of
power. If you wanted to do it more quickly, would
it take more or less power? One watt is equal to
one joule per second.
• Energy - the ability to do work. The SI unit of
energy is the joule (J), the same as the unit for
work. The amount of work and the amount of
energy needed to do the work is the same.
Work and Energy
• Law of Conservation of Energy:
• energy may be transformed from one form to another,
but it can not be either created or destroyed. The total
amount of energy is constant.
 Forms of Energy?
• Mechanical energy
action of physical movement
• Potential energy
• Kinetic energy
• Chemical energy
• Electrical energy
• Thermal energy (heat)
• Nuclear energy
• Electromagnetic energy
• Potential Energy - is the stored energy of
position.

• PE = mgh where m = mass, g = gravity, and h =

height.

• We will not do this calculation.

• Kinetic Energy - is the energy associated with the
motion of an object.

• KE = ½ mv2 also written KE = (mv2)/2. Example:

The 1000 kg portable is moving at 0.5 m/s; what is
it's KE? (1000 x 0.25)/2 = 125 J.
Potential & Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy
 Forms of Energy?
• Electrical energy represents the work that can be done when
an electron moves through an electric potential difference
(voltage).
• Potential energy is the ability to do work by virtue of position.
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. It is possessed by all
matter in motion: a moving automobile, a turning windmill
wheel, a falling guillotine blade. These systems can all do
work because of their motion.
• Chemical energy is the energy released by a chemical
reaction.
 Forms of Energy?
• Thermal energy (heat) is the energy of motion at the molecular
level. It is the kinetic energy of molecules and is closely related to
temperature. The faster the molecules of a substance are vibrating,
the more thermal energy the substance has and the higher is its
temperature.
• Nuclear energy is the energy that is contained within the nucleus of
an atom. We control the release and use of this type of energy in
electric nuclear power plants.
• Electromagnetic energy is the most important for our purposes
because it is the type of energy that is used in x-ray. In addition to x-
rays, electromagnetic energy includes radio waves, microwaves, and
ultraviolet, infrared, and visible light.
• Thermal or Heat - a form of energy. Heat is the
kinetic energy of the random disordered motion
of molecules. SI unit of heat is the calorie.
• Calorie - is defined as the amount of heat
necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water 1 degree Celsius.
• 1. Conduction Transfer of
heat through solid matter
from a high temperature to a
lower temperature by
molecular motion.
• 2. Convection: The
mechanical transfer of
"hot" molecules in a gas
or liquid.
• 3. Thermal radiation: A
method of the transfer of
heat through space where
no matter exists at all and
depends on the
temperature of the object.
• Temperature - is the hotness or coldness of an
object and is measured with a reproducible scale
called a thermometer.
 Interconverting Celsius and Fahrenheit…
Two temperatures scales exist: Fahrenheit and Celsius.
There may come a time when you are required to interconvert temp values.
Online converters exist, but learning to do this conversion by hand
helps reinforce understanding.
freezing boiling
Refrigerator tempature Body temperature

Fahrenheit Each degree covers less distance.

32 212

Celsius Each degree covers more distance.

0 100
Refrigerator temperature
Conversion:
4C ?F F= (( C ) x 9/5 ) +32) = (4 x 9/5) + 32 = 39 F

98 F ?C C=(F-32)x 5/9) =(98 - 32) x 5/9 = 37 C

Body temperature
 Newton’s (3) Laws of Motion

1st Law - Inertia.

• A body at rest will remain at
rest or continue moving with
a constant velocity in a
straight line unless acted
upon by an external force.
 Newton’s (3) Laws of Motion

2nd Law - Dynamics

• The force (F) applied to
move an object is equal to
the mass (m) of the object
multiplied by the
acceleration (a) produced.

F=ma
Newton’s (3) Laws of Motion

3rd Law - reciprocal action

• To every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
 Anatomy of a “base 10” number

How many ones

How many hundreds

5,020,720
WHOLE NUMBERS:
Numbers used in counting: (0,1,2,3,etc) used
as digits and placed in neat columns! How many tens

Got the IDEA?

 Order of operations…
3+5-2x2-(4-2)=oh my

RELAX! Here goes

first Follow these simple rules: =3+5-2x2-(4-2)
-PARENTHESES Parentheses first

-EXPONENTS =3+5-2x2-2
Multiplication second
-MULTIPLICATION (left to right)
Reversible =3+5-4-2
-DIVISION (left to right) Addition third
last Reversible
-ADDITION (left to right) =8-4-2
-SUBTRACTION (left to right) Subtraction Left fourth

=4-2
An acronym to remember: Subtraction fifth
=2 DONE!
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
Multiplication…
Performing an important calculation by hand, in addition to a calculator, is a
great way to double check your answer.

Let’s consider an example:

The doctor asks you to administer 105 milligrams of drug for every
kilogram that the patient weighs. If the patient ways 80 kilograms,
What is the appropriate drug dosage?

Let's Set It Up
...
 h
u o
te
n n
n
d e
s2
r s

105
e
d

x 15
s

5 25 Multiply ones by ones (carry

the 2)

Add it up
+ 105 Multiply ones by tens

Do it again with
the tens! 1575 Multiply ones by hundreds

Finished!
 Division…
Let’s try a similar type of problem that involves division.
You are working in a pediatric ward. The doctor asks you how much drug the patient has
received per kilogram of body weight. The child received 600 milligrams of drug and
weighs 12 kilograms. The answer is…

Let's Set It Up
50 mg/kg Division procedure

12 600 1. Divide: 12 into 60

2. Multiply: 5 x12

- 60 3. Subtract: 60-60
4. Bring down: 0

00 Division procedure…again

- 0 1. Divide: 12 into 00
2. Multiply: 0 x12
3. Subtract: 0-0

0 4. Nothing left
• A fraction is a numeric value expressed by dividing
one number by another; it is also called the quotient
of two numbers. A fraction has a numerator and a
denominator.
• If the quotient of the numerator divided by the
denominator is less than one, the value is a proper
fraction. Improper factions have values greater
than one.
Things you must know about fractions…

What is a fraction? A whole number divided

by another whole number

5 numerator
fraction bar
How are fractions written? 6 denominator

Can a denominator be a number

=0?
NO!
Can the same fraction be written in
many ways?
YES!
Can fractions be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and
YES!
divided?
Preparing fractions for addition…
1 15
Quick add 6 + 42
Wait…

This fraction is not ready !

Both denominators must be the same before addition
Let’s multiply 1/6 x 1
Anything times 1 equals
itself right? Just another way to represent 1
Anything divided by itself =1

1 7 num x num 7
Lets try multiplying x = =
6 7 den x den 42

BINGO answer

Let’s try adding 7 num + num

+ 15 =
22
= 42
42 42 denom
Multiplication of fractions…
Let’s consider a problem:
A patient is ordered to drink 3/5 of a can of Ensure® at each meal. The doctor asks
you to cut this dose in half. What fraction of the can should she drink now?

3 1
x = ?
5 2

(numerator) (numerator) (numerator) x (numerator)

x =
(denominator) (denominator) (denominator) x (denominator)

Therefore…
3 1 3 x 1 3
x = =
5 2 5 x 2 10
Division of fractions…
How to do it?

3 1
= ?
5 2

Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal.

1 1 2
Take its reciprocal =
2 2 1

So…

3 1 3 2 6
= x =
5 2 5 1 5
Decimal notation…
Decimals are used to separate a whole number from its
fractional part…
Got the IDEA?
Whole number Fractional part
te
h n
d t
t u t
h e h
h n h
u ci te o
o d o
n te o m n u
u r u
d n n al t s
s e s
e a
1 0 2 1 1
a
n
r
e
s
s
h
s
d
t
n
a
n = 1021.1
d d
d h d Two more hundredths
s t
s
1 0 2 1 1 2
s h
s
t
h = 1021.12
s Two more thousandths

1 0 2 1 1 2 2 = 1021.122
Table 2-4 Various Ways to Represent Numbers in the Decimal System

Fractional Form Decimal Form Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

10,000 10,000 104 4.000

1000 1000 103 3.000
100 100 102 2.000
10 10 101 1.000
1 1 100 0.000
1/10 0.1 10−1 −1.000
1/100 0.01 10−2 −2.000
1/1000 0.001 10−3 −3.000
1/10,000 0.0001 10−4 −4.000
Converting mixed numbers to fractions…
A mixed number is a whole number plus a fraction of a whole number.
Example: A patient’s dose is 1 1/2 pills (mixed number).
Real Scenario: Her doctor tells you to halve the patient’s dose
You immediately think to multiply the patient’s dose by 1/2
Convert the mixed number 1 1/2 to a fraction…here’s how:

Add
1 (2x1)+1 3
1 = =
2 2 2
Multipl
y
Now we can solve by multiplying two fractions:

3 1 3
x =
2 2 4
Percentages…
Percentages are used often in the clinic…they are worth knowing well!
“Percentage” actually means per/100.

Imagine that a sample of blood is collected from a patient.

Let’s say 100 “parts” are collected (parts is an arbitrary unit).
If 10 parts are alcohol, what is their blood alcohol percentage?
10 parts per 100= 10%

percentages, decimals, and fractions can be interconverted.

Move
Percentage Decimal
Move decimal 2 places decimal 2
10% places
0.10
To the right, add %
to the left,
R remove
e
100 as
m
denominat
o or
v
e
%
si
Fraction
g 10
n
100
,
/
 Fundamentals of rounding…
The doctor asks you to keep track of a patient’s temperature to the nearest degree!
You’ve been given a fancy thermometer that shows temperature like this…
d
e h t
ci u h
m te n o
te o al n d u
n n
t r s
Imaginary s e
h et a
analog thermometer 9 8 7 2 4s
s h n
s t
Nearest single degree
h
Column to the right
99 s
A reminder about how decimal notation works…
All you have to do is ask…is the temperature closer to 99 or 98?
The formal way: Find the column to which you are rounding.
Look to the columns to the right of that column…
98 If the digit is greater than or equal to 5, round up…99 it is!
 Take home points…
● Comfort with basic math is absolutely required for delivering safe and
effective healthcare to patients.
● Solving a lot of problems helps make concepts “second nature”.
● Double checking calculations with colleagues or by-hand helps prevent
mistakes!
● Don’t be afraid to ask for help if you struggle with a concept.
 Assignment
• Complete reading assignment
• Complete challenge questions
• Answer Study Questions on Blackboard
• Prepare for Quiz #1.
Isaac Newton is popularly remembered as the
man who saw an apple fall from a tree, and was
inspired to invent the theory of gravity. If you
have grappled with elementary physics then
you know that he invented calculus and the
three laws of motion upon which all of
mechanics is based. More fundamentally,
Newton's mathematical approach has become
so basic to all of physics that he is generally
regarded as the father of the clockwork
universe: the first, and perhaps the greatest,
physicist.