MEKELLE UNIVERSITY(MU)

Mekelle Institute of Technology (MIT) Campus

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering (ECE)- 5th Year
Final Report and Project of Internship
Internship Period: 19, February 2024 to 20, May 2024
Project Title: Analyzing Performance of Rectangular Planar Array Antenna
Internship Hosting company: North Region Ethiotelecom- Mekelle Branch

Organized by:
s/n Name of Interns Campus Id Number
1 Alem Abrha Abebe MIT/UR/1006/10
2 Zinabu Haddis Asfaw MIT/UR/211/09
3 Tsega Hailu Weldu MIT/UR/10145/10
4 Gidey Tsige Tsegay MIT/UR/1051/10
5 Yalfom Abreha Gebru MIT/UR/10152/10
Company Supervisor: Mr. Kedir (MSc.)
Advisors: Ins. Aster Geremew
Ins. Micheale Hadera
Ins. Gereziher Nigus
Submitted To: Department Head Office
Submission Date: 23 May, 2024
Mekelle, Ethiopia
Final Report and Project of Internship

Declaration
We, listed below, hereby declare that the work titled “Final Report and Project of Internship” has
been submitted by us in partial fulfillment of the requirements for completing the first semester in the
fifth year of our degree program. As dedicated fifth-year students of Electronics and Communication
Engineering at Mekelle Institute of Technology (MIT), Mekelle University, we embarked on a
transformative three-month internship at Northern Region Ethiotelecom, guided by the expertise of Mr.
Kedir and our insightful advisors, Mrs. Aster, Mr. Micheale, and Mr. Gereziher. This report vividly
encapsulates the invaluable experiences and profound knowledge we acquired during this enriching
period. We affirm that this document is our original creation, carefully compiled in adherence to the
internship report writing guidelines set forth by the Institute. All information and data presented herein
are accurate and reliable to the best of our knowledge, with external sources thoroughly cited and
referenced according to our academic institution's strict standards.

List of Members
Name Id number
Alem Abrha----------------------------------------- MIT/UR/1006/10
Zinabu Haddis-------------------------------------- MIT/UR/211/09
Tsega Hailu------------------------------------------MIT/UR/10145/10
Gidey Tsige------------------------------------------MIT/UR/1051/10
Yalfom Abreha-------------------------------------MIT/UR/ 10152/10

Approval: This is to certify that this document made by the candidates is correct to the best of
our knowledge and belief. We, the signatories, approve the submission of this document for
presentation.
Approved by Name Signature
Department Head Atsbha Gebreslassie ____________
Advisor Aster Geremew ____________
Advisor Micheale Hadera ____________
Advisor Gereziher Nigus ____________

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Final Report and Project of Internship

Acknowledgment

At the outset, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to Almighty God for granting us
the strength and composure to complete our internship successfully and prepare this document
within the scheduled time. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to our families and beloved
ones for their unwavering moral and financial support throughout this journey.
We thank our campus, Mekelle Institute of Technology (MIT), and the Ministry of Education
(MOE) for establishing this invaluable internship program. We sincerely appreciate Ethiotelecom
(Northern Region) for allowing us to work with them and introducing us to the cutting-edge
technologies they employ in telecommunication services.
A special thanks to our supervisor, Eng. Kedir from the Transmission Department, whose wealth
of experience and knowledge made our time at the company truly meaningful. We are also
profoundly thankful to Eng. Zelealem from the RAN Subsection and Eng. Haftu from the IP
Backbone Division for sharing their crucial expertise in their respective fields.
Lastly, we extend our deepest gratitude to our advisors, Ins. Aster Geremew, Ins. Michael
Hadera, and Ins. Gereziher Nigus, for their meticulous guidance, insightful corrections, and
diligent follow-ups on our documents. Their support and attention to detail were instrumental
in our success.

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Abstract
This document is a comprehensive account of our three-month internship, carefully detailing
our achievements, experiences, and insights. Structured similarly to a thesis, it offers in-depth
analysis and reflections on our work with Ethiotelecom. The first chapter dives into the
essentials of Ethiotelecom, presenting a concise history, an overview of its primary products,
key customers, and its organizational structure and workflow, while highlighting the company’s
mission, values, and service offerings. The second chapter chronicles our internship journey,
detailing our entry into the company and our engagement with various departments,
particularly the Transport Network Department and the RAN Subdivision of the Wireless
Department, and elaborates on the operations and functions of each section we worked in. The
third chapter showcases our project work, beginning with an introduction and literature review,
and culminating in a discussion of the simulation outcomes. In the fourth chapter, we reflect on
the diverse benefits we gained from the internship, including professional skills development,
practical experience, and personal growth. Finally, in the fifth chapter, we conclude our
internship experience by offering recommendations to Ethiotelecom, our university, and future
interns. This structured and detailed document aims to provide a thorough understanding of
our internship experience, the operations of Ethiotelecom, and the valuable lessons we have
learned.

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Table of Contents
Declaration .................................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgment ......................................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................ iii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... ix
List Of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: Background of the Internship Hosting Company.................................................................. 1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Telecommunication History in Ethiopia ......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Vision, mission, values, and objectives of Ethio Telecom .................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Vision ........................................................................................................................................ 2
1.2.2 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Values ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.4 Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Main Products and Services of Ethiotelecom ................................................................................ 3
1.4.1 Mobile Service ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Fixed line service ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.3 Internet and data service ........................................................................................................ 5
1.4.4 Additional Business Services ................................................................................................... 6
1.5 The Main Customers or End Users of Its Product or Services ....................................................... 7
1.6 Stake Holders of Ethiotelecom ....................................................................................................... 7
1.7 Organizational Structure and Workflow of the Company ............................................................. 7
Chapter Two: Overall Internship Experience ............................................................................................... 9
2.1 Objective of the Internship ............................................................................................................ 9
2.1.1 General Objective .................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 How We Got into the Company ..................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Section of the Company We have been working in ................................................................... 10
2.4 Workflow of the Sections ............................................................................................................. 10
2.4.1 Workflow of Transmission Section ....................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Workflow of RAN section ...................................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Workflow of IP Backbone ...................................................................................................... 11

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2.5 Work task we have been executing ............................................................................................. 12

2.6 Procedures we have been going through during our stay in the company ................................ 12
2.7 Transmission Section ................................................................................................................... 13
2.7.1 Transmission Media .............................................................................................................. 13
2.7.2 Transmission technology (PDH, SDH, WDM) ........................................................................ 14
2.7.2.1 PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy) ........................................................................ 14
2.7.2.2 SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)............................................................................. 15
2.7.2.3 WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) .................................................................... 15
2.7.3 Optical Transport Network (OTN) ......................................................................................... 21
2.7.3.1 Challenges in Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) – The Importance of Optical
Transport Network (OTN) Standardization ................................................................................ 21
2.7.3.2 OTN Frame Structure...................................................................................................... 22
2.7.3.3 Applications of OTN in metropolitan networks ............................................................ 23
2.8 IP Backbone Section ..................................................................................................................... 24
2.8.1 Next generation network(NGN) ............................................................................................ 24
2.8.2 IP/MPLS core ......................................................................................................................... 25
2.8.3 Service Deployment in IP NGN Network .............................................................................. 26
2.9 RAN Section .................................................................................................................................. 27
2.9.1 Cellular Network.................................................................................................................... 27
2.9.2 GSM Architecture .................................................................................................................. 28
2.9.3 Layering of LTE (4G) ............................................................................................................... 30
2.10 Challenges we have faced while performing our work task ..................................................... 32
2.11 Measures taken to overcome challenges we encountered ...................................................... 32
Chapter Three: Analyzing Performance of Rectangular Planar Array Antenna........................................ 34
Summary of Project ............................................................................................................................ 34
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 35
3.2 Statement of Problem .................................................................................................................. 36
3.3 Objective of the project ............................................................................................................... 36
3.3.1 General Objective .................................................................................................................. 36
3.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................. 36
3.4 Significance of the Project ............................................................................................................ 36
3.5 Scope and Limitation of the Project ............................................................................................ 37

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3.5.1 Scope of the Project .............................................................................................................. 37

3.5.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 37
3.6 Literature Reviews ........................................................................................................................ 37
3.7 Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 38
3.7.1 Methods................................................................................................................................. 38
3.7.2 Fundamental Parameters of Antenna .................................................................................. 38
3.7.3 ARRAY ANTENNA ................................................................................................................... 39
3.7.4 System Model ........................................................................................................................ 40
3.7.5 Planar Array Beamforming.................................................................................................... 41
3.7.6 Gain and Element Factor of Planar Arrays ............................................................................ 42
3.7.7 Array Factor ........................................................................................................................... 43
3.7.8 Grating Lobe Issues for Planar Arrays ................................................................................... 46
3.7.8 The beamwidth of a planar array ......................................................................................... 47
3.7.9 Directivity of Planar Array ..................................................................................................... 49
3.7.10 Result, Discussion, and Conclusion ..................................................................................... 50
3.7.10.1 Result ............................................................................................................................ 50
3.7.10.2 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 54
3.7.10.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter Four: Overall Benefits Gained from the Internship ..................................................................... 55
4.1 Upgrading Theoretical Knowledge ............................................................................................... 55
4.2 Improving Practical Skills.............................................................................................................. 55
4.3 In terms of Industrial Problem-Solving Capability ...................................................................... 56
4.4 In terms of Improving Interpersonal Communication and Teamwork Skills .............................. 56
4.5 Improving Leadership Skills.......................................................................................................... 56
4.6 Understanding Work Ethics-Related Issues ................................................................................. 56
4.7 In terms of Entrepreneurship Skills.............................................................................................. 57
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation ...................................................................................... 58
5.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 58
5.2 Recommendation ......................................................................................................................... 58
5.2.1 Recommendation for the Company...................................................................................... 58
5.2.2 Recommendation for the University .................................................................................... 59
5.2.3 Recommendations for Students ........................................................................................... 59

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References .................................................................................................................................................. 60
Appendix..................................................................................................................................................... 61
Appendix1: Array Factor calculation code for fixed values of N, and M ................................................. 61
Appendix2: Matlab code for simulating 3D Array Factor ........................................................................ 63

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List of Figures
Figures pages
Figure 1.1 The eight departments of Ethio telecom, northern region…………………………8
Figure 1.2 Overall organizational workflow of Ethio telecom, northern region……………8
Figure 2.1: PDH used as a circuit provider………………………………………………………………….14
Figure 2.2: Consolidation and Grooming of SD…………………………………………………………..15
Figure 2.3: WDM relationship with other services……………………………………………………..16
Figure 2.4: Classification of the WDM system…………………………………………………………….16
Figure 2.5: CWDM Transparent Transmission………………….………………………………………….17
Figure 2.6: DWDM System………………………………………………………………………………………….18
Figure 2.7: Comparison of SDH and DWDM systems………………………….………………………..18
Figure 2.8: Common Network Elements in the DWDM System………………….…………………19
Figure 2.9: EDFA Working Principle………………………………………………………………………………20
Figure 2.10: DWDM Supervision System………………………………………………………………………20
Figure 2.11: The necessity for Optical Transport Network (OTN) standards…………………..21
Figure 2.12: Framing structure of OTN………………………………………………………………………….22
Figure 2.13: Deployment of OTN in metropolitan network……………………………………………23
Figure 2.14: Logical Topology of Ethio telecom IP NGN network……………………………………24
Figure 2.15: IP/MPLS layers………………………………………………………………………………………..…25
Figure 2.16: RAN section on GSM network…………………………………………………………………...26

Figure 2.17: BTS tower and indoor physical appearance respectively……………………………28

Figure 2.18: CS and PS Domains Architecture………………………………………………………………..29

Figure 2.19: Components of RTN series…………………………………………………………………………30

Figure 3.1: Flowchart for the simulation of a planar array……………………………………………..39
Figure 3.2: Planar Array…………………………………………………………………………………………………40
Figure 3.3: Planar Array Geometry…………………………………………………………………………………42

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Figure 3.4: Two-dimensional planar array (M x N Rectangular Pattern)………………………….45

Figure 3.5: Grating Lobe Issues with λ/2 Spacing (the two to left side) and
with λ Spacing (the two to the right side)………………………………………………………………………45
Figure 3.6: Beam width………………………………………………………………………………………………….46
Figure 3.7: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda/4 and dy=lambda/4………………………..49
Figure 3.8: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda/2 and dy=lambda/2………………………..50
Figure 3.9: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda and dy=lambda……………………………….50
Figure 3.10: Rectangular Array Factor for N=8 and M=10 with varying dx and dy……………51
Figure3.11: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=0.25lambda ………51
Figure3.12: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=0.5lambda ……..…52
Figure3.13: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=lambda ……………..52

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List Of Abbreviations

KM ---------- Kilometer

ICT ---------- Information and Communication Technology

GSM --------- Global System for Mobile Communications

SMS ---------- Short Messaging Service

GPRS --------- General Packet Radio Service

ISDN/E1 ----- Integrated Service Digital Network / Unimolecular Elimination

ADSL --------- Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

VDSL --------- Very High-Speed Digital Subscriber Line

EPON -------- Ethernet Passive Optical Network

GPON -------- Gigabyte Passive Optical Network

GB ------------ Gigabyte

LTE ----------- Long-Term Evolution

NGOs -------- Non-Governmental Organization

ZTE ----------- Zhonmplsg Xing Telecommunication Equipment

PMO ---------- Project Management Office

IP ------------- Internet Protocol

WDM ---------- Wavelength Division Multiplexing

OTN ----------- Optical Transport Network

Mr. ----------- Mister

CP ------------ Communication Provider

CR ------------ Cognitive Radio

PSTN ---------- Public Switched Telephone Network

MUX ----------- Multiplexing

Mbps ---------- Megabit per Second

DMUX --------- DE Multiplexing

ADM ----------- Add-Drop Multiplexer

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STM ----------- Synchronous Transport Modules

OSI ------------ Open System Interconnection

ATM ----------- Asynchronous Transfer Mode

OA ------------- Optical Signal Amplification

CH ------------- Channel

OTU ------------ Optical Transform Unit

OMU ----------- Optical Multiplexing Unit

ODU ------------ Optical Demultiplex Unit

EMS ----------- Element Management System

SC -------------- Supervision Channel

OADM ----------- Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer

ASE ------------- Amplified Spontaneous Emission

OSC ------------- Optical Supervision Channel

SONET ---------- Synchronous Optical Networking

SLAs ------------ Service Level Agreements

NE -------------- Network Element

O-VPNS -------- Optical Virtual Private Networks

ODUK OH ------ Optical Channel Data Unit-k Overhead

FA ---------------- Frame Alignment

OTUK [V] OH -----Optical Transport Unit - K Overhead

OPUK --------------Optical Payload Unit-K

FAS ----------------Framing Bytes

MFAS ------------ Multi-Frame Alignment Signal Byte

SM --------------- Single-Mode

GCC -------------- General Communication Channel

RES -------------- Reserved

JC ---------------- Justification Control

TCM -------------- Tandem Connection Monitoring

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ACT -------------- Activation/Deactivation Control Channel

APS/PCC ------ Automatic Protection Switching and Protocol Communication Channel

PM --------------- Path Monitoring

EXP -------------- Experimental

FTFL -------------- Fault Type and Fault Location Channel

NJO -------------- Negative Justification Opportunity

PJO --------------- Positive Justification Opportunity

ROADEM ------- Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer

ULH --------------- Ultra Long Haul

LAN --------------- Local Area Network

FL-NGN ---------- Fixed Line Next Generation Network

IP/MPLS ----------- Internet Protocol Multiprotocol Label Switching

CS ----------------- Convergence Switch

ER ----------------- Edge Router

CR ----------------- Core Router

CFT ---------------- Coarse Flow Table

VPNV4 -------------Virtual Private Network Version 4

NAT ---------------- Network Address Translation

CN ----------------- Core Network

MS ----------------- Mobile Station

TRX ---------------- Transceiver

BSS ---------------- Base Station Subsystem

VLR ---------------- Visitor Location Register

MSC ---------------- Mobile Switching Center

HLR ----------------- Home Location Register

AUC ---------------- Authentication Center

EIR ------------------ Equipment Identity Register

OMC ---------------- Operation Maintenance Center

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DCDU -------------- Datalink Control and Display Unit

RTN ----------------- Radio Transmission Network

ATN ----------------- Aeronautical Telecommunications Networks

GW ------------------ Gross Weight

RRU ----------------- Remote Radio Unit

EPC ----------------- Enhanced Packet Core

SSP ----------------- Service Signaling Point

SMSC -------------- Short Message Service Center

SGSN --------------- Service GPRS Support Node

GGSN --------------- Gateway GPRS Support Node

HSS ----------------- Home Subscriber Server

MME ---------------- Mobility Management Entity

PCRF ---------------- Policy and Charging Rules Function

PDN GW ----------- Packet Data Network Gateway

SGW ---------------- Serving Gateway

IMS ----------------- IP Multimedia Subsystem

PS ------------------- Packet Switching

CPRI ----------------- Common Public Radio Interface

SFP ------------------ Small Form Factor Pluggable

DC ------------------- Dual Connectivity

IoT ------------------- Internet of Things

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Chapter One
Background of the Internship Hosting Company
Introduction
Northern Region Ethiotelecom is situated in northern Ethiopia, specifically in Mekelle city,
approximately 780 km from Addis Ababa. This region encompasses eight departments,
including indirect channel, direct channel, fixed access network, operation and maintenance,
power and environment, business partner, finance, and physical security. This document is
the final report for the semester internship's Electronics and Communication Engineering
focus area. The internship occurred in the northern region of Ethiotelecom, where
responsibilities involved gaining experience as a product specialist. Throughout the
internship, participants engaged in technical and procedural activities, providing valuable
knowledge and job skills.

1.1 Telecommunication history in Ethiopia

In this section, we delve into the extensive history of telecommunication in Ethiopia based
on data we mainly found from [1] and [2]. The inception of telecommunication services in
Ethiopia dates back to 1894, during the reign of Emperor Menelik II. Between 1897 and
1899, the first telecommunication link was established between Harar and the capital, Addis
Ababa, spanning 477km. By 1904/05, this network expanded into Eritrea and Massawa via
Tigray, with telephone numbers transitioning to seven digits and area codes expanding from
two to three digits. Ethiopia became a member of the International postal, telegraph, and
telephone service in 1909.
The Addis Ababa telephone exchange commenced operations in 1914, initially catering to
around 100 subscribers, and by 1932, it supported 200 subscribers. In the same year,
Ethiopia joined the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Radio-telephone
communication was introduced in 1933, significantly improving both national and
international connectivity, surpassing traditional telegraph services. By 1934, 170 towns and
villages benefited from telephone services.
In 1979, the first Satellite Earth Station was established in Sululta and commenced
operations, followed by the inauguration of the second Sululta Satellite Earth station in
1987. The advent of digital exchanges occurred in 1988, initially in Addis Ababa, and later
expanded to other major towns. Internet Service was introduced in 1997, followed by the
launch of Mobile Telephone Service in 1999.
The year 2001 saw the introduction of Digital Data Network Service, while in 2003,
International Mobile Roaming and Satellite Mobile Service were launched, alongside the
introduction of prepaid mobile systems.

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1.2 Vision, mission, values, and objectives of Ethio Telecom

1.2.1 Vision
Ethio Telecom's vision encompasses the following crucial points:
To be a world-class provider of telecommunications services in Ethiopia.
To be an internationally recognized, moving quickly, strong, and vibrant world-class.
To achieve its goal of both providing a reliable network and improving Customer
Services through a range of different levels that are part of its development strategy.
To develop and enhance the information system. This will help to decrease the delay
for provision, sales, and activation as well as to
To provide more reliable information to Customers.
To develop a world-class human resources management.
To help to improve employee’s ability to meet the needs and expectations of
Customers.
To develop better sourcing & facilities processes. This will help to faster delivery and
repair and will offer more transparency to Customers.
To become a world-class provider of telecom service.

1.2.2 Mission
Connect Ethiopia through state-of-the-art telecom services.
Provide high-quality, innovative, and affordable telecom products and services that
enhance the development of our nation and ensure high customer satisfaction.
Build a reputable brand known for its customer’s consideration.
To connect every Ethiopian through ICT to Provide world-class telecommunication
services including basic telephony, mobile, internet, and multimedia services.
Build its managerial capability and manpower talent that enables Ethiotelecom to
operate at the international level.
Support community and environmental development.
1.2.3 Values
Lead with a vision: Ethiotelecom commits to understanding, meeting, and exceeding
the telecommunications needs and expectations of our country at large and of
customers in particular.
Respect: - Ethiotelecom respects all customers and recognizes that their revenues
allow the company to operate.
Recognize that the company employees are the most valuable asset and want to
create an efficient corporate management environment that allows them to develop
and grow.
Excellence: -Ethiotelecom will commit to high-level job performance, customer
service quality, organizational excellence, and continuous improvement in all areas
Ethiotelecom will make every effort to achieve a superior financial return.

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Integrity: - Be ethical standards, being honest in all assignments.

Accountability: - Ethiotelecom will hold accountable to all its stakeholders.
Stay motivated and encouraged to meet all the challenges that we will face. Make
every effort to achieve a superior financial return.

1.2.4 Objectives
The main objective is to create awareness of the products and services provided by the
company and help citizens understand the subscription requirements. The following are
other main objectives of the company:
Being a customer-focused company.
Offering the best quality of service.
Building a financially sound company.
Meeting excellent world-class standards.
To provide products and services that enhance the development of our Nation.
To build a successful brand known for its customer consideration.
To reach these goals, all Ethiotelecom divisions will focus on:
Ensuring easy access and coverage to the whole population.
Developing, and enhancing network and information systems.
Developing human resources management
Creating a strong brand.
Implementing control standard processes
Improving financial, sourcing, and facilities processes.

1.4 Main Products and Services of Ethiotelecom

The company is institutionalized to promote the development of high-quality efficient,
reliable, and affordable telecommunication services in the country. Its services can be
broadly classified as:

1.4.1 Mobile service

Mobile roaming: - is a service that helps subscribers automatically make and
receive voice calls, send and receive data, or access other services when traveling
outside the geographical coverage area of Ethiotelecom, employing using a visited
country’s operator’s network. It could be outbound roaming, a service given to
Ethiotelecom customers who want to use their mobile phone abroad, and inbound, a
service given to customers of foreign operators who have a roaming agreement with
it

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(like tourists, and foreign investors …). Currently, this service is provided only for
GSM
post-paid subscribers.
GOTA (Global Open Trucking Architecture):- is a service given using the
CDMA2000 wireless network for group communication. It allows two
or more individuals to communicate and is also used for private and group calls using
push-to-talk. The service also allows the subscriber to make external calls after
subscribing to the mobile wireless service.
Satellite Mobile Telephone: - is a mobile phone that connects to orbiting satellites
instead of terrestrial network. It enables customers in every part of the globe to be
beneficiaries of telecom services through satellites stationed in the universe. Satellite
phone is one of the greatest innovations in communication. The satellite mobile
telephone provides similar features of communication services to that of earthly
mobile telephones such as; voice, SMS, and low-bandwidth internet access.
Business Mobile Service with or without CUG: - is a bundled postpaid mobile
service that allows enterprise customers to make calls at a discounted rate compared
to the normal mobile tariff rates.BM with CUG (Closed User Group) option, in
addition to the business mobile bundles, any calls out of the bundle made within the
group are treated at a much-discounted rate. To subscribe to CUG there should be at
least five defined internal users within the group for each organization. All services
supported by GSM are also supported by Business Mobile.
Vanity numbers: - these are Mobile numbers that are memorable and easy to dial.
Vanity numbers are classified into four categories based on their easiness to
remember. These are Platinum numbers, Gold numbers, Silver numbers, and Bronze
numbers.
Machine to Machine Service:-Machine to Machine is a wireless technology that

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enables machines to talk to each other, and which customers can access directly
from
their office or home computer.
Hybrid Business Mobile:-In the hybrid BM, customers will have a postpaid bundle
but
after the bundle, it will be changed into prepaid mode automatically so that the
Customer
can recharge whatever amount to use for out-of-bundle (OOB) usage and
international
calls.
Packaged Services: - a service that could be provided in the form of a voice-off picks
package, GPRS package, and SMS package. Special targets of customers for all
packages include students, night shift workers, big Hotel workers, and Taxi drivers.

1.4.2 Fixed line service

It includes Wired Fixed line, Wireless Fixed line (CDMA), Shortcode, Bulk SMS and
ISDN/E1.
Landline: -is a telephone line that travels over terrestrial circuits. A landline can be
copper wire, fiber optics, or microwave.
Wireless Fixed line: -is much similar to the ordinary fixed telephone service; it uses
Fixed Wireless Terminal (FWT) which enables it to give a voice, data, and other value-
added services. It works wherever the CDMA network is available.
ISDN/E1 service: -Integrated services digital network (ISDN) is an international
communications standard for sending voice, video, and data over digital telephone
lines or normal telephone wires.

1.4.3 Internet and data service

Fixed wired broadband internet: -is provided through copper or fiber with different
access methods like ADSL, VDSL, EPON, and GPON.
Fixed wireless BB internet: -wireless is a device or system used to connect different
fixed locations with a radio or other wireless link.

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Wireless broadband internet: is an Internet service which can be given through

different access methods like AIRONET support up to 54 Mbps of downloading
capacity, VSAT (supports up to 2Mbps downloading capacity), 3G and EVDO.
Evolution Data Only (EVDO): is a Broadband mobile Internet service with high
speed using CDMA technology. The service works wherever the CDMA network is
available. The service is available in Addis Ababa and more than 200 cities and towns
throughout the country. It is provided in three alternative packages: 1GB, 2GB and
4GB for both prepaid and postpaid customers.

1.4.4 Additional Business Services

Virtual Private Network (VPN):- enables private and public institutions to connect
their various branches and to establish their private networks. VPN enables you
to share information and activate all information technology systems inside your
branches via fixed and mobile options. The service is available all over Ethiopia in
areas covered by Ethiotelecom terrestrial and mobile networks that support data.
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal):- is an internet or VPN service using a
satellite access mechanism. It is a way of establishing a private satellite
communication
network for large organizations that have widely dispersed locations.
GSM Mobile (prepaid/ postpaid):- the service is given using SIM (Subscriber Identity
Module). It has voice, data, SMS, and other value-added capabilities. SMS (short
messaging service), Call divert SMS, Call waiting, Call barring.
4G Internet Access Technology: -is the 4th generation wireless internet access
technology that transforms the existing internet speed into a super-fast connection.
The
users of 4G LTE network get the advantage of superior and uninterrupted
connectivity, which enables live streaming, video, and movies at a much faster rate
than
ever before and can also easily share information.

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1.5 The Main Customers or End Users of Its Product or Services

Broadly, Ethiotelecom's clientele comprises the entire population of Ethiopia within the
company's network coverage. To streamline operations effectively, Ethiotelecom's
customers can be categorized into two groups: Enterprise customers and Residential
customers.
The Residential Customers: - are those customers who are single users like us. For
example, any people that can use a mobile network, fixed line network, fixed line
telephone and internet service are some of the residential customers.
The Enterprise Customers: -are those customers like governmental organizations,
private companies, and non-governmental organizations. For example: banks,
agricultural offices, health offices, schools, NGOs, etc.

1.6 Stake Holders of Ethiotelecom

A stakeholder is identified as any group whose support is essential for the continued
existence of an organization. This concept has garnered significant recognition in business
practices and theoretical frameworks about strategic management, corporate governance,
business objectives, and corporate social responsibility (CSR). The stakeholders of
Ethiotelecom include ZTE Company, HUAWEI Company, Ericsson Company, Customers, and
Government.

1.7 Organizational Structure and Workflow of the Company

The main office of Ethiotelecom in Addis Ababa is connected to its regional
telecommunications branches. Our hosting entity, referred to as Ethiotelecom Northern
Region, operates as one of these regional telecommunications branches.
In Ethiotelecom North region, there are eight main departments and these are:-
Fixed line access network (FAN).
Operation and Maintenance (O&M).
Indirect Channel.
Direct Channel.
Power and Environment.
Business Partner.
Security.
Financial

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Figure 1.1 The eight departments of Ethiotelecom, northern region

Figure 1.2 Overall organizational workflow of Ethiotelecom, northern region

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Chapter Two
Overall Internship Experience
2.1 Objective of the internship
An internship serves as a bridge between academic learning and real-world experience,
providing valuable practical skills and insights. It enables students to translate theoretical
knowledge into practical application, fostering the development of essential attributes like
teamwork, communication, and meticulousness, highly valued by employers. Through
exposure to professional environments, interns gain familiarity with the expectations and
performance standards in various sectors, be it professional accounting firms, private
corporations, or governmental organizations. Ultimately, internships contribute significantly
to shaping future professional trajectories by offering new avenues of experiential learning.
2.1.1 General Objective
Internships offer practical settings where students can refine and align their career goals.
They serve as a conduit linking students to prospective employers, offering chances to
delve into the diverse array of career paths present within the hosting organization.
These experiences facilitate the application of theoretical learning to real-world
scenarios, fostering the development of insights, business acumen, and skills highly
prized by employers.

2.1.2 Specific Objectives

To utilize and extrapolate academic theories and knowledge gained in the classroom
within the practical realm of engineering.
To establish a symbiotic relationship with the internship company.
To cultivate an environment conducive to evaluating professional aptitude.
To facilitate the transfer of knowledge and technology to the industrial sector.
To enhance students' productivity levels.

2.2 How We Got into the Company

The Mekelle Institute of Technology (MIT) campus of Mekelle University mandates that
students commence their internship program upon entering the first semester of their fifth
year. Upon application through our department head during our university tenure, we
received confirmation approximately a month later from both our university and the
Ministry of Education (MOE) that we were accepted into Ethiotelecom. The Ministry of
Education, particularly targeting technology students, aims to bridge the gap between
theoretical and practical knowledge, facilitating students' readiness for independent work
post-graduation. Upon arrival at Ethiotelecom, we were greeted with a welcoming
ceremony and underwent a comprehensive one-day orientation session conducted by

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Ethiotelecom staff members, covering the organization's structure, workflow, products, and
services.

2.3 Section of the Company We have been working in

After we joined the company, all of us interns were divided into three departments, which are
wireless, network infrastructure, and fixed network. By chance, the five of us were assigned
to a network infrastructure that encompasses two sections: The transmission section and the
IP Backbone section. But we sometimes have also worked in a Radio Access Network (RAN)
section of the wireless department. We'll explain in detail our observations and learning of each
section during our internship.

2.4 Workflow of the Sections

2.4.1 Workflow of Transmission Section
The workflow of the Transmission section in the north region of Ethio Telecom mainly
includes:
1. Network Planning: Engineers assess capacity requirements, traffic patterns, and
network expansion plans to design transmission links and routes.
2. Equipment Procurement: Necessary transmission equipment such as multiplexers,
modems, and optical fibers are sourced and procured.
3. Installation and Commissioning: Engineers install and configure transmission
equipment at various network sites, ensuring proper connectivity and alignment.
4. Testing and Optimization: Transmission links are tested for signal quality, throughput,
and reliability. Optimization involves fine-tuning configurations to ensure optimal
performance.
5. Monitoring and Maintenance: Continuous monitoring of transmission links is
performed to identify and address issues promptly. Routine maintenance tasks such as
software updates and equipment inspections are carried out.
6. Capacity Planning: Engineers assess bandwidth demands and plan for capacity
upgrades or expansions as needed to accommodate growing traffic.
7. Fault Resolution: In case of transmission failures or disruptions, engineers
troubleshoot and resolve issues to restore service continuity.
By following this workflow, the Transmission section ensures the reliable and efficient
transmission of data across Ethio Telecom's network infrastructure inside the Tigray
region and along the routing paths to Addis Ababa.

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2.4.2 Workflow of RAN section

The workflow of the Radio Access Network (RAN) section in this region Ethiotelecom
typically includes the following steps:
1. Network Planning: Engineers assess coverage requirements, traffic patterns, and
technology advancements to plan the expansion or optimization of the RAN. This
involves determining the location of base stations, antenna configurations, and
frequency allocation.
2. Site Survey and Acquisition: Site surveys are conducted to evaluate potential
locations for base station installation. This includes acquiring necessary permits,
negotiating with property owners, and ensuring compliance with regulatory
requirements.
3. Equipment Installation: Once sites are secured, engineers install base stations,
antennas, and other RAN equipment. This involves mounting hardware, connecting
power and network cables, and configuring equipment settings.
4. Integration and Testing: Installed equipment is integrated into the existing network
infrastructure and thoroughly tested to ensure proper functionality. This includes testing
connectivity, signal strength, and handover procedures between base stations.

5. Customer Support and Troubleshooting: The RAN section provides support to

customers and addresses any network-related issues or complaints. This involves
troubleshooting connectivity problems, investigating coverage gaps, and resolving
service disruptions promptly

2.4.3 Workflow of IP backbone

The workflow of the IP Backbone section in the north region typically involves several
key steps and processes to ensure the efficient operation and management of the core
network infrastructure. Here's an overview of the workflow:
1. Network Design and Planning: The process begins with network design and planning,
where engineers and architects analyze requirements, forecast traffic demands, and
design the architecture of the IP backbone network. This includes determining the
locations of network nodes, selecting appropriate hardware and software components,
and defining the routing protocols and addressing schemes to be used.
2. Infrastructure Deployment: Once the network design is finalized, the next step
involves deploying the necessary infrastructure components, such as routers, switches,
and optical transmission equipment, at various network locations. This may include
building or upgrading physical facilities such as data centers, network hubs, and
transmission towers to support the backbone network.

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3. Configuration and Provisioning: After the infrastructure is in place, network engineers

configure and provision the network devices according to the design specifications. This
involves setting up routing tables, establishing logical connections between network
nodes, configuring security policies, and implementing quality of service (QoS)
mechanisms to prioritize traffic.
4. Monitoring and Maintenance: Continuous monitoring of network performance and
health is essential to ensure optimal operation of the IP backbone. Network operations
centers (NOCs) use monitoring tools and software to track key performance indicators
(KPIs), detect anomalies or failures, and troubleshoot issues in real time. Regular
maintenance activities, such as software upgrades, hardware replacements, and
preventive maintenance, are also performed to keep the network running smoothly.
5. Security and Compliance: Security measures are implemented to protect the IP
backbone network from various threats, including cyber attacks, unauthorized access,
and data breaches. This includes deploying firewalls, intrusion detection/prevention
systems, access control mechanisms, and encryption technologies to safeguard network
assets and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.

2.5 Work task we have been executing

During our internship period, we have been mainly executing the following work tasks;
Observing different components and knowing their operation.
Understanding framing and IP concepts.
Exploring on a computer the ground interconnection and network topologies all over
Tigray look like.
Knowing how to check whether WDM and OTN systems are functioning.
Understanding the how-about of cellular communication at base stations.
Observing the interconnections amongst different routers in the IP backbone section.

2.6 Procedures we have been going through during our stay in the company
On our initial day at the company, supervisors from the Transmission department warmly
greeted us, guiding us through rooms housing network transport systems and the network
backbone. They provided insightful overviews of the systems, devices, and their
functionalities. Supervisor Mr. Kedir then shared samples related to network transmissions,
urging us to actively engage and absorb knowledge during our internship. His
encouragement aligned with our internship objectives, prompting us to diligently study the
provided materials and delve deeper into telecommunication means and technologies.
Over the following month, Mr. Kedir meticulously described the workings of network
transport systems such as DWDM and OTN. He fostered an environment where questioning
and seeking clarity were encouraged, patiently addressing any uncertainties. Additionally,

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Mr. Zelealem from the RAN division delivered an enlightening lecture on wireless
communication and the tasks of the RAN section. Together, they led us on a field trip to base
stations in Mekelle City, offering detailed explanations of the equipment and devices
involved in mobile communication. The experience sparked a newfound enthusiasm for
exploring cellular communication advancements.
In subsequent days, Mr. Kedir continued to deepen our understanding of transport systems,
demonstrating the intricacies of ground network interconnection in Tigray and routing paths
to Addis Ababa. He bridged theoretical knowledge with real-world applications, elucidating
complex concepts with clarity.
Transitioning to the IP backbone section, we were greeted by Mr. Haftom, who commenced
our induction with informative videos showcasing Ethiotelecom's service quality and the
role of VSAT communication in safeguarding communication. He further acquainted us with
the network operation center, providing insights into the roles of CS, CP, and CR, and their
interconnected tasks.
Now, let us see in detail the three sections we have been working on.

2.7 Transmission section

Transmission in telecommunications involves sending either an analog or digital signal
through wired, wireless, or fiber optic mediums. Within the transmission section, various
components of media capable of transmitting and receiving information (such as data, voice,
video, etc.) from a source to a destination are discussed. There are two main types of
transmission media:
1. Guided media: These mediums create a pathway from one device to another and include
twisted-pair, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
2. Unguided media: This refers to wireless media that transport electromagnetic waves
without the need for a physical conductor. Signals are broadcast through the air.

2.7.1 Transmission Media

Ethio Telecom utilizes a variety of transmission media to deliver its services to customers
across the country. The key transmission media used by Ethio Telecom include:
1. Fiber Optic Cables: Ethio Telecom has been investing in expanding its fiber optic
network infrastructure to provide high-speed internet and data services to customers.
Fiber optic cables offer reliable and high-bandwidth connectivity, making them ideal for
delivering fast and stable internet access.
2. Microwave Links: Ethio Telecom also uses microwave links for backhauling network
traffic and connecting remote sites. Microwave links enable the company to extend its
network coverage to areas where laying fiber optic cables may be challenging or costly.

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3. Satellite Communication: Satellite communication is another transmission medium

used by Ethio Telecom to provide connectivity in remote and underserved areas.
Satellite technology allows the company to offer communication services in regions
where terrestrial infrastructure is limited or unavailable.
4. Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cables are commonly used by Ethio Telecom for delivering
cable television services and broadband internet access to residential and commercial
customers. Coaxial cables provide reliable signal quality and high-speed data
transmission for these services.
5. Wireless Transmission: Ethio Telecom utilizes wireless technologies such as 4G LTE
and 5G (as of writing this report--in Addis Ababa and some other parts of the country)
networks to offer mobile communication services to subscribers. Wireless transmission
enables customers to access voice, data, and multimedia services on their mobile
devices.

2.7.2 Transmission technology (PDH, SDH, WDM)

Ethio Telecom utilizes a combination of transmission technologies, including PDH
(Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy), SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy), and WDM
(Wavelength Division Multiplexing), to support its telecommunications services across
Ethiopia.
2.7.2.1 PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)
PDH is a legacy transmission technology that was widely used for voice and data
communication before the adoption of SDH. Ethio Telecom may still have some PDH-
based infrastructure in place, especially in older network segments. PDH allows for
the transmission of multiple digital signals over a single physical connection,
enabling efficient use of bandwidth.

Figure 2.1: PDH used as a circuit provider

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2.7.2.2 SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)

SDH is a standardized technology used for high-speed synchronous data transmission
in telecommunications networks. Ethio Telecom likely relies heavily on SDH for its
core network infrastructure, as it provides reliable and efficient transport of voice,
data, and video traffic. SDH offers features such as protection switching,
multiplexing, and flexible bandwidth allocation.

Figure 2.2: Consolidation and Grooming of SDH

2.7.2.3 WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
WDM is a technology that enables multiple optical signals to be transmitted
simultaneously over a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths of light.
Ethio Telecom may use WDM to increase the capacity of its fiber optic network and
support high-speed data transmission over long distances. WDM helps optimize the
use of fiber optic infrastructure by maximizing bandwidth utilization.

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Figure 2.3: WDM relationship with other services

WDM Classifications

Figure 2.4: Classification of the WDM system

CWDM System:- Course wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) combines
multiple signals onto laser beams at various wavelengths for transmission along fiber
optic cables. Unlike dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM), CWDM
systems use fewer channels but more than standard WDM. CWDM channels are
spaced 20 nanometers apart, allowing for the use of low-cost, uncooled lasers. In a
typical CWDM system, laser emissions occur on eight defined wavelengths. CWDM
spreads laser energy over a wider range of wavelengths compared to DWDM. It's
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utilized in cable television networks, where different wavelengths serve downstream

and upstream signals, often widely separated. Ring topology is employed to ensure
seamless service continuity; if the working direction signal fails, the protection side
signal automatically takes over, preventing customer service disruption.
CWDM APPLICATION
I) Rich service access type:

• Multi-rate services access

• Small particles service convergence.
• Continuous-rate services access (10Mbit/s-2.7Gbit/s).
II) Transparent Transmission:
Transparent transmission is very essential for the various services used in MAN.
No cross-connection simplifies the equipment and enhances the privacy of the
Services.

Figure 2.5: CWDM Transparent Transmission

DWDM System:- Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-optic

transmission technology that combines data from various sources onto an optical
fiber, each signal transmitted simultaneously on its unique light wavelength. With
DWDM, up to 80 separate wavelengths or channels of data can be multiplexed onto
a single optical fiber, each carrying a time division multiplexed (TDM) signal. This
allows for the transmission of up to 200 billion bits per second over the fiber.
DWDM, also known as wave division multiplexing (WDM), packs wavelengths closer
together than coarse wavelength division multiplexing methods, significantly
increasing fiber capacity by multiplexing multiple data signals using different light
wavelengths through a single fiber. DWDM operates within a wavelength interval of
0.4 to 2nm.

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Figure 2.6: DWDM System

Difference between SDH and DWDM

Figure 2.7: Comparison of SDH and DWDM systems

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Attributes of DWDM

Figure 2.8: Common Network Elements in the DWDM System

Key Technologies of DWDM
The advent of optical amplifiers marks a significant stride in the realm of high-
speed, long-distance data transmission, overcoming the formidable hurdle of the
receiving optical power limit. Optical amplifiers represent a pivotal advancement
as they possess the capability to amplify all wavelengths simultaneously,
obviating the need for cumbersome optical-electrical-optical conversions. These
amplifiers are classified into several categories, each catering to distinct
functionalities and applications. Among them, resonance-type amplifiers include
Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers (SOA), known for their swift signal processing
capabilities, and Progressive Wave Type amplifiers like the 1550 nm Fiber
Amplifier (EDFA) and Lanthanum-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (LDFA), renowned for
their efficient amplification of optical signals. Additionally, Non-linear Fiber
Amplifiers (NFA), such as the 1310 nm Fiber Amplifier (PDFA), Fiber Raman
Amplifiers (SRA), and Brillouin Amplifiers (SBA), further enrich the spectrum of
optical amplification techniques, each offering unique advantages in enhancing
data transmission efficiency and reliability.
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA)
The EDFA encompasses various components tailored to specific functionalities:

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• Optical Booster Amplifier (OBA) delivers high optical output power,

enhancing signal strength.
• Optical Line Amplifier (OLA) addresses transmission line losses, ensuring
signal integrity over long distances.
• Optical Pre-Amplifier (OPA) minimizes noise interference, enabling pristine
signal reception and transmission.

Figure 2.9: EDFA Working Principle

DWDM Supervision System
It is essential for detecting, controlling, and managing network operations
effectively. To guarantee the secure functioning of the DWDM system, the
monitoring system is physically designed as a standalone entity, distinct from
working channels and devices. Its primary purpose is to transmit management
and supervision information about the DWDM system, ensuring seamless
operation and maintenance.

Figure 2.10: DWDM Supervision System

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2.7.3 Optical Transport Network (OTN)

The Optical Transport Network (OTN) is a protocol designed for transmitting network
messages through optical fiber networks. It serves as the foundational transport
technology for multi-service packet-optical networks, encompassing a series of ITU-T
recommendations that standardize interfaces and rates for high-bandwidth optical
clients. OTN establishes a framework for consistent wavelength multiplexing, offering a
robust and easily manageable transport infrastructure capable of scaling well beyond
100Gbps. Structurally, OTN employs a digital wrapper, a multiplexing hierarchy, and
comprehensive layered instrumentation to facilitate mapping, mixing, and switching,
thereby streamlining the end-to-end circuit provisioning process and enhancing
transport capacity management. OTN replaces traditional DWDM systems with a more
integrated approach.
2.7.3.1 Challenges in Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) – The Importance of
Optical Transport Network (OTN) Standardization
Early WDM networks lacked the standardized advantages of SONET, such as uniform
client signal mapping, robust performance monitoring, fault detection, and
integrated communication channels. While each vendor initially devised proprietary
methods, the absence of standardization posed challenges as networks expanded
across domains. The lack of standardized Operations, Administration, and
Maintenance (OAM) protocols erased the benefits SONET provided for large-scale,
multi-vendor interconnected networks. Client traffic had to undergo demultiplexing
at carrier boundaries, disrupting seamless transfer. Without standardized fault
detection, faults couldn't be relayed across segments, leading to customer-reported
issues with undetected faults. The absence of "path layer monitoring" hindered end-
to-end SLAs, collectively challenging effective network management and service
delivery.

Figure 2.11: The necessity for Optical Transport Network (OTN) standards

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While OTN presents certain challenges such as the requirement for new hardware
and management systems, its benefits are compelling:
Cost-efficient transport: By consolidating multiple clients onto a single wavelength,
OTN economically utilizes optical network wavelengths.
Optimized spectrum utilization: OTN enhances DWDM capacity utilization by
maintaining consistent fill rates across the network.
Deterministic performance: Specific and configurable bandwidth allocation ensures
guaranteed network capacity and managed performance.
Virtualized network operations: Techniques like Optical Virtual Private Networks (O-
VPNs) enhance network customization by allocating dedicated resources to clients
independently.
Operational flexibility: OTN networks support current transport demands while
accommodating future technology advancements.
Enhanced security: OTN ensures privacy and security through traffic segregation,
thwarting interception attempts, and providing robust network partitioning.
Streamlined operations: Separate transmission of OTN network management data
enhances network security and prevents unauthorized access and modifications.
2.7.3.2 OTN Frame Structure
The integration of Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM)
functionalities into WDM networks led to the creation of the ITU-T G.709 OTN
standards, known as G.709 Digital Wrapper, resembling SONET frames. Within an
OTN frame, three overhead areas exist: Optical Payload Unit (OPU), Optical Data Unit
(ODU), and Optical Transport Unit (OTU). These facilitate performance monitoring,
alarm indication, communication, and protection switching. Forward Error Correction
(FEC) improves the Optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) by 4 to 6 dB, extending spans
and reducing regeneration needs. The client signal is mapped into the OPU payload,
with OPU overhead detailing signal type and mapping. ODU overhead provides path-
level monitoring, alarm signals, protection switching, and embedded data channels.
OTU overhead adds performance monitoring, alarm indication, and data channels,
denoting physical optical interfaces like OTU2 (10 Gbps), OTU3 (40 Gbps), and OTU4

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(100 Gbps).

Figure 2.12: Framing structure of OTN

2.7.3.3 Applications of OTN in metropolitan networks
In the metropolitan domain, industry discussions focus on the best approach to
aggregate and convey OTN signals. Transponders with G.709 OTN encapsulation are
ideal for point-to-point services at 10 Gbps or 40 Gbps, compatible with existing
ROADM platforms. For lower-rate signals like 1 GbE and 2.5 Gbps, OTN muxponders
are suitable, especially for scenarios with limited lower-rate private-line services.
With the increasing number of 1 GbE and 2.5 Gbps services, employing distributed
OTN switching at each network node may become more efficient than expansion
alone. Future metropolitan network architecture is likely to incorporate a
combination of expansion and integrated OTN switching.

Figure 2.13: Deployment of OTN in metropolitan network

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2.8 IP Backbone Section

The IP backbone section of Ethio Telecom in the northern region fulfills several crucial
functions to ensure efficient and reliable telecommunications services. Firstly, it serves as
the backbone infrastructure for transmitting data within the region, facilitating the routing
and switching of data packets between various locations. This involves managing network
traffic, optimizing performance, and addressing security concerns through mechanisms like
load balancing, quality of service management, and robust security measures. Additionally,
the backbone section enables interconnection with the core section in Addis Ababa.
The IP Backbone Topology display illustrates connections among routers, subnets, interfaces,
and network locations. The crucial elements of this view are the links between routers and
their interfaces, as well as between interfaces and their corresponding subnets (established
through the defined topology link in the data model). A backbone, also known as a core
network, plays a vital role in interconnecting various networks and facilitating data transfer
between different LANs or subnetworks. It serves to unify disparate networks within a single
building, across different buildings in a campus setting, or even spanning extensive
geographical areas.

2.8.1 Next generation network(NGN)

NGN, or Next-Generation Network, epitomizes a packet-based infrastructure
revolutionizing telecommunications services by harnessing multiple broadband channels
while ensuring superior quality of service. By encapsulating all forms of
communication—voice, data, and multimedia—into packets reminiscent of internet
protocols, NGN networks streamline operations and enhance efficiency. Leveraging
technologies like CDMA, GSM, FL-NGN, and broadband, NGN services epitomize
versatility and adaptability. In Ethiopia, the NGN initiative spearheads IP-based service
enhancements, nationwide network expansion, and the accommodation of Ethio-
telecom's escalating demands. Anchored by an IP/MPLS core and internet gateway
network, the country's NGN infrastructure symbolizes a progressive leap toward
advanced telecommunications solutions.

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Figure 2.14: Logical Topology of Ethiotelecom IP NGN network

2.8.2 IP/MPLS core

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) optimizes data routing in high-speed networks by
assigning short labels to packets instead of lengthy network addresses, streamlining
routing processes by guiding packets along predefined virtual paths without complex
table lookups. Compatible with various access technologies like ATM, T1/E1, DSL, and
frame relay, MPLS operates between the data link layer (Layer 2) and the network layer
(Layer 3), providing a unified data-carrying service for circuit-based and packet-switching
clients. Its advantages include connection-oriented services, high-quality internet
service, support for high bandwidth and rate IP forwarding, and guaranteed Quality of
Service (QoS) and security. MPLS networks are structured with backbone, core, and edge
layers, each featuring redundant Plane A and Plane B planes for enhanced reliability.

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Figure 2.15: IP/MPLS layers

Within the network infrastructure, the Convergence Switch (CS) serves as the pivotal
hub for integrating diverse services, channeling traffic to the edge router while
facilitating seamless communication between various interfaces and implementing
stringent data isolation protocols based on VLAN specifications. At the forefront, the
Edge Router (ER) stands as the gateway to a multitude of services, ensuring secure VPN-
based isolation, meticulous policy definition, and efficient route advertising, all
orchestrated by the robust M6000 routers. In the core, the Core Router (CR) acts as the
traffic conductor, harmonizing flows from ER routers with redundant links to backbone
routers, also powered by the reliable M6000 series. Meanwhile, the Backbone Router
(BR) orchestrates the movement of inter-site and regional traffic, boasting redundant
links to CFT routers and adeptly advertising default routes to ER routers, with the
steadfast T8000 routers at its helm. Beyond the essentials, the General Excellent Router
(GER) provides essential NAT and firewall services for internet traffic. For broadband
access, the Broadband Access Server (BRAS) serves as the gateway, meticulously
allocating IP addresses for users, guided by the dependable 10800E routers. Lastly, the
Router Reflector (RR) ensures seamless VPNV4 route reflection to ER and employs route
dampening techniques, all under the umbrella of the versatile M6000 routers, ensuring
a robust and dynamic network environment.

2.8.3 Service Deployment in IP NGN Network

Service deployment within an IP Next-Generation Network (IP NGN) encompasses the
efficient implementation and management of various services utilizing the network
infrastructure. This involves configuring network elements, provisioning resources,
implementing protocols, monitoring performance, optimizing traffic, and addressing
security to ensure service reliability and quality. IP NGN networks play a pivotal role in
facilitating communication, collaboration, and access to information in today's digital

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landscape. These networks support a diverse array of services, including GSM and CDMA
traffic for mobile communication, fixed-line telecommunication services, and
data/internet traffic for high-speed connectivity and bandwidth-intensive applications.

2.9 RAN Section

A Radio Access Network (RAN) is a vital segment of cellular telecommunication networks,
acting as the interface between end-users and the Core Network. Its primary function is to
ensure wide-area wireless connectivity for mobile devices, which poses a significant
challenge, particularly in densely populated urban areas where spectrum availability is
limited. Mobile RAN facilitates seamless wireless access for users, enabling uninterrupted
connections as they move between coverage areas through handover processes. RAN
components typically include a base station and antennas, strategically deployed to cover
specific regions based on their capacity. Functionally, RAN operates by implementing various
radio access technologies and sits between user equipment (e.g., mobile phones, computers)
and the core network (CN). Its architecture comprises components like the Base Transceiver
Station (BTS), Base Station Controller (BSC) for GSM networks, NodeB and Radio Network
Controller (RNC) for Universal Mobile Telephone System (UMTS), and eNodeB for LTE
networks.

Figure 2.16: RAN section on GSM network

2.9.1 Cellular Network

Mobile operators utilize the radio spectrum to deliver their services, a valuable and
limited resource that has been carefully allocated. Historically, this spectrum has been
shared among various sectors such as broadcasting, mobile communications, and

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military applications. Before the emergence of cellular technology, capacity was

augmented by dividing frequencies and creating additional channels.
1G (First Generation): Emerged in the late 1970s, operating on analog standards, with
drawbacks such as limited battery life, subpar voice quality, and bulky devices. Max
speed: 2.4 Kbps.
2G (Second Generation): Transitioned to digital signals, introducing CDMA and GSM,
offering basic data services like SMS and MMS. Commercial deployment began in 1991.
Max speed: 50 Kbps (GPRS) and 1 Mbps (EDGE).
3G (Third Generation): Introduced in 2001, enhancing voice and data capacity,
supporting multimedia services like web browsing and video streaming. Max theoretical
speed: 7 Mbps.
4G (Fourth Generation): Introduced high-speed, high-quality connectivity with reduced
latency, driving down costs for voice, data, and multimedia services over IP. Max speed
significantly faster than 3G, enabling quicker file transfers and enhanced user
experiences.

2.9.2 GSM Architecture

A GSM network consists of numerous operational components. The overall architecture
of the GSM network can be broadly categorized as:
1. Mobile Station (MS)
2. The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
4. The Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
We will have a look only at the first two. that is MS and BSS.
1. Mobile Station (MS)
The Mobile Station (MS) in GSM networks, comprising components like the radio
transceiver, display, and SIM cards, serves as the user interface. It facilitates voice
tele services, data bearer services, and additional features. The MS manages crucial
tasks such as radio transmission and reception, channel selection, speech
encoding/decoding, error protection, and data flow regulation to ensure seamless
communication and accurate message delivery.

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

BSS is like the radio tower crew that sets up and manages your
connection to the network. It has two main parts:
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A. The Base Transceiver Station (BTS): It is essential in wireless

communication, linking user equipment (UE) like mobile phones to
the network. It manages radio protocols, defines cells, and handles
GSM (2G) technology. Each BTS functions as a single-cell unit,
ensuring comprehensive coverage. Functions include encoding,
multiplexing, modulating signals, synchronizing time and frequency,
receiving and interpreting information, and decoding signals for clear
communication.

Figure 2.17: BTS tower and indoor physical appearance respectively

The antenna is a bidirectional transducer, converting electrical power to

electromagnetic waves and vice versa. It serves both for transmitting and
receiving signals. In wireless communication, antennas are crucial components.
Antennas in a tower are arranged azimuthally, with each sector covering a
specific angle range, ensuring comprehensive coverage.
The Remote Radio Unit (RRU) handles modulation, demodulation, data
processing, and power amplification of baseband and radio frequency (RF)
signals. Typically mounted on antenna poles at tower sites or rooftop sites, RRUs
facilitate signal processing close to the antenna. On the other hand, the Base
Band Unit (BBU), an indoor unit, centrally manages the entire base station
system, including operation, maintenance, and system clock. It also facilitates
information exchange between the base station and the transport network via
physical ports. In the BBU+RRU setup, the remote RF module connects to the
antenna via a flexible jumper, minimizing feeder line losses.
B. Base Station Controller (BSC)/ Radio Network Controller (RNC)/
Enhanced Packet Core (EPC): BSC is for 2G, RNC for 3G, and EPC for

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4G.
The general combination architecture of BSC/RNC/EPC is shown
below.

Figure 2.18: CS and PS Domains Architecture

To say some about BSC, it supervises the base transceiver station, handling tasks
such as managing multiple BTSs connected via the A-bis interface, monitoring MS
power and signals, administering O&M and security settings, and identifying MSs
within the cell for notification to the MSC/VLR.

2.9.3 Layering of LTE (4G)

BTS generally incorporates the subsequent parts:
a. RAN system:- it is subdivided into the ODU (Outdoor Unit) and IDU (Indoor Unit).
The ODU includes components such as the antenna (sectoral or microwave), RRU,
CPRI fiber cable, and DC power cable. On the other hand, the IDU consists of the
BBU (baseband unit), RTN, ATN, DCDU, DCDB, DC power cable, Ethernet cable, and
SFP module.

b. Microwave Transmission:- microwaves, ranging from 300MHz to 300GHz, serve as

super-high-frequency radio waves used in telecommunications for voice and data
transmission. This line-of-sight communication method offers rapid installation and

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the ability to traverse complex terrains like rivers, lakes, and mountains, making it
ideal for long-distance communication. Ethio Telecom employs Huawei's Optix RTN
900 series for microwave technology deployment, which offers a seamless
transmission solution for mobile and private networks. The series includes four
products tailored to different needs, ranging from supporting one sight to up to 14
sights. With various service interfaces and flexible configuration options, the Optix
RTN 900 series accommodates different networking schemes and supports smooth
transitions between TDM, hybrid, and packet microwave technologies, meeting the
transmission requirements of 2G, 3G, and LTE networks while allowing for future
evolution.
Components of RTN series
It consists of the following elements:
• Digital modem
• IF cable
• Radiofrequency (RF) unit
• Hybrid coupler
• Pole
• Antenna

Figure 2.19: Components of RTN series

Hybrid coupler: Optionally used when connecting two ODUs, essential for protection
configurations in North Region Ethio Telecom.
Digital modem (IDU 900): Performs service and IF processing, system control, and
communication, modulation of baseband signals to an intermediate frequency, and
supports various radio link configurations for diverse microwave scenarios.
IF cable: Directly connects ODU and IF boards, transmitting IF signals, ODU
management signals, and providing -48V power to the ODU.
RF unit (ODU): Converts intermediate frequency to radio frequency, amplifies the
signal, performs up-conversion, mixes IF signals with high-frequency local oscillation
signals, and outputs RF signals for transmission.
Antenna: A passive device that radiates and absorbs modulated signals, fed directly
by the RF unit, coaxial cable, or waveguides at higher frequencies.
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c. Power System:- The Power System of a Base Station Controller (BSC) is pivotal for
maintaining the reliable operation of the BSC and its network elements. Comprising
power supplies, backup batteries, rectifiers, inverters, and distribution units, these
components collaborate to deliver a stable and uninterrupted power supply to the
BSC and its linked BTSs (or RNCs for 3G networks). Key elements of the BSC's Power
System encompass redundancy, monitoring and control functionalities, energy
efficiency considerations, and capacity planning measures. Redundancy features
ensure high availability, while monitoring capabilities oversee power sources, battery
levels, and energy consumption, enabling proactive management. Energy-efficient
design principles and capacity planning strategies are employed to optimize
performance, address sustainability goals, and accommodate network growth.

2.10 Challenges we have faced while performing our work task

In the dynamic realm of our internship experience, we confronted a multitude of challenges
that pushed us to test our mettle and pursue growth. From the detailed intricacies of
network infrastructure to the subtle avenues of professional development, we often faced
several hurdles. Within this context, we encountered the subsequent key challenges:
Limited Equipment Access: we, as Interns, faced constraints as all equipment
installations were exclusively handled by vendor professionals, precluding any hands-
on involvement to prevent potential network disruptions.

Monotonous Tasks: Daily responsibilities primarily revolved around staff duties,

leaving us craving more engaging assignments to gain practical experience and foster
skill development.

Lack of Practical Knowledge: The absence of hands-on experience created a gap in

practical knowledge, underscoring the need for opportunities to apply theoretical
learning in real-world scenarios.

Limited Supervisor Interaction: Due to supervisors' demanding schedules, we had

fewer opportunities for guidance and mentorship, leading to a diminished support
network.

Limited Autonomy: Within the highly secure environment of the northern region
Ethiotelecom, we were afforded very limited opportunities to work independently on
tasks, hindering our ability to demonstrate initiative and problem-solving skills.

2.11 Measures taken to overcome challenges we encountered

In our pursuit to overcome the challenges encountered during our task execution, we
implemented a series of strategic initiatives:

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• We diligently documented key insights and observations during our supervisor's

demonstration sessions, ensuring the compilation of comprehensive reports.
Additionally, we familiarize ourselves with digital platforms such as Telegram to
access essential files shared by the supervisors.
• Facilitating seamless communication and knowledge exchange, we fostered
collaborative relationships not only within our team but also across different
sections. Through this interdepartmental interaction, we shared crucial
information and insights, enriching our collective understanding.
• Recognizing the value of expert guidance, we judiciously sought assistance from
company employees during their available time slots. Their insights and expertise
proved invaluable in addressing specific queries and navigating challenges
effectively.
• Embracing a proactive approach to learning, we undertook extensive reading and
formulated insightful questions for our supervisors during opportune moments.
Understanding the importance of self-reliance, we supplemented our learning
endeavors by engaging with telecommunications video tutorials, thereby
broadening our knowledge base and refining our skills autonomously.

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Chapter Three
Project Title: Analyzing Performance of Rectangular Planar Array
Antenna
Summary of Project
This paper is dedicated to advancing the connectivity of Ethiotelecom's wireless network,
with a specific focus on the North-region cellular network as a case study. The company
offers various services, each with a distinct quality of service (QoS) requirement. According
to ITU-T, QoS encompasses factors such as data and voice quality and signal strength, all
vital in cellular networks. This paper aims to explore methods for enhancing connectivity
within the North-region cellular network by analyzing and optimizing key QoS parameters.
By improving network performance in these aspects, Ethiotelecom can ensure better service
delivery and increased user satisfaction.
The paper extensively explores the design of planar array antennas aimed at resolving
current limitations within the company's telecommunication system. It tackles challenges
including coverage constraints, interference susceptibility, and inefficient spectrum
utilization. The potential of planar array antennas, enhanced with beamforming technology,
to revolutionize connectivity is thoroughly examined. Through careful analysis and
experimentation, the paper explores how beamforming can optimize planar array antennas
for precise signal transmission and reception. Various parameters and configurations
tailored to Ethiotelecom's needs are discussed. Finally, the anticipated impact of deploying
these advanced antennas, promising improved connectivity, reliability, and service quality
for the company's customers, is assessed. The project utilized MATLAB for code writing and
antenna simulations. Based on the simulation results, we anticipate that our project can
effectively address the aforementioned hurdles in wireless communications.
Keywords: Planar Array Antenna, Beamforming

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3.1 Introduction
In the dynamic realm of wireless communication, antennas stand as quintessential
components, serving as the bedrock upon which the efficacy of network performance is
established. Analogous to finely crafted lenses enhancing vision, rigorously designed
antennas possess the transformative capability to alleviate system constraints and uplift
overall operational efficiency [3]. This analogy resonates profoundly within the operational
framework of Ethiotelecom, where the relentless pursuit of optimal connectivity and
service delivery underscores the indispensable role of robust antenna infrastructure.

Consider, for example, the analogy of television broadcast reception: the strategic
deployment of high-performance antennas holds the power to substantially augment signal
reception quality, thereby enriching user experience and satisfaction. Traditionally,
antennas with broad radiation patterns and modest directivity have prevailed. However, the
imperatives of long-distance communication within the company's operational domain
demand antennas endowed with highly directive characteristics, characterized by
substantial gains [4].

The pursuit of such directive attributes often necessitates the enlargement of the antenna's
electrical size, a task achievable through either the augmentation of individual element
dimensions or the strategic assembly of radiating elements into arrays [5]. It is this latter
approach, harnessing the potential of antenna arrays, that presents a compelling solution
for the company's quest for enhanced connectivity without necessitating unwieldy
increases in individual antenna size.

Antenna arrays, comprising interconnected individual antennas with precisely specified

amplitude and phase relationships, offer a pathway to augmented signal transmission and
reception capabilities. Antenna arrays can be finely tuned to exhibit desired radiation
patterns through the precise adjustment of element spacing, excitation amplitudes, and
excitation phases. These arrays eventually metamorphose into singular antennas with
enhanced gain, seamlessly aligning with Ethiotelecom's overarching mission to provide
reliable and high-quality wireless communication services.

This paper endeavors to delve deep into the details of array design and configuration, tailor-
made to suit the company's operational context, thereby empowering stakeholders to
optimize antenna infrastructure and fortify network performance. By thoroughly exploring
array geometries, element configurations, and excitation techniques, we aim to equip the
company with the indispensable tools needed to navigate the ever-evolving landscape of
wireless communication technologies and effectively meet the dynamic demands of clients.

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3.2 Statement of problem

When addressing the challenges encountered by the Northern Region EthioTelecom in
wireless telecommunication, particularly those related to the directive features of antennas,
the need for innovative solutions becomes increasingly evident. Typically, single-element
antennas have broad radiation patterns and limited directivity, which exacerbates difficulties
as antenna size increases. This amplifies the need for precise antenna-pointing, especially
for larger structures. However, transitioning to an array setup of smaller antennas presents a
viable solution to these complexities. Arrays offer improved directive qualities without the
intricacies of single-element antennas, thereby reducing the necessity for exact antenna
positioning. This transition enhances network performance and elevates customer
satisfaction within the Northern Region EthioTelecom's wireless telecommunication
framework.

3.3 Objective of the project

3.3.1 General Objective
The main aim of this project is to examine how a rectangular planar array antenna
performs across various antenna parameters.

3.3.2 Specific Objectives

The following are the specific objectives of our project:

• Enhancing the total gain of the antenna

• Nullifying interference from specific directions
• Maximizing signal-to-noise ratio
• Identifying the direction of incoming signals
• Comprehending the advantages of rectangular array antennas

3.4 Significance of the Project

Here are some key points on the significance of designing a planar array antenna for the
northern region of EthioTelecom:

• Improved Coverage: Planar array antennas boost signal strength across the northern
region, including rural areas, enhancing connectivity for all users.
• Enhanced Capacity: With higher gain and directionality, these antennas optimize
frequency use, meeting rising demands for data and voice services.
• Better Service Quality: Enhanced coverage and capacity mean faster speeds, fewer call
drops, and increased reliability, ensuring happier customers.
• Future Tech Support: Compatibility with 5G and IoT prepares EthioTelecom for future
advancements, ensuring long-term network viability and service expansion.

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• Strategic Significance: Tailored solutions for the northern region highlight

EthioTelecom's commitment to meeting local needs, driving development, and
fostering inclusivity.

3.5 Scope and Limitation of the Project

3.5.1 Scope of the Project
The scope of the project is to achieve better quality and higher capacity of wireless
communication by evaluating the design of rectangular planar array antennas and
recommending solutions based on Matlab simulation results and conceptual reasoning.

3.5.2 Limitations
The project encountered limitations, primarily related to time and materials. Originally,
we anticipated a four-month internship period as per the manual the company had given
us at the beginning. However, a revised semester schedule from our university, issued
two months into the internship, shortened our time by approximately one month. This
constrained our ability to conduct comprehensive evaluations and testing along with the
company's experts. Furthermore, the absence of reserved materials for interns hindered
our capacity to practice and test our designs effectively. We were unable to observe how
the results of our simulations would behave in real-world scenarios.

3.6 Literature Reviews

Planar array antennas are esteemed for their high gain, directional capabilities, and
versatility across various applications. Common design techniques include microstrip
patch arrays, printed circuit board (PCB) technology, and aperture-coupled arrays [6].
Optimization of design parameters, such as element spacing and feeding network
topology, is essential for achieving desired radiation characteristics [7]. Advanced
simulation tools like MATLAB enable precise analysis and optimization of array
configurations [8]. Beamforming techniques, including phase shifting and amplitude
weighting, facilitate adaptive beamforming and nulling capabilities [9]. Optimization
algorithms, such as genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization, enhance array
performance by improving sidelobe suppression and efficiency [10].
Planar array antennas are utilized in radar systems, satellite communications, and
wireless networks [11]. Advances in manufacturing technologies have made the
fabrication and customization of planar array antennas more cost-effective [12].
Implementing planar array antennas can provide EthioTelecom with solutions to
enhance coverage, capacity, and quality of service. This implementation supports the
adoption of 5G and IoT technologies, extends connectivity to underserved regions, and
advances digital inclusion efforts in Ethiopia.

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3.7 Methodology
3.7.1 Methods
To accomplish the objectives outlined in this paper, the following methodology is
implemented:
1. Data Collection and Analysis: The initial step involves gathering and analyzing data
from Ethio-Telecom's north region wireless network to gain insights into existing
challenges in wireless communication.
2. Problem Identification: Through meticulous analysis, specific issues about wireless
communication are identified and delineated.
3. Literature Review: A comprehensive review of relevant literature is conducted,
focusing on potential solutions involving beamforming and planar array antennas.
4. Evaluation of Planar Array Antenna Designs: Using MATLAB simulation and
conceptual reasoning, planar array antenna designs are rigorously evaluated. Key factors
such as spacing between elements and the number of elements in the x and y directions
are considered, with a particular emphasis on directivity, gain, and array factors.
5. Recommendation of Solutions: Based on the evaluation results, recommendations for
potential solutions are formulated, aimed at effectively addressing the identified issues
in wireless communication.
Throughout the project, emphasis is placed on thorough research, careful analysis, and
the utilization of MATLAB as a tool for the detailed evaluation of planar array antenna
designs.

3.7.2 Fundamental Parameters of Antenna

To clarify an antenna's performance, it's imperative to define various parameters. Some
of these parameters exhibit interrelationships, and not all are necessary for a
comprehensive description of the antenna's performance.
3.7.2.1 RADIATION PATTERN

An antenna radiation pattern, also known as an antenna pattern, refers to a

mathematical function or graphical depiction showcasing the radiation
characteristics of the antenna concerning spatial coordinates. Typically determined
in the far field region, the radiation pattern is often represented as a function of
directional coordinates. The amplitude field pattern depicts the received electric or
magnetic field at a constant radius, while the amplitude power pattern illustrates the
spatial variation of power density along a constant radius. For antennas, the field
pattern (in linear scale) typically portrays the magnitude of the electric or magnetic
field concerning angular space, while the power pattern (in linear scale) usually

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represents the square of the field's magnitude in angular space. Additionally, the
power pattern (in dB) expresses the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field in
Decibels relative to angular space.
3.7.2.2 BEAMWIDTH
The beam width of a pattern refers to the angular separation between two identical
points on opposite sides of the pattern's maximum. Within an antenna pattern, there
exist several beam widths.
3.7.2.3 DIRECTIVITY
The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a
specific direction from the antenna to the average radiation intensity across all
directions. This average radiation intensity is equivalent to the total power radiated
by the antenna divided by 4π.
3.7.2.4 GAIN
Another valuable metric for assessing antenna performance is gain. While closely
linked to directivity, gain is a measure that considers both the efficiency and
directional capabilities of the antenna.
3.7.2.5 BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the frequency range in which the
antenna's performance, concerning a specific characteristic, meets a predetermined
standard.

3.7.3 ARRAY ANTENNA

Many applications require radiation characteristics that a single element cannot achieve
alone. However, arranging multiple radiating elements in specific electrical and
geometrical configurations, known as an array, can achieve the desired radiation
characteristics. This arrangement can combine radiation from the elements to create
maximum radiation in specific directions while minimizing it in others. The term "array"
typically refers to separate individual radiators but can also describe radiators mounted
on a continuous structure.
An antenna array, often called a "phased array," consists of two or more antennas whose
signals are combined or processed to enhance performance beyond that of a single
antenna. This array can increase overall gain, provide diversity reception, mitigate
interference from specific directions, steer the array for directional sensitivity, determine
signal arrival direction, and maximize the Signal Interference Plus Noise Ratio (SINR). The

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performance of an antenna array generally improves with more elements but also
increases cost, size, and complexity.

3.7.4 System Model

Figure 3.1: Flowchart for the simulation of a planar array

The radiation characteristics Sr(θ, φ) in the far-field of an N-element array consisting of
identical radiating elements can be represented as the multiplication of two functions:

(1)
Fa(θ, φ) represents the array factor, while Se(θ, φ) denotes the power directional pattern
of an individual element. This principle is referred to as the pattern multiplication
principle. The array factor, Fa(θ, φ), varies with the array's geometry due to its
dependency on the range.

(2)
The elemental pattern, Se(θ, φ), relies on the far-field radiation pattern of the individual
element, which is independent of range. (This disregards element-to-element coupling.)

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3.7.5 Planar Array Beamforming

The array factor in the two-dimensional case is given by:

(3)

In this context, (xn, yn) represent the coordinates of the nth point, ɸ is the azimuth angle
relative to the x-axis, and ϴ is the elevation angle relative to the z-axis, with the array
being uniformly excited. Planar arrays enable the scanning of the antenna's main beam
toward any direction in space. These arrays are utilized in applications such as tracking
radar, search radar, remote sensing, communications, and more. An example is the
planar array of slots used in the Airborne Warning and Control System, which employs
waveguide slots on the narrow walls of the waveguides. This system provides a 360-
degree view and can detect targets hundreds of kilometers away at operational
altitudes. It is typically mounted above the fuselage of an aircraft.

Figure 3.2: Planar Array

A planar array offers a large aperture and can achieve directional beam control by
adjusting the relative phase of each element. This configuration produces symmetrical
patterns with low side lobes and significantly higher directivity (a narrower main beam)
than individual elements. Planar arrays are highly versatile, providing more symmetrical
patterns with lower-side lobes and greater directivity. They are capable of scanning the
main beam toward any point in space.

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3.7.6 Gain and Element Factor of Planar Arrays

The maximum gain of a uniformly illuminated, lossless aperture with area (A) and a
broadside beam is expressed as:

(4)
With non-uniform aperture distribution and with the lossless present, the gain is
reduced by efficiency term η to

(5)
If the aperture consists of \(N\) equal radiating elements and is matched to accept the
incident power, then each element contributes equally to the overall gain. Hence

(6)
Where Ge is the gain per element, the matched element power pattern is:

(7)
If the aperture consists of N equal, discrete, radiating elements and is matched to accept
power like a continuous aperture, then each element contributes equally to the overall
gain.
If the normalized radiation amplitude of the element or element pattern is

(8)

For a given element spacing s, the total number of radiators N in the area A is N= 𝐴/𝑆2
and gives

(9)
when the element spacing is 𝑠 = 𝜆/2 then the power pattern of an element that is
perfectly matched at all scan angles is

(10)
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The effects of the element pattern are most noticeable with wider beams. The radiation
pattern of an array is the product of the element pattern and the array factor. The array
factor is determined by the geometric arrangement of the elements and their phasing,
assuming the elements are isotropic and there is no mutual coupling. Its peak value
remains independent of the scan angle. The element pattern is the actual radiation
pattern of an element within the array, considering the presence of all other elements
and accounting for all coupling effects and mismatches.
The maximum element pattern can be obtained experimentally by exciting one typical
element while terminating the other elements with matched loads. Any positions where
the main beam fails to form or where there is a significant loss in gain will appear as
nulls in the element pattern.

3.7.7 Array Factor

The "Array Factor" (AF) is the normalized radiation pattern of an array composed of
isotropic point-source elements.

Figure 3.3: Planar Array Geometry

If M elements are initially placed along the x-axis, the array element can be expressed as

(11)

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Here, represents the directional cosine concerning the x-axis. It

is assumed that all elements are equally spaced with an interval of dx and have a
progressive phase shift of βx. Im1 denotes the excitation amplitude of the element at
coordinates . In the figure above, this element is in the n-th
row and the 1st column of the array matrix.
If N such arrays are arranged adjacent to each other along the y-axis, a rectangular array
is formed. We assume these arrays are equally spaced at a distance of dy and have a
progressive phase shift of βy along each row. Additionally, it is assumed that the
normalized current distribution along each x-directed array is identical, with absolute
values scaled by a factor of I1n (for n = 1, …., N). The array factor (AF) for the entire array
will then be:

(12)
The array factor is influenced by several factors including the number of elements, the
spacing between elements, and the amplitude and phase of the signal applied to each
element.
The number of elements and their spacing directly determine the total surface area of
the radiating structure, known as the aperture. A larger aperture generally leads to
higher gain. Aperture efficiency measures how effectively the aperture is utilized.
The array factor for a planar equally spaced array with N elements in each column and M
elements in each row can be expressed as:

(13)

For uniform amplitude distribution (Inm = 1) and equal phase distribution (δnm = 0), the
normalized planar array factor is defined as:

(14)

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where the coordinates α and β are determined as sinα = sinθcosφ, sinβ = sinθsinφ and

; (15)
The configuration of a rectangular array is determined by multiplying the array factors of
the linear arrays in both the x and y directions. Each element is excited with the same
amplitude in a uniform planar (rectangular) array, where Im1 equals In1 equals Io for all
m and n.

(16)
The normalized array factor can be obtained as:

(17)
Where,

The major lobe (principal maximum) and grating lobes of the terms:

(18)

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Figure 3.4: Two-dimensional planar array (M x N Rectangular Pattern)

As for the above figure, to scan over all spaces without gratin lobes, both dx and dy need
to be less than half of the lambda.

3.7.8 Grating Lobe Issues for Planar Arrays

Figure 3.5: Grating Lobe Issues with λ/2 Spacing (the two left side configurations) and
Grating Lobe Issues with λ Spacing (the two configurations to the right side).
The triangular grid is commonly preferred due to its efficiency, requiring approximately
14% fewer elements compared to a square grid. The precise percentage of savings varies
based on the scanning needs of the array. Furthermore, for scan angles below 60
degrees, there are no grating lobes present in a triangular grid.
In the case of a rectangular grid with half-wavelength spacing, no grating lobes are
observable across all scan angles. However, the question arises whether each element of
the phased array can transmit and receive without affecting others. The answer is
negative, as mutual coupling exists.

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Mutual coupling refers to the phenomenon where one antenna element influences
another. Despite the assumption of no interaction between radiating elements in a
simple model analysis, the mutual coupling is a reality. It occurs because the current in
one element is affected by the amplitude and phase of the current in neighboring
elements, as well as in the element under consideration.
When the antenna is scanned from the broadside, mutual coupling can induce changes
in antenna gain, beam shape, sidelobe level, and radiation impedance. It can even lead
to "scan blindness," where the performance of the array is compromised. However, it's
worth noting that mutual coupling can sometimes be intentionally leveraged to meet
specific performance requirements.

3.7.8 The beamwidth of a planar array

The array beam width denotes the angular extent occupied by the array's main beam or
main lobe, measured at a consistent power level. Typically, this width is assessed at the
half-power point or the 3dB point, hence termed as the half-power beam width or 3-dB
beam width. Alternatively, the width can be determined between the first nulls adjacent
to the main beam, termed the first-null beam width. However, in general usage, when
referring to beam width, it typically signifies the 3-dB beam width.

Figure 3.6: Beamwidth

We will now outline a straightforward method proposed by R.S. Elliot1. This method
relies on utilizing the beam widths of the linear arrays that construct the planar array.
For a sizable array, with its maximum near the broad side, the elevation plane half-
power beamwidth (HPBW) is approximately:

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(19)
where:

(θ0, φ0) - denotes the direction of the main beam;

Δθx - represents the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of a linear broadside array, sharing
the same number of elements M and amplitude distribution as the linear arrays along
the x-axis constructing the planar array;
Δθy - signifies the HPBW of a linear broadside array, with the same number of elements
N and amplitude distribution as the linear arrays along the y-axis building the planar
array.
The HPBW within the plane, perpendicular to the φ = φ0 plane and encompassing the
maximum, is:

(20)
For a square array (M=N) with amplitude distributions along the x and y axes of the
same type, equations 19 and 20 reduce to:

(21)
The beam solid angle of the planar array can be approximated by:

Or

(22)

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3.7.9 Directivity of Planar Array

In various scenarios, the primary goal of an antenna array is to manipulate its response
or beam pattern to amplify radiation (or reception) in a specific direction while
minimizing reception in other directions. A valuable metric for assessing the precision of
the array is its directivity, which quantifies the ratio of the power radiated by the array in
a desired direction to the average power radiated in all directions. In array synthesis
discussions, array gain is often used interchangeably with array directivity, given that
losses in antennas and antenna circuits are disregarded. Nevertheless, it's crucial to
recognize that while array directivity and array gain are connected, they are distinct
concepts.
The standard formula used to compute the directivity of an array is:

(23)
For large planar arrays, which are nearly broadside, the above equation reduces to:

(24)
In this context:
Dx refers to the directivity of the corresponding linear broadside array along the x-axis,
while Dy indicates the directivity of the corresponding linear broadside array along the y-
axis.
Additionally, one can employ the array solid beam angle ΩA from the equation
preceding the directivity formula to estimate the directivity of an almost broadside
planar array.

(25)
Note:
1) The primary beam's orientation is managed by adjusting the phase shifts,
denoted as βx and βy.
2) The breadth of the beam and the levels of side lobes are regulated by the
distribution of amplitudes.

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3.7.10 Result, Discussion, and Conclusion

3.7.10.1 Result
A snippet of code for the subsequent figure:

Following is the graph that is simulated by running complete one of the above
snippet codes:

Figure 3.7: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda/4 and dy=lambda/4

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Then, with subtle changes to the above line of codes, the following graph was
simulated:

Figure 3.8: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda/2 and dy=lambda/2

Again, by changing a few parameters of the Matlab code used to simulate Figure 3.6,
we could obtain the subsequent graph:

Figure 3.9: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda and dy=lambda

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After this, for a specific value of N (=8) and M (=10), we could simulate the following
graph to examine the case of the three scenarios.

Figure 3.10: Rectangular Array Factor for N=8 and M=10 with varying dx and dy
Below are the 3D plots for the three cases: dx=dy=0.25lambda, dx=dy=0.5lambda,
and dx=dy=lambda respectively. Note that in all cases, elements on the x and y axis,
calculation of power Array factor and plotted Array phase of 80 and Array amplitudes
of 1 are considered.

Figure3.11: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=0.25lambda

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Figure 3.12: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=0.50lambda.

Figure 3.13: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=lambda

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3.7.10.2 Discussion
We considered each element of the array as an isotropic radiator, a theoretical antenna that
emits radiation equally in all directions. As such, we plot the array factor to represent the
overall radiation pattern, which closely resembles that of isotropic radiator elements. This
array radiation pattern is solely determined by the array factor (AF) of the rectangular array.
The simulation results depict the array factor plot for a 4×4 planar array antenna, arranged
with four elements horizontally and vertically, shown in a 3D plot. Notably, grating lobes
appear when dx and dy are greater than or equal to lambda, regardless of the βx and βy
values. Additionally, the array factor plots illustrate an inverse relationship between beam
width and inter-element spacing for a constant number of elements. For example, wider
beam width is observed when d = λ/4 compared to when dx = dy = λ. Specifically, when dx =
dy ≤ 0.5λ, no grating lobes form for any angle βx and βy, resulting in a wide beam width.
Conversely, when dx = dy ≥λ, grating lobes occur for all βx and βy values, leading to a
narrower beam width. Moreover, when 0.5 λ < dx = dy < λ, grating lobe formation depends
on βx and βy, resulting in a medium beam width. Furthermore, the array factor plots show
that beam width is influenced not only by inter-element spacing but also by the number of
elements. As demonstrated, the beam width decreases as the array's number of elements
increases, with larger beam widths observed for N = 8 and M = 10 and smaller ones for N =
64 and M = 80.

3.7.10.3 Conclusion
In addressing the specific wireless telecommunication challenges encountered by
Northern Region EthioTelecom, especially those related to antenna directive
features, our project extensively evaluated the performance of rectangular array
antennas. Through comprehensive analysis and discussions, we've showcased how
array antennas effectively enhance network performance while simplifying
complexities associated with single-element antennas. Objectives such as enhancing
antenna gain and maximizing signal-to-noise ratio were thoroughly assessed in our
in-depth analysis of the configuration of rectangular planar arrays. This study not
only resolves identified issues but also offers valuable insights and
recommendations, emphasizing the pivotal role of array antennas, particularly
rectangular array antennas, in optimizing infrastructure and bolstering network
performance for Northern Region EthioTelecom. Despite our reliance on MATLAB
simulation for analysis, the findings have significant practical implications for
implementing rectangular array antennas within the company.

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Chapter Four
Overall Benefits Gained from the Internship
As newcomers to the company, everything was novel and unfamiliar. Armed only with
theoretical knowledge, we embarked on this journey. The transition to real-world applications
was both captivating and enlightening, as it allowed us to witness and engage with the lessons
learned over the past four years. Our internship provided invaluable insights, bridging the gap
between theoretical concepts and practical implementation within our respective engineering
domains. We endeavored to immerse ourselves in every task, eager to gain hands-on
experience and learning opportunities. Working alongside experienced professionals in a
dynamic environment enriched our skills and provided us with the following advantages:
Upgrading Theoretical Knowledge
Improving practical skills
Interpersonal communication skills
Team playing Skill
Leadership skills
Develop Work ethics skills
Entrepreneur skills

4.1 Upgrading Theoretical Knowledge

We firmly believe that theoretical lessons provide a solid foundation indispensable for
practical implementations. However, theoretical knowledge gained through practical
experience is not only unforgettable but also easily comprehensible, serving as the primary
tool for problem-solving. Our internship proved instrumental in enhancing the theoretical
understanding acquired over the past four years, introducing us to new ideas beyond the
scope of regular classroom instruction. Moreover, it significantly elevated our problem-
solving skills, particularly in the domains of network transmission and cellular
communication. Immersed in practical applications, we gained confidence and proficiency,
dedicating a substantial portion of our internship to studying documents and materials
provided by supervisors and staff members. Consequently, our theoretical knowledge was
greatly enriched and our practical experience was elevated to a new level. In truth, our time
at Ethiotelecom has enriched us more in theoretical knowledge than in practical skills .

4.2 Improving Practical Skills

The primary aim of university internships is to extend student learning beyond the
classroom, bridging theoretical concepts with real-world applications. Although our
university endeavors to integrate theory and practice through lab exercises, the resources
are often limited. Thus, the internship emerged as a crucial program to enhance our

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practical skills, filling the gaps in our experiential learning. During the internship, we gained
exposure to various facets of practical skills, addressing the deficiencies we encountered.

4.3 In terms of Industrial Problem-Solving Capability

In a large company like Ethio Telecom, daily activities are abundant, and new problems arise
frequently, requiring effective solutions. From our internship experience, we've learned the
importance of leveraging our university knowledge to address practical issues. This involves
applying our knowledge appropriately, continuously expanding our understanding,
thoroughly researching and understanding tasks before execution, discussing challenges
with colleagues, and maintaining self-confidence. Effective problem-solving begins with a
planning phase to identify and understand the problem, followed by determining its impact
and likelihood of occurrence, and then developing and testing solutions. If the solution is
ineffective, revisiting and refining the plan is crucial.

4.4 In terms of Improving Interpersonal Communication and Teamwork Skills

During our internship, we significantly enhanced our interpersonal communication and
teamwork skills. With guidance from our associates, we developed formal communication
skills, focusing on avoiding interruptions to show respect, confidently presenting our ideas
to build trust, and honing active listening skills for better understanding and positive
responses. We learned the importance of effective teamwork, recognizing that
disagreements can hinder progress. Successful team players communicate constructively,
listen actively, participate fully, share willingly, cooperate, and show commitment to the
team. Confident and enthusiastic engineers with strong managerial and organizational skills
can lead projects successfully by gaining the trust of their co-workers.

4.5 Improving Leadership Skills

During our internship, we did not serve as leaders, but we observed leadership in action
from those in charge. We witnessed how officials efficiently managed tasks, led teams, and
created a conducive work environment. They demonstrated respect for lower-level
employees and maintained high ethical standards, showing responsibility for their sections
and the company as a whole. Interacting with various Ethio telecom workers, we observed
their daily activities and gained insights into their general behavior. From this experience, we
learned that a good leader must be exemplary in all traits, possess strong communication
skills to inspire workers and understand the importance of incentives and rewards.
Recognizing outstanding performance, offering career advancement, and providing salary
increments are vital for motivating employees and achieving company objectives.

4.6 Understanding Work Ethics-Related Issues

Understanding and embodying strong work ethics is fundamental to personal and
professional success, emphasizing accountability, punctuality, respect, time management,
and attitude. Recognizing the profound impact of work ethics on individual performance,

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team dynamics, and national development, we aspire to uphold these principles in our
careers. Work ethics encompasses the overall quality of behavior, emphasizing an
appreciation for the work process and a commitment to completing tasks with responsibility
and accountability. Throughout our internship, we have diligently adhered to our job
descriptions with enthusiasm, cultivating key attributes such as obedience to management,
honesty, self-confidence, politeness, and respectfulness. These qualities not only contribute
to our individual growth but also foster a positive work environment conducive to collective
success.

4.7 In terms of Entrepreneurship Skills

Entrepreneurship, a realm where dreams meet challenges, beckons those daring enough to
organize and operate businesses, unveiling both trials and rewards. While the journey isn't
without its hurdles, adept management and skilled human resources can turn the tide
toward profitability. Through this endeavor, we've grasped the essence of boldness,
understanding that success hinges on a deep comprehension of the business landscape and
adept navigation of its intricacies. In Ethiopia, where job scarcity looms large amid a surplus
of educated individuals, entrepreneurship emerges as a beacon of hope, offering a pathway
to self-sufficiency. Embracing this ethos, we've cultivated a vision of becoming educated
entrepreneurs, shunning conventional job pursuits in favor of charting our destinies and
creating opportunities for ourselves.

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Chapter Five
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
Established a century ago, Ethiotelecom stands as Ethiopia's preeminent
telecommunications powerhouse, intricately woven into the fabric of society, facilitating
communication across diverse sectors including education, commerce, and governance.
Throughout our internship, we gained profound insights into Ethiotelecom's pivotal role in
spearheading societal transformation and progress. Our exposure to fixed network transport
systems such as OTN and Cellular communications illuminated the expansive scope and
importance of telecom services in our nation's development journey. This immersive
experience not only deepened our theoretical understanding but also sharpened our
practical skills, seamlessly integrating us into the company's dynamic work environment. The
historical trajectory of Ethio-telecom underscores the monumental dedication and resources
required to uphold a modern telecommunications infrastructure amidst evolving demands
and technological advancements. Our internship provided us with a rich tapestry of
theoretical and practical expertise, empowering us to make meaningful contributions to
Ethiopia's technological evolution. In essence, this internship was an enriching odyssey,
offering invaluable experiences and insights into the realities of professional life and the
potential it holds for growth and innovation.

5.2 Recommendation
5.2.1 Recommendation for the Company
Ethiotelecom, while a sizable and profitable entity, is not without its imperfections, and
we have identified several areas for improvement within the company. Despite the
internship program showcasing commendable aspects, there are notable weaknesses at
the organizational level that warrant attention. These include prioritizing safety and
quality over economic gains, particularly concerning the prevalence of low-cost Chinese-
manufactured devices within the company's infrastructure. Additionally, the staff
members were not always ready to assist us, stemming from a lack of time as they had
to put their regular tasks first, which hindered effective communication and knowledge
transfer. To enhance client satisfaction and uphold international standards, Ethiotelecom
should strive to deliver solutions that meet the highest quality, safety, and
environmental criteria, prioritizing stakeholder, client, and community benefits while
upholding ethical values. Implementing a rotational system for interns across various
divisions can facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the company's operations.
Furthermore, establishing a dedicated research and laboratory section within Ethio
Telecom would prove beneficial, offering students valuable pre-programming

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opportunities and fostering innovation among employees to drive the company's

continuous improvement efforts.

5.2.2 Recommendation for the University

Expressing our gratitude to the university and our department head office for facilitating
our placement at Ethiotelecom, we strongly recommend that the university continues
with the internship program, as it is instrumental in preparing students for their future
careers by allowing them to apply theoretical knowledge in practical settings. This
program also fosters a deeper understanding of work ethics, employment demands,
responsibilities, and opportunities. We urge the university to continue assisting all
students in securing internship positions relevant to their programs by providing
recommendations to ease their training periods and alleviate the stress of finding
internship placements.

5.2.3 Recommendations for Students

Internships provide an excellent opportunity to translate classroom knowledge into real-
world experience. While learning is essential, applying those skills in a work setting
allows for the exploration of various career paths and specializations that align with
personal interests. Hence, we advise students to view internships not as a break but as a
valuable chance to learn. Building networks during this period is crucial, as connections
with like-minded individuals can lead to future job opportunities. Students should
approach their internships with passion and dedication, fully engaging in learning and
practice within their companies.

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References
[1] Ethiotelecom, "Internship Manual: Providing an Overview of the Company to Interns,"
Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia, 2024.
[2] Ethiotelecom, "History of Telecommunications in Ethiopia," [Online]. Available:
https://www.ethiotelecom.et/history/. [Accessed: 23-April-2024].
[3] W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA:
Wiley, 2012.
[4] R. C. Hansen, Phased Array Antennas, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 2009.
[5] J. D. Kraus and R. J. Marhefka, Antennas: For All Applications, 3rd ed. New York, NY, USA:
McGraw-Hill, 2002.
[6] C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 4th ed., Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 2016.
[7] J. Huang, C. C. Chen, and R. K. Wu, "Optimization of design parameters for planar array
antennas," IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 485-497, Feb.
2018.
[8] T. V. Balabanov and A. A. Velidov, "Advanced simulation tools for planar array antenna
analysis and optimization," in Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on
Antenna Technology (iWAT), 2017, pp. 1-4.
[9] Y. Li, S. Jin, X. Gao, and S. Zhang, "Adaptive beamforming for planar array antennas using
phase shifting and amplitude weighting techniques," IEEE Transactions on Wireless
Communications, vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 3393-3405, Jul. 2019.
[10] J. Kennedy and R. Eberhart, "Particle swarm optimization," in Proceedings of the 1995
IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks (ICNN), 1995, vol. 4, pp. 1942-1948.
[11] J. Y. Chang, H. C. Wang, and P. K. Huang, "Applications of planar array antennas in radar
and wireless communications," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol.
63, no. 5, pp. 1450-1462, May 2015.
[12] Cunningham, D. M. Pozar, and S. D. Weigand, "Advances in manufacturing technologies
for planar array antennas," IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 79-
87, Jun. 2019.

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Appendix
Appendix1: Array Factor calculation code for fixed values of N, and M
% Define parameters

lambda = 1; % Wavelength

N = 8; % Number of elements in the x direction

M = 10; % Number of elements in the y direction

angles = -pi:0.01:pi; % Angle range

% Define arrays for dx and dy

dx_values = [0.25, 0.5, 1, 2] * lambda; % Element spacing in the x direction

% Define colors and markers

colors = {'m', 'b', 'g', 'k'};

markers = {'o', 'none', 'x', '.'};

line_styles = {'-', '--', '-', '-'};

% Create the pattern for each dx and dy combination

figure;

hold on;

for idx = 1:length(dx_values)

dx = dx_values(idx);

dy = dx; % For equal dx and dy

% Array factor calculation

af_x = sin(N*pi*dx*sin(angles)/lambda) ./ (N*sin(pi*dx*sin(angles)/lambda));

af_y = sin(M*pi*dy*sin(angles)/lambda) ./ (M*sin(pi*dy*sin(angles)/lambda));

AF = abs(af_x) .* abs(af_y);

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% Normalize the array factor

AF = AF / max(AF);

% Plot the results with specified colors and markers

plot(angles, AF, 'DisplayName', sprintf('dx=dy %.2f \\lambda', dx/lambda), ...

'Color', colors{idx}, 'LineStyle', line_styles{idx}, 'Marker', markers{idx}, ...

'MarkerSize', 8, 'MarkerFaceColor', 'none', 'MarkerEdgeColor', colors{idx}, ...

'MarkerIndices', 1:10:length(AF)); % Set marker indices with spacing

end

% Adding Display Features

xlabel('$-\pi \leq \alpha \leq \pi$', 'Interpreter', 'latex');

ylabel('Normalized Rectangular Array Factor');

title('Rectangular Array Factor for N=8 and M=10 with varying dx and dy (dx=dy)');

legend('show', 'Interpreter', 'latex', 'Location', 'best');

grid on;

% Set x-axis ticks and labels

xticks(-pi:pi/2:pi);

xticklabels({'-\pi', '-\pi/2', '0', '\pi/2', '\pi'});

xlim([-pi pi]); % Limiting x-axis range from -pi to pi

hold off;

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Appendix2: Matlab code for simulating 3D Array Factor

% Constants

lambda = 1; % Wavelength

dx = lambda; % Element spacing in x-direction

dy = lambda; % Element spacing in y-direction

N = 6; % Number of elements in x and y directions

phi = 80; % Array phase in degrees

A = 1; % Array amplitude

% Define theta and phi angles

theta = linspace(0, pi, 100);

phi_deg = linspace(0, 2*pi, 100);

% Calculate 3D array factor

AF = zeros(length(theta), length(phi_deg));

for i = 1:length(theta)

for j = 1:length(phi_deg)

AF(i,j) = abs(sum(sum(exp(1i*(2*pi*dx/lambda*(0:N-1)*sin(theta(i))*cos(phi_deg(j)) +
2*pi*dy/lambda*(0:N-1)*sin(theta(i))*sin(phi_deg(j)) + phi*pi/180)))))/N^2;

end

end

% Convert theta and phi to degrees

theta_deg = rad2deg(theta);

phi_deg = rad2deg(phi_deg);

% Calculate Array Factor in dB

AF_dB = 10*log10(AF);

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% Plot 3D array factor

figure;

surf(phi_deg, theta_deg, AF_dB.', 'EdgeColor', 'none');

title('3D Array Factor of a 6x6 Planar Array Antenna (for dx=dy=\lambda)');

xlabel('Phi (degrees)');

ylabel('Theta (degrees)');

zlabel('Array Factor (dB)');

colorbar;

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