Sensors and Actuators

(เซนเซอร์และตัวขับเร้า)
Chapter 1: Introduction of Sensors and Actuators, Types of Sensors

By

Asst Prof. Dr. Santhad Chuwongin

Jan 2023
Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 1
 Introduction of Sensors&Actuators
➢ A sensor is a device that converts a nonelectrical quantity Ẽ into an electrical output signal E

➢ An actuator is a device that converts an electrical signal E into a nonelectrical quantity Ẽ

➢ A transducer is a device that can be either a sensor or an actuator.

➢ There are 6 primary energy domains and the associated symbols are as follows:
✓ Electrical (ไฟฟ้า) :E
✓ Thermal (อุณหภูมิ) :T
✓ Radiation (การแผ่รังสี ) :R
✓ Mechanical (เชิงกล) : Me
✓ Magnetic (แม่เหล็ก) :M
✓ Bio(chemical) (ชีวเคมี) :C
sensor actuator transducer
Ẽ E Ẽ,E
E
output Ẽ E,Ẽ output
input input output input
Basic input-output representation
Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 2
Introduction of Sensors&Actuators

Sensors Actuators

E E

T C T C

R M R M

Me Me

Vectorial representation of sensors and actuators.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 3

 Introduction of Sensors&Actuators
OUTPUT OUTPUT
E T R Me M C E T R Me M C
E E 1 3

I T T
I
N R 4 1 R
N
P
P Me
U Me 3 2
T U
M T M 2

C C
Four-stage radiation sensor Three-stage magnetic actuator

Vectorial representation of a multi-stage transducer

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 4

 Introduction of Sensors&Actuators
Amplifier Actuator
input M output
E E
E M Me 
I A*I B

➢ Block-diagram representation of the transduction processes within a magnetic actuator

(i.e. electromagnetic motor).

➢ Actuator system together with a power amplifier (A) on the front end to enhance the small
electrical actuating input current signal I. In this case, the current through a coil induces a
magnetic field B, which induces a torque on the rotor and hence outputs a rotational motion .

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 5

 Capacitive Sensors
➢ Capacitive sensors consist of a pair of electrodes arranged in such a way that one of the
electrodes moves when the input variable (pressure, acceleration or rate) is applied.

➢ In a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance C is given by:

➢ For a circular diaphragm sensor, the capacitance under deflection is as follows:

where w(r) is the deflection of the diaphragm, r is the radial distance from the center of the
diaphragm, a is the diaphragm radius and P is the applied pressure.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 6

 CAPACITIVE SENSORS
The flexural rigidity, D , where E, h and  are the Young’s
modulus, thickness and Poisson’s ratio of the diaphragm,
respectively

➢ Capacitive sensing utilizes the capacitance change induced by the deformation of the
diaphragm to convert the sensory information (pressure, force, etc.) into electrical signals (such
7
as changes in oscillation frequency, time, charge and voltage).
Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
y
2

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 8

 Capacitive Sensors

➢ Comb-type electrostatic sensing is made possible by micromachining technologies. In this

case, the area between the plates is made to vary as the overlap between the ‘fingers’ change.
Hence, this type of sensor has a much broader linear range than the parallel-plate type.

➢ Capacitive microsensors can be used for measuring pressure, force, acceleration, flow rate,
displacement, position, orientation measurement, etc.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 9

 Piezoelectric Sensors
➢ The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure.

➢ These sensors are based on the piezoelectric effect observed in some materials. In this, an
electrical charge change is generated when a mechanical stress is applied across the face of a
piezoelectric film.

➢ Examples of such materials include lead zirconate titanate (PZT) (Pb[ZrxTi1-x]O3), lead
metaniobate (PbNb2O6), lead titanate (PbTiO3) , quartz (SiO2) , Rochelle salt, Barium
titanate, lithium niobate (LiNbO3), and PVDF (polymer polyvinyl difluoride) and their
modifications.
V=gtT

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 10

 Piezoelectric Sensors
➢ For a piezoelectric disk of thickness t, the voltage (V) generated across the electrode disk,
when subjected to a stress (T), where g is the piezoelectric voltage coefficient, defined as the
ratio of the field developed to the applied mechanical stress.

➢ The relationship between the dipole moment and the mechanical deformation is expressed by
the following constitutive relationships: D=oE+eS ,and T=cS-eE where T is the
mechanical stress (N/m2), S is the strain (Unit less), E is the electric field (V/m), D is the flux
density (Coulomb/m2), c is the elastic constant (N/m2) : Young’s modulas , e is the piezoelectric
constant and  0 is the permittivity of free space (F/m).

➢ It may be noticed that in the absence of piezoelectricity these relationships reduce to Hooke’s
law and the constitutive relationship for dielectric materials, respectively.

➢ The effectiveness of a piezoelectric material is best expressed in terms of its electromechanical

coupling coefficient, K2. By definition, this is related to other material parameters used in the
above constitutive equations by the following:

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 11

 Piezoelectric Sensors
➢ Piezoelectric sensing is widely used in pressure and force sensors, accelerometers,
hydrophones, microphones, etc.

➢ When Piezoelectric sensor is stressed mechanically by a force, it generates an electric charge.

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage

when deformed

Schematic of a micromachined piezoelectric force sensor.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 12

 Piezoelectric Materials

direct piezoelectric effect

converse piezoelectric effect

f) Influence of the magnitude of

the applied electric field on the
magnitude of the deformation

g) Influence of the magnitude

of the stress on the magnitude
of the electric field 13
Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D.
 Piezoelectric Effect
➢ To explain piezoelectricity, a 2D hexagonal lattice consisting of oppositely charged
atoms of identical charge is used as an example.
➢The basic element of the hexagonal cell is the dipole shown in Figure (a).
➢The atoms are held together by interatomic forces, which to a first approximation are
represented as springs in Figure.

14
Vetelino, J., Reghu, A. (2011). Introduction to Sensors. Boca Raton: CRC Press
 Piezoelectric Effect
𝑝
➢Electric field, E, from the dipole at a point W where 𝑟 >> ℓ, is given by 𝐸 =
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

➢Electric dipole moment 𝑝 = 𝑞ℓ , dielectric constant of vacuum 𝜀0

➢Under the equilibrium conditions in Figure (b). The electric field at point W is the sum

of the contributions of the individual fields from the dipoles AB, FC, and ED as

𝑞ℓ 𝐴𝐵 − 2𝑞ℓ 𝐹𝐶 + 𝑞ℓ 𝐸𝐷
𝐸= =0
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

Total electric field at W from the hexagonal lattice is zero.

15
Vetelino, J., Reghu, A. (2011). Introduction to Sensors. Boca Raton: CRC Press
 Piezoelectric Effect
➢ If a tensile stress, 𝑡, is applied to the lattice along the axis OW, the lattice will be

deformed and each ion will be displaced, as shown in Figure (c).

➢ Electric field at point W becomes

𝑝′
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

➢ 𝑝′ = 𝑞 ℓ + 2𝛿ℓ − 2ℓ + 2𝛿ℓ + ℓ + 2𝛿ℓ = 2𝑞𝛿ℓ

➢The strain, 𝑠, due to the tensile stress, 𝑡, is defined as

𝛿ℓ
𝑠= , 𝑝′ = 2𝑞ℓs
ℓ

➢ Stress, 𝑡, is related to strain, 𝑠 by Hooke’s law, which is given by 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑐 𝑡

𝑠𝑐 is the mechanical compliance

16
Vetelino, J., Reghu, A. (2011). Introduction to Sensors. Boca Raton: CRC Press
 Piezoelectric Effect
𝑝′ = 2𝑞ℓ𝑠𝑐 𝑡

➢Assuming that the 2D hexagon contains 𝑁 molecules per unit area, it follows that the

electric polarization, 𝑃, which in this 2D case is defined as the dipole moment per unit

area, is given as 𝑃 = 2𝑁𝑞ℓ𝑠𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑 = 2𝑁𝑞ℓ𝑠𝑐

➢The quantity, 𝑑, is by definition the piezoelectric constant or, piezoelectric coefficient

which is the proportionality factor between the mechanical stresses [𝑡] and induced

electrical polarization [𝑃].

17
Vetelino, J., Reghu, A. (2011). Introduction to Sensors. Boca Raton: CRC Press
 Piezoelectric Effect
𝑝′ = 2𝑞ℓ𝑠𝑐 𝑡

➢Assuming that the 2D hexagon contains 𝑁 molecules per unit area, it follows that the

electric polarization, 𝑃, which in this 2D case is defined as the dipole moment per unit

area, is given as 𝑃 = 2𝑁𝑞ℓ𝑠𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑 = 2𝑁𝑞ℓ𝑠𝑐

➢The quantity, 𝑑, is by definition the piezoelectric constant, which is the proportionality

factor between the mechanical stresses and induced electrical polarization.

➢ Note that in an actual 3D lattice the polarization is defined as the dipole movement per

unit volume.

18
Vetelino, J., Reghu, A. (2011). Introduction to Sensors. Boca Raton: CRC Press
 Magnetostrictive Sensors
➢ Magnetostrictive materials can convert magnetic energy into kinetic energy, or the reverse,
and are used to build actuators and sensors.

➢ By passing a current through the coil, a magnetic field is formed within in, causing the rod to
extend. Alternatively, the device may operate in reverse as a sensor, where external pressures
change the length of the rod, which in turn generates a magnetic field that induces a measurable
current in the coil.

➢ Such sensors are frequently employed for non-destructive testing,

such as examination of suspender cables on bridges.

➢ Induced voltage V at the terminals of the coil with the rate of change in displacement at the end
of the bar. g is the magnetostrictive strain modulus, E is the Young’s modulus of the material,
Rm is the total ‘reluctance’ of the magnetic circuit and N is the number of turns in the coil.
➢ Ferrites, and metallic alloys such as ‘Permalloy’
(45% Ni+55% Fe), ‘Alfer’ (13% Al+87% Fe) and
‘Alcofer’ (12% Al+2% Co+86% Fe)

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 19

 Piezoresistive Sensors
➢ The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or
metal when mechanical strain is applied. In contrast to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoresistive
effect causes a change only in electrical resistance (R), not in electric potential (Not V).

➢ In silicon, produces a larger resistance change than that under an applied stress in a typical
conductor. Ex. the material is elongated 0.1% by stretching, the typical metallic resistors would
change by ~0.2 %, but the resistance of silicon would change by ~10 %.
➢ Piezoresistive sensors dominate pressure, acceleration and force sensing applications.
➢ The deflection of the diaphragm leads to the dimensional change of the resistors, hence
resulting in the resistance changing due to the piezoresistive effect in SiO2/Metal.

Fabricated CMOS-MEMS accelerometer with the inset showing the composite beams where piezoresistors are located.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 20

❑ Sensors 2011, 11(8), 7892-7907; doi:10.3390/s110807892
 Piezoresistive Sensors

➢ where R is the change of the resistance, R is the original resistance,  is the Poison ratio, l is
the length change of the resistor, l is the original length of the resistor and  and  represent the
resistivity change and resistivity of the resistor, respectively.

Concerned : more sensitive to

temperature! If device is made from
Silicon.
➢ If a voltage is applied to the electrodes and there is no pressure applied, the resistance is
at the level of M. When a force is applied, the resistance decreases due to the current that
flows across the ‘shunting’ polymer foil [9]. Here, the sensing resistance is inversely
proportional to the applied pressure.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 21

 Optical Sensors
➢ Optical sensors are based on measuring either the intensity change in one or more light beams
or phase changes in the light beams caused by their interaction or interference.

➢ Interferometric techniques, such as Mach–Zehnder interferometry (MZI) , Sagnac

interferometry ,and Fabri-Perot interferometry

➢ For sensing applications, the reference arm is kept isolated from external variation and only
the sensing arm is exposed to the variation. Then, the variation in the sensing arm induced by
such as temperature, strain, and Refractive Index (n) changes the OPL (Optical Path Length) of
the MZI, which can be easily detected by analyzing the variation in the interference signal.

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 Optical Path Length(OPL)
➢The smallest transit time will be

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 23

Optical Path Length(OPL)

24
 Interferometer
➢ The concept of interferometry is based on the phenomenon of interference, occurring when
two waves with equal frequency coincide. The resulting amplitude (or intensity) varies with the
phase difference between the two waves.
➢At equal amplitudes of the individual waves, the total intensity doubles when the waves are in
phase (constructive interference), and drops to zero when in antiphase (destructive interference).
➢The wave form of monochrome light (i.e. light with just one wavelength) is described by:

𝐴 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴0 cos(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
where 𝐴0 is the wave amplitude (for both the electric and the magnetic field components),
ω=2πf is the angular frequency of the wave, k=2πn/λ is the wave number and x the co-ordinate in
the direction of propagation.
➢ When two waves with equal frequency (wavelength) travel distances 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 , respectively,
their wave forms are described as 𝐴1 cos(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥1 ) and 𝐴2 cos(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥2 ). Both waves fall
simultaneously on the same sensor, so the wave functions are added:
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥1 ) + 𝐴2 cos(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥2 ) = 𝐴 𝑥 cos(ω𝑡 − (𝑥)) 25
 Interferometer
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥1 ) + 𝐴2 cos(ω𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥2 ) = 𝐴 𝑥 cos(ω𝑡 − (𝑥))
Where

𝐴 𝑥 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos(𝑘(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ))

and

𝐴2 sin(𝑘(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ))
tan( 𝑥 ) =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos(𝑘(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ))

26
 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer
➢ Beamsplitter is a piece of glass with a dielectric or metal coating on the front surface. Light
striking it from the front has a 50% (or any other value, depending on the coating) chance of
being reflected, and a 50% chance of being transmitted.
➢ Phase shifts on reflection : a reflection does indeed induce a phase shift of , whereas a
transmitted light picks up no phase shift.

➢ There is a phase change for a reflection when light reflects off a change from low to high
refractive index but not when it reflects off a change from high to low.

Here!!! reflection does not

induce a phase change

No phase
change

n1 > n2
Light
Source
n1 n2
Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 27
 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer
➢ Beamsplitter is a piece of glass with a dielectric or metal coating on the front surface. Light

Resultant light

Light beam1
Light beam2
No phase
change Constructive Destructive

Light
Source 2
 1 
 
Path A  Path C 
Path B
Constructive interference  Path D
Destructive interference 
Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 28
 Sagnac Interferometer
➢ The Sagnac interference is a phenomenon encountered in interferometry that is elicited by
rotation.

Sagnac interferometer, or
fiber optic gyroscope (FOG)

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 29

❑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagnac_effect
 Sagnac Interferometer
➢ Consequence of the different distances that light travels due to the rotation of the ring.
➢ The simplest derivation is for a circular ring of radius R, with a refractive index of 1, rotating
at an angular velocity of 
➢ Light traveling in the same direction as the rotation direction needs to travel more than one
circumference before it catches up with the light source from behind (t1).
2𝜋𝑅 + ∆𝐿
𝑡1 = ,Where L is the distance that the mirror has moved in that same time=Rt1
𝑐
2𝜋𝑅
𝑡1 =
𝑐 − 𝑅𝜔
➢ Likewise, Light traveling in the opposite direction of the rotation will travel less than one
circumference before hitting the light source on the front side (t2).
2𝜋𝑅
𝑡2 =
𝑐 + 𝑅𝜔
➢ The time difference is
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑅 4𝜋𝜔𝑅2 4𝜋𝜔𝑅2 4𝜔𝐴
𝑡1 − 𝑡2 = ∆𝑡 = − 𝑐+𝑅𝜔 = ≈ =
𝑐−𝑅𝜔 𝑐 2 −𝑅2 𝜔2 𝑐2 𝑐2

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 30

❑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagnac_effect
 Sagnac Interferometer
➢ Ex. Radius of fiber optic gyroscope is 5 m , an angular velocity of  is 200 rad/sec.
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋(5)
𝑡1 = 𝑐−𝑅𝜔 = 3∗108−200∗5 = 1.047201042 ∗ 10 −7 second

2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋(5)
𝑡2 = 𝑐+𝑅𝜔 = 3∗108+200∗5 = 1.047194061 ∗ 10 −7 second

𝑡1 − 𝑡2 = 1.047201042 ∗ 10 −7 − 1.047194061 ∗ 10 −7 = 6.98 ∗ 10 −13 second

4𝜋𝜔𝑅2 4𝜋 200 25 62831.85

∆𝑡 = 2
= = = 6.98 ∗ 10 −13 second
𝑐 9 ∗ 1016 9 ∗ 1016

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 31

❑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagnac_effect
 Resonant Sensors
➢ Resonant sensors are based on measuring the resonant freq. of the mechanical vibration of
beams or diaphragms. The applied strain causes changes in the resonant freq. (similar to a guitar
string), enabling measurement of input variables such as pressure, acceleration, rate ,and
temperature.

➢In a resonant sensor, the strain caused by pressure on the diaphragm leads to variation of its
natural frequency.

➢As an example, the natural resonant frequency of a flexure resonator with both ends fixed can
be obtained from the following

➢where f is the natural frequency of the fundamental oscillating mode, l the resonator length, h
the resonator thickness, E the Young’s modulus,  the density of the diaphragm material and  the
strain generated inside the resonator structure.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 32

 Resonant Sensors
➢Comparing resonant sensing with piezoresistive sensing, the gauge factor of the
resonant strain gauge can be determined as:

➢If a strain is 100 ppm, for a 1.2-mm long, 20-micron wide and 5-micron thick resonator strain
gauge, the gauge factor can be as high as 3000, whereas the piezoresistive strain gauge factor is
only about 2.

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 33

 Questions
1. จากบทเรี ยนเรื่ อง Capacitive sensors จงหาว่า input&output คือสิ่ งใด
a) พื้นที่และระยะระหว่างขั้วไฟฟ้าที่เปลี่ยนแปลง
b) พื้นที่และค่าความจุที่เปลี่ยนแปลง
c) แรงกดและระยะระหว่างขั้วไฟฟ้าที่เปลี่ยนแปลง
d) แรงกดและค่าความจุที่เปลี่ยนแปลง
2. จากบทเรี ยนเรื่ อง circular diaphragm capacitive sensor เหตุใดจึงมีความซับซ้อนในการคานวน
a) ค่าระยะระหว่างขั้วไฟฟ้าไม่คงที่
b) ค่าพื้นที่ไม่คงที่
c) ค่าความจุไม่คงที่
d) ค่า  ของตัวกลางไม่คงที่
3. จากบทเรี ยนเรื่ อง Comb capacitor ค่าความจุที่เปลี่ยนแปลงเป็ นผลมาจากสิ่ งใดเป็ นสาคัญ
a) ค่า  ของตัวกลางเปลี่ยนแปลง
b) ค่าระยะระหว่างขั้วไฟฟ้า
c) ค่าพื้นที่ซอ้ นกันของขั้วไฟฟ้า
d) ค่าความนาไฟฟ้าของขั้วไฟฟ้า
Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 34
 Questions
4. จากบทเรี ยนเรื่ อง piezoelectric sensors ข้อใดถูกต้อง
a) แรงดันไฟฟ้าที่เกิดขึ้นมาจากแรงกดที่กระทากับ PbTiO3
b) กระแสไฟฟ้าที่เกิดขึ้นมาจากแรงกดที่กระทากับ piezoresistive material
c) กระแสไฟฟ้าที่เกิดขึ้นมาจากแรงดันไฟฟ้าที่กระทากับ PbTiO3
d) แรงดันไฟฟ้าที่เกิดขึ้นมาจากแรงกดที่กระทากับ piezoresistive material
5. จากบทเรี ยนเรื่ อง piezoelectric sensors ข้อใดไม่ถูกต้อง
a) เกี่ยวข้องกับค่า Poisson’s ratio
b) เกี่ยวข้องกับค่า Young’s modulus
c) เกี่ยวข้องกับค่า elastic constant
d) เกี่ยวข้องกับค่าสนามไฟฟ้า
6. จากบทเรี ยนเรื่ อง piezoelectric sensors ข้อใดไม่เกี่ยวข้อง
a) ถ้าไม่มีสนามไฟฟ้า piezoelectric effect จะกลายเป็ นกฎของ Hooke
b) Pressure sensor ใช้หลักการ piezoelectric effect
c) piezoelectric sensors ถูกนามาใช้มาใน Bio-chemical sensor
d) hydrophones และ microphones บางประเภทคือ piezoelectric sensors
Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 35
 Questions
7. จากบทเรี ยนเรื่ อง Magnetostrictive sensors ข้อใดถูกต้อง
a) แรงกดเปลี่ยนความยาวของวัสดุทาให้เกิดสนามแม่เหล็กแล้วเหนี่ ยวนาให้เกิดกระแสไฟฟ้า
b) ความเข้มสนามแม่เหล็กเปลี่ยนความยาวของวัสดุและเหนี่ ยวนาให้เกิดกระแสไฟฟ้า
c) อุณหภูมิเปลี่ยนความยาวของวัสดุทาให้เกิดสนามแม่เหล็กแล้วเหนี่ ยวนาให้เกิดกระแสไฟฟ้า
d) แรงดันไฟฟ้าเปลี่ยนความยาวของวัสดุทาให้เกิดสนามแม่เหล็กแล้วเหนี่ ยวนาให้เกิดกระแสไฟฟ้า
8. เหตุใด Piezoresistive sensor จึงนิยมทาจากสารกึ่งตัวนามากกว่าโลหะ
a) สารกึ่งตัวนามีค่า Young ‘s modulus สู งกว่าโลหะ
b) สารกึ่งตัวนามีความต้านทานสู งกว่าโลหะ
c) สารกึ่งตัวนามีความต้านทานเปลี่ยนแปลงต่ากว่าโลหะเมื่อถูกยืดออก
d) สารกึ่งตัวนามีความต้านทานเปลี่ยนแปลงสู งกว่าโลหะเมื่อถูกยืดออก

Sensors and Actuators (12026118) by Santhad Chuwongin, Ph.D. 36