energies

Review
A Review of Bidirectional Charging Grid Support Applications
and Battery Degradation Considerations
Feyijimi Adegbohun 1 , Annette von Jouanne 1, * , Emmanuel Agamloh 1 and Alex Yokochi 2

1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA;
jimi_adegbohun@baylor.edu (F.A.); emmanuel_agamloh@baylor.edu (E.A.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA; alex_yokochi@baylor.edu
* Correspondence: annette_vonjouanne@baylor.edu

Abstract: Electric vehicles (EVs) are crucial in mitigating global emissions by replacing internal
combustion engines. The capacity of EV batteries, coupled with their charging infrastructure, offers
the added advantage of supplying flexible demand capacity and providing demand response benefits
to the power grid, which is essential as overall demand increases. EVs ready for vehicle-to-everything
(V2X) applications and chargers that support them enhance this flexibility by allowing for varied
storage applications. However, to fully harness these benefits, it is vital to consider EV drivers’
charging habits and optimize the charging and discharging controls to minimize battery life impact.
This study examines various V2X applications in North America and their effects on battery longevity,
considering EV charging patterns. Additionally, it investigates advanced aging-aware optimization
algorithms for managing bidirectional charging.

Keywords: bidirectional charging; V2X; battery degradation; grid demand

1. Introduction
From 2023 to 2030, it is projected that the U.S. will need to ramp up its power genera-
tion capacity significantly, adding over 200 GW to meet peak demand [1]. This figure could
Citation: Adegbohun, F.; von Jouanne, almost double if the U.S. aims for 100% clean electricity by 2035 [1]. Such growth scenarios
A.; Agamloh, E.; Yokochi, A. A will introduce an unparalleled mix of renewable energy sources reliant on weather, leading
Review of Bidirectional Charging to a more fluctuating electricity supply and a surge in the need for transmission capacity.
Grid Support Applications and Currently, transmission interconnection backlogs are a growing concern, with average wait
Battery Degradation Considerations. times extending to about five years [2], which could impact resource adequacy.
Energies 2024, 17, 1320. https:// Virtual power plants (VPPs) represent a modern concept in the field of energy manage-
doi.org/10.3390/en17061320 ment and power generation that aggregates and remotely controls a diverse array of energy
Academic Editor: Adel Merabet
assets, such as solar panels, wind turbines, energy storage systems, demand response
programs, and other distributed energy resources, and which are likely geographically
Received: 11 February 2024 dispersed and may belong to different stakeholders. VPPs are mainly enabled by robust
Revised: 6 March 2024 communication networks enabling seamless communication between a central aggregation
Accepted: 7 March 2024 software platform and the distributed energy resources, to direct real-time monitoring,
Published: 9 March 2024
control, and coordination of the assets [3–6].
Virtual power plants are a low-cost, viable solution to enhance resource adequacy.
They offer more than just economic benefits; VPPs enhance resilience, may cut down on
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, alleviate transmission and distribution (T&D)
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. congestion, empower communities, and are adaptable to the changing needs of the grid [7].
This article is an open access article The potential distributed energy resource (DER) capacity joining VPPs is on a rapid rise,
distributed under the terms and with EVs constituting a significant portion of this growth due to their highly adaptable
conditions of the Creative Commons demand [8,9]. Estimates indicate that between 2025 and 2030, the grid will integrate
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// 20–90 GW of demand capacity/response from EV charging infrastructure and 300–540 GWh
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of storage capacity from EV batteries. When demand capacity increases, the max power the
4.0/). grid can deliver at any point in time and demand response are modified based on current

Energies 2024, 17, 1320. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17061320 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 1320 2 of 17

or predicted grid conditions. This lays an emphasis on the shift towards electric vehicles
(EVs) and its pivotal multi-faceted impact on the global push to slash carbon emissions.
Nonetheless, incorporating electric vehicles (EVs) as dynamic energy storage systems
introduces new operational complications, such as coordinating the driving and charging
patterns of EV drivers with vehicle-to-everything (V2X) applications, where X represents
the grid or a microgrid (V2G or V2M), other vehicles (V2V), homes and buildings (V2H
and V2B), or generic load (V2L) applications, which require use of aging-aware controls to
maximize battery longevity [10].
Considering the charging patterns, trip duration, parking duration, charger type
and charging location (e.g., office, home, or public charging facility), vehicle type (e.g.,
heavy or light duty commercial, or passenger) are important in examining the potential
value addition of EVs and charging infrastructure in a VPP. Comprehensive studies of the
impact of EV driving patterns on V2G applications have been presented in literature [11].
The collective research across these studies highlights the potential of V2G technology
to enhance power grid stability and efficiency, driven by optimized EV charging and
discharging strategies that consider user behavior, driving patterns, and economic benefits.
Additionally, these studies underscore the importance of integrating EV user preferences
and stochastic factors into V2G systems to maximize the reliability, cost-effectiveness, and
environmental benefits of EV integration into power grids [11–20].
This paper presents a conceptual assessment of the multifaceted role of EVs in en-
hancing grid stability and flexibility, particularly through bidirectional charging and V2X
applications. The paper offers a comprehensive analysis that not only examines the techni-
cal capabilities and real-world applications of bidirectional EV charging but also delves
into the pivotal impact of EV drivers’ charging behaviors on battery life and grid demand.
Our study is significant for its in-depth assessment of the integration of EVs as dynamic
components in VPPs, addressing the challenges and opportunities they present in the
context of an increasingly renewable-dependent energy landscape. The paper is intended
for a diverse audience encompassing various key players in the energy sector, particularly
those involved with VPPs and bidirectional battery operations.
The following sections of the paper start by analyzing how EV batteries contribute to
meeting grid demand, emphasizing their role in flexible demand capacity. The paper then
explores the capabilities and diverse applications of bidirectional charging, backed by a
survey of its real-world implementations. We then provide a deep dive into the degradation
mechanisms of EV batteries highlighting the factors that exacerbate them. Furthermore,
we delve into the realm of V2X applications, assessing their impact on battery life and
considering EV charging patterns in this broader context. The paper also introduces and
evaluates aging-aware optimization algorithms for bidirectional charging, a novel approach
in extending battery life while ensuring efficient grid operation. We conclude the paper by
summarizing the key takeaways and outlines recommendations for future research and
real-world implementation.

2. EV Batteries, EV Chargers, and Grid Demand

EV nameplate demand capacity additions are expected to add 20 GW to the US
electrical load by 2025 and 90 GW by 2030 [8,21,22]. Similarly, nameplate EV storage
capacity additions are expected to soar to 305 GWh and 540 GWh in 2025 and 2030,
respectively as illustrated in Figure 1, representing a total DER capacity investment in EVs
that is estimated to be between $290–505 billion per year (2025–2030) [7]. This growth
coincides with expected additions to electrification of space and water heating using heat
pumps, and some expected asset retirements, and is poised to drive demand growth needs
of ~200 GW, which is between 10–20% of current peaks [1,7]. The grid already faces a
number of resiliency challenges, with more frequent blackouts occurring due to weather
related events in states such as Texas and California [23]. Demand response management
devices that are connected such as smart thermostats and smart water heaters driven by
energy efficient heat pumps participate as VPPs and can help achieve significant peak
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Energies 2024, 17, 1320 3 of 17

that are connected such as smart thermostats and smart water heaters driven by energy
efficient heat pumps participate as VPPs and can help achieve significant peak reductions
reductions
[24]. [24].early
Similarly, Similarly, early demonstrations
demonstrations of V2G basedof V2Gshow
VPPs basedtheVPPs show
promise theV2G
that promise
tech-
that V2G
nology cantechnology can play role
play a significant a significant role peak
in reducing in reducing
demand peak demand
as well as well
as times as times
when they
when
may be they may to
crucial begrid
crucial to grid resiliency
resiliency [25–27]. Estimated
[25–27]. Estimated savings for savings for U.S.inutilities
U.S. utilities capacityin
capacity investment for new peaker plants, transmission and distribution
investment for new peaker plants, transmission and distribution upgrades could be be- upgrades could
be between
tween USD USD15 to 15
USDto USD 35 billion/year,
35 billion/year, whenwhenthesethese investments
investments are deferred
are deferred and and
VPPs VPPs
are
widely adopted (ignoring the additional societal benefits like emissions reduction andand
are widely adopted (ignoring the additional societal benefits like emissions reduction re-
resiliency)
siliency) [1].
[1]. Multiple
Multiple stakeholders—includingbulk
stakeholders—including bulkpower
powersystem
systemoperators,
operators, distribution
distribution
system operators,
system operators, VPPVPP platform
platform operators,
operators, and
and electricity
electricity consumers—play
consumers—play different
different key
key
roles in the value chain of making VPPs
roles in the value chain of making VPPs a reality.a reality.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Nameplate
Nameplate EV
EV charger
charger and
and EV
EV battery
battery forecast (2025–2030) [7].
forecast (2025–2030) [7].

Figure
Figure 22 illustrates
illustrates aa diagram
diagram of of the
the interactions
interactions between
between each
each of the stakeholders
of the stakeholders
within a VPP [7]. The figure illustrates the end-to-end integration of virtual power plant
(VPP) systems, showcasing a seamless interaction interaction between
between various
various stakeholders
stakeholders andandcom-
com-
ponents. AtAt its
its core
core is
is the
the VPP
VPP operator,
operator, equipped with IoT data analytics and a dispatch
platform, orchestrating
orchestrating the entire process. This This operator
operator is interconnected
interconnected withwith the bulk
power system
system operator,
operator,responsible
responsiblefor forthe
themacro-level
macro-levelgrid
gridbalance,
balance,andand the
the local
local distri-
distribu-
bution system
tion system operator
operator forfor more
more granular
granular grid
grid operating
operating conditions.
conditions. Electricity
Electricity custom-
customers,
ers, ranging
ranging fromfrom residential
residential to industrial,
to industrial, form form the network’s
the network’s endpoints
endpoints with devices
with devices like
like smart
water heaters,
smart water bidirectional
heaters, and unidirectional
bidirectional EV chargers,
and unidirectional and smart
EV chargers, and thermostats. These
smart thermostats.
components
These work inwork
components unison, allowing
in unison, the VPPthe
allowing to efficiently manage energy
VPP to efficiently managedemand
energy and
de-
supply,and
mand ensuring
supply, grid stabilitygrid
ensuring andstability
optimizingandthe use of distributed
optimizing the use ofenergy resources
distributed [7].
energy
The VPP’s sophisticated communication and control systems facilitate this
resources [7]. The VPP’s sophisticated communication and control systems facilitate this integration.
integration.
Energies 2024,
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Figure 2.
Figure 2. VPP
VPP operational model [7].
operational model [7].

Virtual Power Plants and EV Charging Cost Reduction

The economic model of VPPs is influenced by the composition of distributed energy
resources
resources (DERs)
(DERs)and andtheir
theiroperational
operationalstrategies.
strategies.AtAttheir
theircore,
core,however,
however, they
theyshare
sharesimilar
sim-
cost and and
ilar cost revenue structures.
revenue On the
structures. Oncost
the side, thesethese
cost side, include the expenses
include associated
the expenses with
associated
establishing and operating
with establishing and operating DERDERmanagement
management systems, which
systems, encompass
which encompass project
projectimple-
im-
mentation,
plementation, administrative tasks, and the management of payments. Additionally, costs
administrative tasks, and the management of payments. Additionally, costs
arise
arise from
from acquiring
acquiring participants
participants or or customers,
customers, which
which maymay involve
involve marketing,
marketing, consumer
consumer
education,
education, recruitment efforts, and the provision of rebates and subsidies. Incentives
recruitment efforts, and the provision of rebates and subsidies. Incentives forfor
participants
participants also
also form
form aa part
part of
of the
the costs,
costs, which
which could
could bebe one-time
one-time payments,
payments, recurring
recurring
payments,
payments, or or payments
payments based
based onon the
the amount
amount of of kWh
kWh produced.
produced. On On the
the revenue
revenue side,
side,
VPPs earn income through payments for every MWh delivered, typically
VPPs earn income through payments for every MWh delivered, typically received from received from
utilities
utilities via
via independent
independent system
system operators
operators (ISOs)
(ISOs) [7].
[7]. They
They also generate revenue
also generate revenue through
through
capacity
capacity payments for each MW of energy provided by the VPP collective, as
payments for each MW of energy provided by the VPP collective, as well
well as from
as from
ancillary services like frequency regulation and ramping. Furthermore,
ancillary services like frequency regulation and ramping. Furthermore, VPPs can benefit VPPs can benefit
from payments related to the avoidance of infrastructure upgrades, contributing to their
from payments related to the avoidance of infrastructure upgrades, contributing to their
overall financial viability.
overall financial viability.
EVs present both a challenge and an opportunity for grid management. VPPs can
EVs present both a challenge and an opportunity for grid management. VPPs can
mitigate the challenges through:
mitigate the challenges through:
Demand Response Integration: By integrating EVs into demand response programs,
Demand Response Integration: By integrating EVs into demand response programs,
VPPs can shift EV charging to off-peak hours, reducing strain on the grid and lowering
VPPs can shift EV charging to off-peak hours, reducing strain on the grid and lowering
charging costs due to off-peak rates.
charging costs due to off-peak rates.
Dynamic Pricing Models: Utilizing dynamic pricing models, VPPs can encourage
Dynamic Pricing Models: Utilizing dynamic pricing models, VPPs can encourage EV
EV owners to charge during periods of low demand or high renewable generation, thus
owners to charge during periods of low demand or high renewable generation, thus opti-
optimizing charging costs.
mizing charging costs.
Renewable Energy Synchronization: By synchronizing EV charging with periods of
high renewable energy generation (e.g., solar during midday), VPPs can further reduce
the marginal cost of charging.
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 5 of 17

Renewable Energy Synchronization: By synchronizing EV charging with periods of

high renewable energy generation (e.g., solar during midday), VPPs can further reduce the
marginal cost of charging.
VPPs can actively participate in electricity markets, offering several services that are
particularly relevant in the context of EV charging:
Energy Arbitrage: VPPs can leverage price differentials in the electricity market,
storing energy in EV batteries when prices are low and releasing it back to the grid when
prices are high.
Ancillary Services: EV batteries in a VPP can provide frequency regulation and voltage
support, creating revenue streams for VPP operators and EV owners.
Capacity Market Participation: By aggregating EVs, VPPs can bid into capacity mar-
kets, providing a guaranteed energy reserve, thus opening a revenue stream that offsets EV
charging infrastructure costs.

3. Bidirectional Charging: Capabilities and Applications

The advent of bidirectional charging capabilities in EVs has opened new frontiers
in energy management, with significant implications for grid stability, renewable energy
integration, and consumer convenience. This section explores the range of bidirectional
charging technologies, focusing on non-exporting and exporting capabilities, and the
various sub-categories within V2X applications.

3.1. Non-Exporting Bidirectional Charging

Non-exporting bidirectional charging involves EVs supplying power to homes or
specific loads behind the meter rather than feeding back into the grid. This is usually
described as vehicle-to-load (V2L) or vehicle-to-building (V2B). This application is crucial
during power outages or for off-grid power solutions. There are two primary topologies
in non-exporting bidirectional charging: systems that require an external electric vehicle
supply equipment (EVSE) and those that rely solely on the vehicle’s onboard charging
equipment. The former, often equipped with smart capabilities, can be programmed to
supply power during peak demand or outages, as noted by Heydari-Doostabad et al. [28].
The latter, on the other hand, leverages the inbuilt inverter capability of the vehicle
to supply power directly to home appliances or other loads, a concept explored by
Khan et al. [29] and Chang et al. [30].

3.2. Exporting Bidirectional Charging

In exporting bidirectional charging, EVs can send electricity back to grid-tied loads.
This functionality is integral to Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) systems, facilitating energy flow
from EVs to the power grid, thereby aiding in demand response management and grid
stabilization. Tang et al. [31] highlight how this can optimize battery charging performance
while accommodating grid needs.
Figure 3 describes common bidirectional charging system configurations and their
interconnection mechanisms. Depending on whether a bidirectional charging system
is exporting or non-exporting, it will vary in their permitting and thus their scale of
deployment [32]. Exporting scenarios where the system is grid tied will typically involve
more stringent constraints that require at least permission from the utility and oftentimes
interconnection studies to take place, in order for the interconnection to be approved and
for the system to begin operational [32].
Energies2024,
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Figure 3.
Figure 3. Common V2X bidirectional
bidirectional charging
charging system
system configurations,
configurations, adapted
adapted from
from[32].
[32].

3.3.
3.3. V2X Applications
V2X Applications
3.3.1. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
3.3.1. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
V2G technology enables EVs to interact with the power grid, providing ancillary
V2G technology enables EVs to interact with the power grid, providing ancillary ser-
services like frequency regulation. This interaction not only stabilizes the grid but also
vices like frequency regulation. This interaction not only stabilizes the grid but also opens
opens revenue streams for EV owners. EVs in V2G applications can participate in various
revenue streams for EV owners. EVs in V2G applications can participate in various grid-
grid-support services:
support services:
Frequency Regulation: EVs help stabilize the grid frequency by quickly responding
Frequency Regulation: EVs help stabilize the grid frequency by quickly responding
to grid demand fluctuations. This requires EVs to have fast-response charging systems
to grid demand fluctuations. This requires EVs to have fast-response charging systems
capable of rapidly adjusting power output. Amamra et al. [19] illustrate an optimized
capable of rapidly adjusting power output. Amamra et al. [19] illustrate an optimized bi-
bidirectional V2G operation, which uses a fleet of EVs to participate in frequency and
directional V2G operation, which uses a fleet of EVs to participate in frequency and volt-
voltage regulation services, thereby reducing EV ownership charging costs.
age regulation
Energy Storageservices, thereby reducing
for Renewable EV ownership
Integration: EV batteries charging costs.renewable energy,
store excess
Energy Storage for Renewable Integration: EV batteries
particularly from intermittent sources like solar and wind, reducing the store excess
need renewable en-
for traditional
ergy, particularly from intermittent sources like solar and wind,
energy storage systems. This application requires EVs to have a charging schedule alignedreducing the need for
traditional energy storage systems. This application requires EVs
with renewable generation patterns, Ota et al. [33] propose an autonomous distributed V2G to have a charging
schedule
control aligned
scheme withgrid-connected
where renewable generation
EVs supply patterns, Ota etspinning
distributed al. [33] reserve
proposeaccording
an autono-to
frequency deviation, which signals supply and demand imbalance in the power grid. spin-
mous distributed V2G control scheme where grid-connected EVs supply distributed This
ning reserve
scheme according
addresses to frequency
the need deviation,
for EV batteries which
to store signals
excess supply and
renewable demand
energy, imbal-
particularly
ance in the power grid. This scheme addresses the need for EV batteries
from intermittent sources like solar and wind, and requires EVs to have a charging schedule to store excess
renewable energy, particularly from intermittent sources like solar
aligned with renewable generation patterns, emphasizing the role of EVs in balancing and wind, and requires
EVs to have
power a charging
imbalances causedschedule aligned with
by intermittent renewable
renewable generation
energy sources.patterns, emphasizing
the role of EVs Grid
Reducing in balancing
Congestion powerandimbalances
TaD Upgrade causedCostbyDeferrals:
intermittent renewable or
By absorbing energy
sup-
sources.
plying power, EVs can alleviate grid congestion during peak hours, delaying the need
Reducing Grid
for transmission andCongestion
distributionand (TaD) TaD Upgrade Cost
infrastructure Deferrals:
upgrades. By absorbing
Gowda et al. [34]orinves-
sup-
plying power, EVs can alleviate grid congestion during peak hours,
tigate the potential of EVs with V2G capability to provide TaD deferral and congestion delaying the need for
transmission
relief services.and Andistribution
analysis of(TaD) infrastructure
virtual power plants upgrades.
by the Gowda et al. [34]
Brattle group [1] investigate
estimated
the potential
that the required of EVs with V2G
distribution capability
grid investments to provide
neededTaD deferral
to meet andelectrification
future congestion reliefand
services. An analysis
decarbonization demand of virtual
may be power
up toplants
USD 50 bybillion
the Brattle
by 2035groupbut[1] estimated
could that the
be as much as
required
~70% lowerdistribution
if measures grid
are investments
taken to manage needed to meet
flexible future
demand electrification
from DERs including and decar-
EVs.
bonization
Different demand may beare
duty cycles up expected
to USD 50depending
billion by on 2035thebutapplication.
could be as For much as ~70%
frequency
lower if measures
regulation, are taken
EVs undergo to manage
frequent, flexible demand
short-duration fromand
charging DERs including EVs.
discharging cycles. For
energy storage,duty
Different the charging
cycles are cycle aligns with
expected renewable
depending generation
on the patterns,
application. often mid-day
For frequency reg-
for solar EVs
ulation, energy.
undergo frequent, short-duration charging and discharging cycles. For en-
ergy storage, the charging cycle aligns with renewable generation patterns, often mid-day
for solar energy.
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 7 of 17

3.3.2. Vehicle-to-Microgrid (V2M)

In V2M applications, EVs interface with localized grid systems like microgrids. The
infrastructure typically includes renewable energy sources, storage systems, and advanced
metering. Kaur et al. [35,36] discuss the integration of renewable energy sources in mi-
crogrids, emphasizing the role of energy storage, including V2G technology, to balance
demand and supply. It highlights the significance of electric vehicle (EV) batteries as
additional storage in microgrids, providing services such as load shifting and frequency
variation management. The model presented includes solar and wind energy sources
along with an electrical vehicle aggregator in an integrated environment, illustrating the
feasibility and benefits of V2G in microgrids.

3.3.3. Vehicle-to-Home/Building (V2H/V2B)

V2H/V2B applications involve EVs supplying power to residential or commercial
buildings. The type of building dictates the application, with residential buildings focus-
ing more on backup power and peak shaving, while commercial buildings leverage load
shifting to benefit from time-of-use tariffs. The versatility of V2H/V2B applications is
highlighted by Shima et al., including proposing of energy management algorithms for
V2B/V2H applications and the battery degradation concerns for V2B [37]. Higashitani
et al. [38] evaluate the profitability and optimal configuration of vehicle-to-home (V2H)
technology for residential energy systems, considering various household types and storage
options. It optimizes residential energy systems under scenarios with different electricity
demand profiles, automobile usage patterns, and available areas for PV installation. The
study finds that V2H systems should generally be installed instead of stationary batteries,
especially for households with short EV absence times, large available areas for PV installa-
tion, and high electricity demand. V2H demonstrates superior energy independence and
energy-saving effects for households whose annual PV generation exceeds their yearly
electricity demand.

3.3.4. Other V2X Applications

Vehicle-to-Load (V2L): This application involves using EVs as mobile power sources,
particularly for outdoor events or remote locations where grid power is unavailable. The
Ford F-150 Lightning, equipped with 9.6 kW of onboard power, exemplifies the innovative
use of electric vehicles in V2L applications. It offers up to 11 power outlets with both
120 V and 240 V capabilities, making it a versatile mobile power source suitable for diverse
scenarios [39].
Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V): In V2V, one EV can charge another, which is particularly
useful in emergency situations or when conventional charging infrastructure is unavailable.
The versatility of V2V applications is highlighted by Ucer et al. [40], who propose a
bidirectional EV-to-EV charge-sharing solution for flexible grid integration.
Figure 4 is a visual illustration of the different V2X configurations and capabilities,
highlighting the expanding capabilities of bidirectional charging in EVs and demonstrating
their potential as dynamic tools for energy management. As these technologies evolve,
they promise to play an increasingly integral role in creating a sustainable, resilient, and
efficient energy ecosystem.
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Figure4.4.Overlay
Figure Overlayof
of V2X
V2X configurations,
configurations, adapted
adapted from
from [32].
[32].

3.4.Summary
3.4. Summaryof of V2G
V2G Adoption Challenges
Challenges
Theprevious
The previoussection
section outlines
outlines various
various advantages
advantagesof ofV2G
V2Gtechnology
technologyacross acrossdifferent
different
applications.These
applications. These benefits
benefits include grid support
support andandstabilization,
stabilization,wherewhereEVs EVscontribute
contribute
totoessential
essentialgrid
gridservices
services like frequency regulation,
regulation,thereby
therebyenhancing
enhancingthe thegrid’s
grid’sreliability
reliability
andresilience.
and resilience.Additionally,
Additionally,V2G V2Gand andV2M
V2Mapplications
applicationsaid aidininthe
theintegration
integrationof ofrenewable
renewa-
ble energy
energy sources
sources by storing
by storing surplus surplus renewable
renewable energy,energy, promoting
promoting a more a more sustainable
sustainable energy
energy mix. For EV owners and operators, participating in grid
mix. For EV owners and operators, participating in grid services and utilizing time-of-use services and utilizing
time-of-use
tariffs tariffs
can result in can
costresult
savingsin cost
andsavings
revenueand revenue opportunities.
opportunities. In emergency In emergency
situations,sit-
EVs
uations,
can EVs can critical
also provide also provide
power critical
supply power supply
to homes andto homes
buildings and(V2H/V2B),
buildings (V2H/V2B),
serving as
servingpower
backup as backup power
sources. sources. Moreover,
Moreover, their
their ability ability
to offer to offer
power in power
remoteinareasremote areas
or during
or during emergencies
emergencies as V2L andas V2Lapplications
V2V and V2V applications
demonstrates demonstrates
the mobility theand
mobility and flexi-
flexibility of EVs
asbility of EVsenergy
dynamic as dynamic energy sources.
sources.
Keydisadvantages
Key disadvantages of of bidirectional
bidirectional charging
charging include
includehowever
howeverthe theaccelerated
acceleratedwear wear
and tear on EV batteries due to frequent charging and discharging,
and tear on EV batteries due to frequent charging and discharging, which can diminish which can diminish
theirlifespan
their lifespanand and efficiency
efficiency [41].
[41]. TheThe implementation
implementation of bidirectional
of bidirectional chargingcharging on a
on a broader
broader scale poses significant infrastructure challenges, necessitating
scale poses significant infrastructure challenges, necessitating major upgrades to existing major upgrades to
existing electrical systems and charging station equipment to mitigate
electrical systems and charging station equipment to mitigate the adverse effects that the adverse effects
that bidirectional
bidirectional charging
charging couldcould
poseposeto thetogrid
the grid
[42]. [42]. Additionally,
Additionally, the absence
the absence of uni-
of universal
versal standards
standards and clear andregulatory
clear regulatory frameworks
frameworks presentspresents a notable
a notable obstacle
obstacle to thetowidespread
the wide-
spread adoption
adoption of this technology[43].
of this technology [43].
Barriers in market participation for
Barriers in market participation for EV
EV owners,
owners,such suchasasaccess
accesstotoenergy
energymarkets,
markets,
pricing mechanisms, and fair compensation models, also
pricing mechanisms, and fair compensation models, also pose significant hurdlespose significant hurdles toto
bidi-
bidi-
rectional charging [7]. Lastly, the increased connectivity required for
rectional charging [7]. Lastly, the increased connectivity required for smart grid integration smart grid integra-
tion brings
brings about about cybersecurity
cybersecurity concerns,
concerns, highlightingthe
highlighting theneed
needto to safeguard
safeguard sensitive
sensitiveuseruser
and grid data [44]. Overall, while bidirectional charging offers numerous benefits,these
and grid data [44]. Overall, while bidirectional charging offers numerous benefits, these
challengesare
challenges arebroad
broadand and complex
complex in in nature.
nature. This
This paper
paperdelves
delvesintointothe
thedisadvantages
disadvantagesand and
challenges associated with bidirectional charging applications, with a particularfocus
challenges associated with bidirectional charging applications, with a particular focusonon
addressingthe
addressing theissue
issueofof battery
battery degradation
degradation through
through data-driven
data-drivenmitigation
mitigationstrategies.
strategies.
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 9 of 17

4. V2X Case Studies Survey

In a case study survey conducted by the Smart Electric Power Alliance (SEPA), Brittany
et al. present six case studies showcasing real-world bidirectional charging projects and
programs [32]. Three case studies feature customer projects and three highlight utility
programs. The customer projects demonstrate V2B applications using light-duty EVs to
reduce building peak demand (North Boulder Recreation Center) and participate in a
transactive energy rate (Plymouth State University). The third customer project from Revel
Rideshare features a small commercial EV fleet conducting V2G discharges to generate
revenue through demand response programs. The utility programs include Dominion
Energy’s V2G electric school bus program, National Grid’s V1G and V2G demand response
offerings (Note V1G in this context refers to managed controls of charging while V2G refers
to grid tied bidirectional charging), and Pacific Gas & Electric’s (PG&E) variety of V2X
pilots exploring different applications of bidirectional charging. Common goals across
the projects and programs are understanding the technology capabilities, economics, and
grid value of bidirectional charging, which will help inform future scaled programs. Key
partnerships with charging and software providers like Fermata Energy are also critical for
enabling and optimizing these applications [45].
While still in early stage, these initiatives demonstrate bidirectional charging delivers
economic value to customers and grid services that benefit utilities, laying the foundation
for broader adoption. Table 1 is a summary of the Bidirectional charging real world
applications included in the survey presented. The SEPA report on the state of bidirectional
charging in 2023 [32] presents a vendor landscape of vehicle manufacturers, models and
their supported V2X applications. The report also presents a list of bidirectional-capable
electric vehicle service equipment (EVSE) and charger vendors in the North American
market.
Table 1. Bidirectional charging real-world case study summary.

Project/Program Type Application Goal Key Partners Value Preposition

North Boulder Peak demand Lower demand
Customer V2B Fermata Energy
Recreation Center [46] reduction charges
Electricity
Plymouth State V2B & transactive Fermata Energy, Additional
Customer arbitrage & peak
University [47,48] energy Bellawatt, NHEC revenue
reduction
Revel Rideshare Understand V2G Fermata Energy, Demand response
Customer Fleet V2G
[45,49] value proposition NineDot Energy revenue
Dominion Energy Understand V2G
Utility School bus V2G Proterra, EPRI Grid services TBD
[50–53] capabilities
V1G/V2G demand Test new demand Peak demand
National Grid Utility ev.energy
response response resource reduction
Backup power,
Residential & California Public
Explore different optimize charging,
PG&E [54–56] Utility commercial V2X Utility Company
V2X applications distribution
pilots (CPUC)
deferral

5. Impact of Bi-Directional Charging Patterns on Battery Aging

5.1. Battery Aging Mechanisms
Battery cell aging implies irreversible changes that occur in a battery over time and
have adverse effects on battery performance and dependability [57]. These phenomena
continue to be a topic of research, and the variability with which it impacts battery per-
formance makes it difficult to model. However, it is critical to qualitatively and, as much
as possible, to quantitively understand the aging phenomena from a practical standpoint,
both for safe EVs operation in V2G modes, as well as to help consumers understand the
costs of participating in V2G programs.
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 10 of 17

Cell aging can be quantified by two simple concepts: capacity fade and power fade.
Capacity fade occurs when the total capacity of a battery (the total amount of energy that
can be retrieved from the battery, and the round-trip efficiency of the charge/discharge
cycle) also decreases over time. Capacity fade is typically the metric used in determining
the end-of-life (EOL) of a battery pack or cell by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs),
which is typically between 70% and 80% of the original capacity for EV applications. This
type of aging is correlated with loss of active lithium inventory (i.e., decrease in the active
material capable of storing energy by lithiation/delithiation processes) [58].
Power fade, sometimes referred to as impedance increase, means the decrease of the
power that a battery can deliver at the rated voltage, usually correlated with calendar
time as well as with charge/discharge power levels used in the batteries’ history. As
the term impedance increase implies, it correlates to an increase in the equivalent series
internal resistance of the cell or pack, which is a major factor in the power calculation or
state of power (SOP) determination of an EV [59,60]. Power fade occurs primarily as a
consequence of growth of the solid-electrolyte interphase, which causes mass transfer of the
lithiation/delithiation to decrease, thereby resulting in the mentioned increase in battery
internal impedance [58].
Both fade processes occur primarily due to side reactions within the battery and are
exacerbated by more strenuous battery operating conditions.
The aging mechanisms of batteries can also be classified into two different types
of aging: calendar aging and cycle aging. When a battery is in a no-load state (i.e., no
discharging or charging is actively taking place), the capacity loss during this time is known
as calendar aging and the dependency of the fade is attributed to the storing conditions
of the battery, such as its state of charge (SOC) and storage temperature. Conversely,
when the battery is loaded (i.e., the battery is charging/discharging), the capacity fade in
this scenario is considered to be cycling aging. The cycling aging is characterized by the
different operating conditions of the battery such as the charging rates (C-rates), charge
throughput, depth-of-discharge (DoD), and the temperature of the battery. The convoluted
nature of the factors that play a part in cycle aging makes the degradation mechanisms in
this state difficult to predict [61].
The common degradation mechanisms of Li-ion batteries are summarized below:
SEI Growth: The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer forms on the electrode surfaces
during initial charging cycles. This layer is crucial for stable battery operation as it prevents
continuous electrolyte decomposition [61]. However, continuous SEI growth consumes
lithium ions and electrolyte, leading to increased resistance and decreased capacity. The
extent of degradation depends on factors like temperature and state of charge.
SEI Cracking: With repeated charging and discharging, the SEI layer can become
stressed and crack due to volume changes in the electrode materials. This exposes fresh
electrode material to the electrolyte, causing further SEI growth and accelerated capacity
loss. The impact of SEI cracking is typically seen as a gradual increase in resistance and a
drop in capacity [62].
Particle Cracking: Active material particles in the electrodes can crack due to repeated
lithium ion insertion and extraction, leading to loss of electrical contact within the parti-
cle [63]. This results in a decrease in the active material available for reaction and a gradual
capacity fade.
Particle Isolation: Linked to particle cracking, this occurs when cracked particles lose
electronic contact with the rest of the electrode, rendering them electrochemically inactive.
This leads to a reduction in the effective capacity of the electrode and overall battery [63].
Electrode Delamination: Mechanical stresses can cause the active material to delami-
nate or peel away from the current collector. This results in a loss of active material and a
significant drop in capacity [64].
Lithium Plating: This occurs when lithium ions are deposited on the anode surface as
metallic lithium during charging, especially under conditions of low temperature or high
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 11 of 17

charging rates. Lithium plating reduces the number of lithium ions participating in the
charge-discharge process, leading to capacity loss and potential safety risks [61].
Current Collector (Copper) Dissolution: In some cases, especially under high voltage
or acidic conditions, the copper from the anode current collector can dissolve into the
electrolyte. This can lead to the loss of electrical connectivity and structural integrity within
the anode, further degrading battery performance [65].
Each of these mechanisms contributes to the complex process of battery degradation
in different ways. Quantifying their impact can be challenging due to the interplay of
these processes and the variety of factors that influence them, such as temperature, state of
charge, charging rates, and cycling depth. Advanced diagnostic techniques and detailed
analysis are often required to isolate and quantify the specific contributions of each degra-
dation mechanism in a given battery system. Table 2 is a summary of degradation mecha-
nisms, operating conditions that exacerbate them, and the mitigation methods for avoiding
such aging.

Table 2. Aging mechanisms summary.

Degradation Research
Operating Conditions Mitigation Methods
Mechanism References
High temperature, depth Maintaining lower
Solid electrolyte
of discharge (DoD), high temperatures, reducing
interphase (SEI) [61]
C-rate, State of Charge DoD, managing
growth
(SoC) charge/discharge rates
Fluctuating temperature Temperature control,
SEI cracking and SoC, irregular consistent cycling, [62]
charge/discharge cycles avoiding deep discharges
Gentle cycling,
High C-rates, extreme
temperature
Particle cracking temperatures, deep [63]
management, limiting
discharge cycles
depth of discharge
Limiting depth of
Repeated deep discharge,
Particle isolation discharge, moderating [63]
high C-rate cycling
charge/discharge rates
Stable operating
Mechanical stress due to
Electrode temperature, uniform
temperature fluctuations, [64]
delamination charge/discharge
uneven charge/discharge
practices
Charging at moderate
Low temperatures, high
Lithium plating rates, avoiding charging [61]
charging rates
at low temperatures
Avoiding operation at
Acidic conditions, high extreme voltages,
Copper dissolution [65]
voltage operations ensuring stable
electrolyte pH

5.2. Aging-Aware Optimization of Bidirectional EV Charging

Given the complexity and convoluted nature of Battery degradation mechanisms,
advanced methods of modeling and detection of aging have been proposed in the lit-
erature. Guo et al. introduce a transfer learning method based on a back propagation
neural network for the parameter identification of aging lithium-ion batteries, effectively
reducing the complexity of the identification process [65]. Ngo et al. present a classical–
quantum hybrid machine learning approach to model the nonlinear degradation process
of lithium-ion batteries, showcasing the potential of quantum neural networks in battery
modeling [66]. Unagar et al. presented a reinforcement learning-based framework for
inferring calibration parameters of battery models in real-time, significantly enhancing
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 12 of 17

accuracy compared to conventional methods. The framework does not require labeled data
samples of observations and ground truth parameters [67].
Additionally, these methods must incorporate these aging models into the controls
and optimizations of the battery management system for the efficient operation of the
battery. Yang et al. propose a reinforcement-learning-based, health-aware, fast-charging
control scheme for lithium-ion batteries, addressing the compromise between charging
time and battery degradation [68]. Cao et al. address the optimization of battery energy
arbitrage considering battery degradation, using a model-free deep reinforcement learning
approach [69].
For EV bidirectional charging specifically, it is important to understand the use case
and the duty cycles that the batteries will operate in to assess the degradation likelihood of
the battery and thereby mitigate the effects of degradation by aging-aware optimization of
the battery controls. Schwenk et al. integrated an aging-aware model into a smart charging
use case and compared it with measurements of real EV charging. The results show that
disregarding battery aging underestimates EV operating cost by approximately 30% and
that the profitability of V2G applications is highly dependent on battery aging [70].
The impact of battery operational parameters, such as state of charge (SOC), depth of
discharge (DOD), operating temperature and charge throughput (C-rate) cannot be over-
stated. Wikner et al. [71] perform an extensive series of tests on graphite and NMC/LMO-
based Li-ion batteries, over a period of 3 years in various 10% SOC intervals. The degrada-
tion of the cells as a function of the cycles is established during these experiments and the
findings indicated that limiting the Depth of Discharges to small ranges and maintaining
the battery at a 50% State of Charge can enhance the vehicle battery’s lifespan by 44–130%,
focusing solely on aging caused by various driving patterns. Additionally, when consid-
ering the impact of calendar aging, it was evident that this factor constitutes a significant
portion of the overall battery aging. By keeping the battery at 15% SOC during periods of
inactivity and minimizing the duration at high SOC levels, the effects of calendar aging on
the battery could be significantly diminished.
The specific chemistry of a cell will also impact its Bidirectional charging application
and subsequent aging mechanisms. Geisbauer et al. [63] analyzed the capacity loss and
impedance increase due to calendar aging across six cell chemistries. They found that
capacity loss was most significant at 60 ◦ C and higher storage voltages. This was notably
evident in LiNix Mny Co1-x-y O2 (NMC), LiNix Coy Al1-x-y O2 (NCA), and Li4 Ti5 O12 (LTO) cells
at this temperature. NMC and NCA cells at 60 ◦ C and high storage voltage experienced
complete breakdowns due to their current interrupt mechanism being triggered. The study
focused on calendar aging of cells and not cycles, however different states of charge and
temperature conditions were examined. The tests were performed at different voltage
levels for the cells, low, medium and high voltage. Their findings concluded that different
cell types exhibited varying responses to calendar aging. For example, LMO cells at 50 ◦ C
showed minimal degradation, while LTO cells had the highest capacity decrease at high
storage voltages but the least increase in internal resistance [72]. This could for instance
indicate that LTO batteries may not be great for backup power applications where a high
SOC/high storage voltage is needed over long durations of time (120 days), because of the
infrequency of backup events, and the desire to retain high capacity in the batteries.
A study by Dubarry et al. [73] investigating the effects of V2G on the aging of bat-
tery cells—particularly focusing on capacity loss, resistance increase, and rate capability
under calendar aging—found that implementing V2G twice a day led to a 75% increase
in capacity loss and a 10% increase in resistance. Even reducing the V2G to once a day
resulted in a 33% acceleration in capacity loss and a 5% increase in resistance. These
results indicate a significant negative impact of V2G on cell health under mild conditions,
potentially reducing the battery pack’s lifetime to under 5 years. Interestingly the study
also found that delaying charging using grid-to-vehicle (G2V) compared to immediate
charging had minimal impact on capacity retention (<1%) and a limited effect on resis-
tance (<5%) at room temperature. However, the study suggests that in warmer climates,
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 13 of 17

delayed G2V might induce less degradation and thus be more beneficial. On the contrary,
Troung et al. [61] argued that charging strategies like time-shifting charging combined
with smart charging schemes with V2G, discharging some of the battery capacity to the
grid/load to precondition the battery to an optimal SOC, are capable of mitigating the total
aging process from 7.3–26.7% for the first 100 days of operational life and gradually vary to
8.6–12.3% for one-year continual operation compared to the reference standard charging
approach [61].
A major shortcoming observed in the current literature is the absence of experimental
studies to reach a consensus on the degradation effect of smart charging concepts. However,
the experimental studies are not so simple to accomplish as they could take years to
complete and might be obsolete by the time the tests are completed due to the rapid
evolution of battery technology, their applications and their controls [37].
The cost of energy delivered from the V2G process then must include the actual
cost of the energy and the cost to battery degradation (i.e., $/kWhV2G = $/kWhcharge +
$/kWdischarge × tdischarge ). As mentioned, EV battery degradation depends on multiple
factors, such as temperature and operating conditions. To minimize degradation, it is
common to limit the state of charge of a battery to the 80% range between 90% SOC and
10% SOC. The literature indicates that, in this case, the battery lifetime is dependent on
calendar time and the used capacity in a quasi-linear manner. Therefore, a good estimate
for the costs of this capacity fade may be:
!
End o f Li f e Degcycle
Battery Degradation Cost = ∑t=1 Cbattery × + Degcalendar
Capuse f ul

where Cbattery represents the original costs of the battery, Degcalendar represents the degra-
dation per unit of calendar time, and Degcycle represents the degradation per cycle of
charge-discharge cycle. Capuse f ul represents the useful capacity of the battery, again assum-
ing that the capacity used is the central 80% of the total nameplate capacity of the battery,
and t represents a number of time slices from a new battery to the end-of-life state [74,75].
Naturally, further modifying other parameters, like further reducing the level of charge,
will further reduce the damage to the battery, thus decreasing the battery degradation costs,
as summarized in [76].
Modelling of lithium ion batteries indicates that keeping batteries at a high state of
charge without discharging (i.e., a parked vehicle at a high SOC that does not participate
substantially in a V2X process) or a vehicle that is repeatedly cycles (whether by driving
or participation in a V2X process) both lead to lifetimes on the order of 10 years for the
batteries [75].
This suggests that other estimates of a daily battery degradation cost of ~0.025%/day
~ 0.05%/day reported elsewhere are reasonable, though heavily dependent on average
battery temperature and rate of charge and discharge [77]. This indicates that costs of V2G
integration will significantly vary by location, and that modelling of battery degradation
rates for specific locations to inform participants in V2G portions of VPP schemes is needed.

6. Continuing and Future Research

As bidirectional charging continues to play a pivotal role in enhancing grid flexibility
and stability through V2X applications, the field of battery life prediction is increasingly
influenced by data-driven approaches and state-of-the-art AI and machine learning models.
This includes the use of sophisticated self-attention mechanisms and ensemble models that
integrate these mechanisms with long short-term memory (LSTM) networks to develop
more precise aging models for batteries [78,79]. Such advancements underscore the need
for extensive experimental testing of bidirectional charging impacts across various battery
chemistries and under different duty cycles and use cases, such as V2G and V2B in addition
to real-world telemetry of battery parameters undergoing use in such applications. These
models aim to establish quantitative thresholds for battery aging acceleration, as these
Energies 2024, 17, 1320 14 of 17

models become more effective and accurate when trained with a relatively large corpus of
data. There is a growing emphasis on designing universally adaptive, model-based, or data-
driven aging detection frameworks. These frameworks are essential for improved battery
diagnostics and lifetime estimations, key factors in boosting the widespread adoption of
bidirectional charging in VPP applications.
Recent advancements in reinforcement learning and aging-aware controls specifically
tailored for bidirectional charging are proving vital in enhancing the cycle life of Li-ion bat-
teries, particularly in V2G contexts. These AI-driven approaches are not only augmenting
current understanding and methodologies but are also paving the way for more resilient
and efficient battery usage in the evolving landscape of renewable energy and smart
grid technologies.

7. Conclusions
Considering the increasing renewable generation and electrification, bidirectional
charging and V2X configurations enable electric vehicles to become dynamic, value-adding
participants in grid operations. This research review offers key insights into existing capa-
bilities, applications, and real-world projects at the customer and utility levels exploiting
vehicle batteries for additional grid flexibility. However, aging mechanisms induced by re-
peated charging-discharging must be addressed through ongoing fundamental studies, ad-
vanced battery management algorithms, improved component designs, and demonstration
at scale to cement bidirectional charging’s future. Significant progress on understanding
aging-reliability trade-offs will be integral for EVs and charging infrastructure to unlock
their full potential within an increasingly complex energy ecosystem.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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