THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC

J. W. S. HEARLE a n d A. T. PURDY

Department of Textile Technology,

University of Manchester
Institute of Science and Technology,
Manchester M60 1QD (Great Britain)

(Received: 5 April, 1971)

SUMMARY

Needled fabric structure has been examined using a method by which pieces of fabric
are set in resin, and sections cut from the resultant block for viewing under a micro-
scope. The effect of needles on web material can be discerned by incorporation of
coloured tracer layers on the web surface before needling. In this manner the effects
of needling density, needle penetration and needle blade gauge on fabric vertical
structure have been shown. The influence of needling density and web structure on
fabric horizontal structure is also discussed; and a model assembly has been employed
to illustrate how fibres become attached to needles during punching.

I. INTRODUCTION

As part of a programme designed to further understanding of the relationship

between needled fabric structure and mechanical properties, a thorough examina-
tion of fabric structure has been carried out. The results should assist in the
formulation of a more realistic theory of needled fabric structural mechanics; and
in themselves provide useful information concerning the effects of production
variables on punched fabric structure.
Brief investigations into structure have been reported by Hearle et al. 1
who showed how some fibres are reoriented into the vertical direction during
needling, and Gardmark and Martensson, 2 who, by using coloured fibre tracer
layers, were able to count the number of fibres picked up by a needle from different
positions in the fabric during a particular needling operation. Both studies involved
the setting of fabric in resin and the subsequent cutting of sections which could be
photographed under a microscope. A portion of the present work involved the use
of this technique. Hearle and Choudhari a have given an account of a study of the
extent to which fibres are pulled through the web during needling.
81
Fibre Science and Technology (4) (1971)--O Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd, England--Printed in Great Britain
82 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. PURDY

2. NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE

The basic action of needle punching employs barbed needles to reorient some
fibres from the horizontal plane of a card web into the vertical plane of the resultant
fabric. It is unlikely that the whole length of a fibre will be transferred into the
vertical plane unless breakage occurs; usually part of the fibre will remain in the
horizontal plane gripped by other fibres. Figure 1 illustrates needled fabric surface
structure around a pentration point, and shows how fibres have been drawn down
into the web by the action of a needle, and that most of them exist simultaneously
in both the vertical and horizontal fabric planes. The number of fibres pulled through

Fig. 1. Scanning electron m i c r o g r a p h of needled fabric surface structure (25 × ).

the web depends on various web and needle loom parameters which have previously
been classified and discussed. 4 Apart from those fibres which are reoriented, there
will be some which do not come within the direct sphere of influence of a needle,
and remain undisturbed as the change from web to fabric is effected; and others
near to needle penetration points, but not picked up, which will be pushed aside to
make way for the vertical structure.
It is intended initially to discuss the origin of fabric vertical structure and then
the nature of the horizontal and vertical forms of structure and the manner in which
they are influenced by various parameters.

3. THE FORMATIONOF FABRIC VERTICALSTRUCTURE

In this investigation use was made of the model loom assembly employed by
Hearle and Sultan 5 in their study of punching force during needling. A small
 THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 83

piece of card web was clamped between the plates and the needles pushed slowly
through. Their emergence from the bed plate was studied under a Vickers Zoomax
binocular microscope, which has a relatively high depth of focus, upon the base of
which the model assembly was mounted. This is shown in Fig. 2. The web was
parallel laid viscose rayon (2½ in 3 den) and the needles had nine barbs and a
blade gauge of 25.

Fig. 2. Apparatus used for studying the formation of fabric vertical structure.

(a) Pattern of behaviour

On emergence from the web the needle point was sometimes seen to have fibres
looped round it. An example of this is shown in Fig. 3(a) where three fibres are
being held on the needle point. The exit of the first barb from the plates is shown
in Fig. 3(b). It can be seen how fibres loop around the barb. The three fibres shown
in Fig. 3(a) as being held by the needle point are seen down the length of the
needle blade, and as they are under tension must still be firmly held by the point.
The top edge of this photograph is in line with the bed plate, and hence some idea
can be gained of how the web is pulled through the plates by the needling action.
A barb on the near side of the needle is about to emerge. The photograph shown as
Fig. 3(c) was taken when this barb was fully through the plates, and the looping
of fibres is seen more clearly. These are the first barbs on the needle and it is to be
expected that they would carry the maximum amount of fibre. This maximum will
depend on barb size and fibre denier. The loop of fibres on the far side of the
needle is still present, but the fibres previously held on the point have been released.
84 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. PURDY

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 3(a), (b), (c) and (d). The formation of fabric vertical structure (10×).
 THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 85

Further penetration of the needle cause d fibres to be released from the barbs, but
unfortunately limitations on microscope depth of field did not allow further
photographic study of the complete passage of a needle through the web. It
could be seen through the microscope that later barbs did not pick up as many
fibres as the first barbs and in many cases were completely ineffectual. Often later
barbs picked up looped fibres released by the first barbs. Eventually the loops either
slipped from the barbs or were pulled straight. Figure 3(d) shows a loop of fibres
slipping from a needle barb.

(b) Relation to real structure

From this study it would seem that the vertical structure of needled fabric is
basically a series of fibrous loops. In practice one arm of the loop is usually pulled
through, or the loop itself broken, leaving a 'peg' of vertical fibres in the fabric.
However, complete loops have been observed in actual fabric, particularly when
either low penetration or fine blade gauges are employed during production. Such
loops are shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. The looped vertical structure apparent in needled fabric (10x).

It would also appear that the vertical structure is an annular ring of fibres, the
hole in the middle being caused by the path of the needle. In practice fibres will
normally recover as the needle is removed, giving a solid cylinder of vertical fibres.
This annulus structure does persist in some cases and can be seen in Fig. 5.
These two examples serve to show that a realistic pattern of behaviour for needle
penetration through a web has been established using a model assembly. The
method by which photographs of actual fabric structure, such as Figs. 4 and 5,
were obtained, will now be described.
86 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. PURI)Y

Fig. 5. F a b r i c v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e as an a n n u l u s o f fibres (10". I.

4. THE EXAMINATION OF NEEDLED FABRIC

(a) Preparation of fabric for study

It is not possible to study the structure of this fabric successfully in its loom
state. The vertical structure will be disturbed by any cutting of samples for pre-
sentation to a microscope, while in the horizontal plane restrictions in microscope
depth of focus prevent the production of clear photomicrographs. As previously
shown, the scanning electron microscope can be used to study surface structure,
but even here there is the risk of disturbing fibres whilst preparing the small
samples required.
Ideally the structure should be held rigid as it is being examined to prevent
alteration in fibre paths. This can be achieved by making casts of fabric in resin
from which sections can be cut and studied with relative ease under the light
microscope. As already mentioned, variations on this technique have been em-
ployed during previous structural studies. 1.2

(b) The fabrics used

To make the vertical structure more easily discernible within the fabric, the top
20 ~o of all the webs used in this study consisted of red fibre, the remainder being
white. In both cases the fibre was viscose rayon 2½ in 3 den. Having the top fifth
of the web coloured meant that half the reoriented fibres were red z and could be
easily seen. Manufacturing details of the various fabrics examined will be given when
their structure is discussed.
 THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 87

(c) Casting and preparation of sections

The casting medium used was the Araldite epoxy resin CY 212 mixed with a
hardener (HY 956) in the ratio 5:1. This resin has the advantage of negligible
contraction on setting which is complete after 24 hours at room temperature.
Pieces of fabric, approximately 3 in by 4 in, were placed flat in aluminium foil
trays and resin poured over them, care being taken to add sufficient to allow for
absorption during the initial stages of setting. Incomplete absorption leads to air
bubbles within the cast. These can be removed by using a vacuum pump attached
to the mould but this is unnecessary since judicious cutting of sections avoids
bubbles in the pieces of fabric which are examined. When the resin is set the
aluminium foil can be easily peeled away. The block of resin and fabric is then
cut by a band saw to give vertical sections. These were cut ¼ in thick in the machine
direction of the fabric. Horizontal sections, when required, were made from pieces
of the block (of dimensions 1 in wide and 2 in long) by grinding away excess resin
and the red surface of the fabric until only the red vertical fibres set in a white
background could be seen. If the fabric were thick enough, some of this surface
could be removed by the saw.
The grinding of both vertical and horizontal sections was carried out using grades
of emery paper mounted in an inclined tray as illustrated by Lomas and Simmens. 6
By employing the finer grades of emery paper a smooth surface could be obtained
on the sections, which were ground as thin as possible without destroying any of
the structure being prepared for study. This was usually ~ in for sections in both
planes.

(d) Microscopical examination of sections

The sections were viewed and photographed under a Vickers Zoomax light
microscope employing either transmitted or reflected light, depending on which was
most suitable in a particular case. The surfaces of the sections were smeared with
a thin layer of vaseline to fill in grinding marks left by even the finest emery paper.
The red fibres were then clearly visible under the microscope.

5. RESULTS OF STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION

The effects of needling density, needle penetration, needle blade gauge and fibre
orientation in the web, on fabric structure have been examined and the results will
be shown and discussed here.

(1) Vertical structure

As shown in Fig. 6 the passage of one needle through a web does not produce a
uniform arrangement of vertical fibres in the fabric. The first needle barbs produce
88 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. P U R D Y

the main part of the fibrous peg but later barbs bring about 'tentacles' of fibres
protruding from the main portion of the reoriented fibres. The example shown is
rather an extreme case, the presence of smaller and more usually-sized tentacles
will be observed on later photographs.
(i) The effect of web movement per cycle on fibre reorientation: To test the effect
of web movement per loom cycle, and hence needling density, on fabric vertical
structure, a forty layer parallel laid card web was produced which included eight
red fibre layers on the surface. The total weight was 427 gm/m 2. When passed

Fig. 6. Vertical structure produced by a single needle insertion (7.5 x ).

through the loom, successive thirds of the web were given needlings of 105, 240
and 600 punches per in 2 (i.e. web movements of ~ in, ~ in and ~ in per cycle on
the loom used) at a constant needle penetration of i in. The needle blade gauge
employed was 32.
Photomicrographs of the vertical structure in the machine direction are given
in Fig. 7. It is seen that as needling increases fewer fibres are picked up at each
needle insertion. This can be explained as follows. As consecutive needle penetra-
tions become closer together the restrictions placed on fibre movement by previous
insertions become greater, and hence fewer of the fibres which come into contact
with a needle are able to move sufficiently within the web to be pulled down into
the structure. The decrease in fabric thickness with increased needling is also
observed, and is caused by more fibres per unit area being reoriented at higher
needling density, even though single insertions pick up fewer.
THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 89

Fig. 7(a)

Fig. 7(b)
90 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. PURDY

Fig. 7(c)
Fig. 7. The effect of needling density on fabric vertical structure (7.5 × ). (a) 105 punches/sq, in.
(b) 240 punches/sq, in, (c) 600 punches/sq, in. Penetration - ½ in.

At low needling in particular, the structure is seen to be composed of vertical

fibre pegs joined by loops, although it is not possible to decide if any one fibre is
present in adjacent pegs. These loops are caused by the buckling of surface fibres
under the force of needle entry into the web. At high needling, the vertical fibres
themselves tend to buckle possibly due to forces generated within the fabric by
closer needle insertions.

(ii) The effect of needle penetration on vertical structure: A fabric similar to that
described above was produced, from a web weight of 564 gm/m 2. On this occasion
the web was needled at a constant 105 punches/in 2 but the penetration was varied
along its length, giving fabrics made at ¼ in, ½ in and ¼ in penetration.
Figure 8 illustrates the effect of varying needle penetration on fabric vertical
structure. The looped nature of the reoriented fibres at low penetration is due to the
needles reaching their lowest point and fibres being released from the barbs,
before breakage or the slippage of one of the loop arms from the fabric surface can
occur. It is seen that an increase in penetration increases the number of reoriented
fibres per needle insertion, and thus at constant needling density causes a reduction
in fabric thickness. An increase in the number of fibres reoriented per unit area
as penetration increases, can also be deduced from the reduction in red fibre
remaining on the fabric surface under these conditions.
THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 91

Fig. 8(a)

Fig. 8(b)
92 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. PURDY

Fig. 8(c)
Fig. 8. The effect of needle penetration on fabric vertical structure (7.5 × ). (a) ¼in. (b) ½in. (c) ¼in.
Needling Density = 105 punches/sq, in.

Fig. 9(a)
 THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 93

Fig. 9(b)

Fig. 9(c)

Fig. 9. The effect of needle blade gauge on fabric vertical structure (7.5 × ). (a) 25 gauge. (b) 32
gauge. (c) 36 gauge. Needling density = 105 punches/sq, in. ; Penetration = ½ in.
94 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. PURDY

(iii) The influence of needle blade gauge on vertical structure: On this occasion, a
web of weight 430 gm/m 2 was produced and needled at 105 punches/in / and ½ in
needle penetration using needles with blade gauges of 25, 32 and 36, all other needle
variables (including barb size) remaining constant. The resultant fabric vertical
sections are shown in Fig. 9.
Punching with a fine needle produces little curvature in the horizontal plane of
the fabric, thus giving a more uniform surface appearance. Loops were often
apparent in this fabric (see Fig. 4), due to the small sphere of influence of the blade
causing, on occasions, only one barb to pick up fibres during needle passage
through the web. Heavier blade gauges reorient more fibres, but the difference
between the 25 and 32 gauge needle fabric is not immediately apparent. There is
less red fibre remaining on the surface of the fabric made using 25 gauge needles
which suggests that more fibres have been reoriented in this case. To resolve this
problem the horizontal sections were examined and are shown in Fig. 10. From
these photographs it is obvious that the heaviest blade gauge needle reorients the
most fibres. This is due to the large sphere of influence of such a needle, which
causes more fibres to be available to the barbs.
In Fig. 9(b) the left hand vertical fibre peg can be seen as hollow, and is another
example of the existence of an annular peg structure.

(2) Horizontal structure

Information concerning the effects of needling density, needle penetration and
needle blade gauge on fabric horizontal structure can be gleaned from the knowledge

Fig. lO(a)
 THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 95

Fig. 10(b)

Fig. 10(c)

Fig. 10. Horizontal sections of fabric made using different needle blade gauges (20×). (a) 25
gauge. (b) 32 gauge. (c) 36 gauge. Needling density = 105 punches/sq, in. ; Penetration ~ ½ in.
96 J. W. S. HEARLE. A. T. PURDY

of their influence on vertical structure. I f more fibres are reoriented into the fabric
vertical plane, then the fibres remaining in the horizontal plane will suffer more
sideways distortion during needling. Thus, at constant density of needling, high
needle penetrations and heavy needle blade gauges will produce more distortion
in the horizontal structure.
The effect of increased needling is more complicated. It has been shown that
increased frequency of needle insertions causes fewer fibres to be reoriented per
needle penetration and so less distortion will occur in this case. However, insertions
are more frequent at high needling, and so horizontal fibres will suffer more
distortions along their lengths. Because of this, the effect of needling density on the
horizontal structure was studied.

(i) The effect of needling density on horizontal structure: For this experiment a
parallel laid web of weight 548 gm/m z was produced which differed from previous
webs in that green, instead of white, viscose fibres were used. The red fibres were
as before, but the green fibres were more easily visible under the microscope than
the white ones had been.
The web was made into two fabrics at 240 and 600 punches per in 2 and a con-
stant needle penetration of ½ in. Horizontal sections of about ! mm thickness were
made from each fabric and viewed through the microscope. A similar section of the
green fibre web was also produced. Unfortunately loss in depth of focus at the

Fig. 11(a)
 THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 97

Fig. ll(b)

Fig. 11(c)
Fig. 11. Effect of needling density on parallel laid fabric horizontal structure. (a) Web (15x).
(b) Fabric; 240 punches/sq, in. (10 x ). (c) Fabric: 600 punches/sq, in. (10 × ), ½ in. penetration.
-+ Machine Direction.
98 J. w. s. HEARLE,A. T. PURDY

high magnifications required to study fibre paths made photography difficult, and
only large scale effects can be seen from the pictures presented here.
Figure 1 l(a) shows fibre paths in the parallel laid green fibre web. The majority
of fibres appear to lie in the machine direction. A fabric made at 240 punches
per in 2 is seen in Fig. 1 l(b). This shows how the horizontal fibres are pushed aside
during needling and wrap around a peg, still maintaining their general machine
direction. The horizontal fibre paths seem to form an ellipse around the circular
section of the reoriented fibres.
At higher needling (Fig. 1 l(c)) the structure is seen as rows of vertical pegs, with
adjacent insertions very close together, separated by sections of unneedled fibres.
This structure, as with all horizontal structures, is also a property of needle arrange-
ment in the needle board, and thus it would be impossible to draw valid conclusions
on needled fabric horizontal structure, unless fabric made by using several different
needle arrangements had been studied. In general, for a parallel laid fabric, the
horizontal structure consists of fibres lying in the machine direction pushed aside
from their original paths by the penetration of a needle.

(ii) The effect of fibre orientation in the web: The most important parameter
determining fabric horizontal structure is the orientation of fibres in the web prior
to needling. To study the effect of changed web structure a green and red fibre
cross laid web was produced of weight 500 gm/m 2. This was needled at 240 punches
per in 2 and ½ in needle penetration, although no attempt was made to make the

Fig. 12(a)
 THE STRUCTURE OF NEEDLE PUNCHED FABRIC 99

Fig. 12(b)
Fig. 12. Horizontal structures of a cross laid web and fabric. (a) Web (15 x ). (b) Fabric: 240
punches/sq in. ½ in penetration (10 x ). -* Machine Direction.

proportions of green and red fibres comparable with those used for the parallel
laid web. As before, a section was also made of the green fibre web.
The structure of this web is shown in Fig. 12(a) and it is clear that a much larger
proportion of fibres are oriented across the machine direction than with the
parallel laid web shown in Fig. 1 l(a).
The effect of this changed web structure on the resultant fabric structure is seen
in Fig. 12(b). In this case fibres are wrapped round the pegs in two directions,
giving the points of contact between horizontal and vertical structure a more
regular circular appearance. The influence of this changed structure on fabric
tensile properties has been discussed. 4

6. CONCLUSIONS

Using a model assembly it has been shown that theoretically needled fabric vertical
structure should consist of an annular ring of fibres in the form of loops. Under
particular production conditions both these effects have been observed. Although
an increase in needling density causes more fibres to be reoriented per unit area,
fewer vertical fibres are present at each needle insertion than when a lower needling
density is employed. With all else constant, an increase in needle blade gauge or
100 J. W. S. HEARLE, A. T. PURDY

needle p e n e t r a t i o n p r o d u c e s m o r e reoriented fibres during each needle entry into

the web. F a b r i c h o r i z o n t a l structure is mainly d e p e n d e n t on fibre orientation in the
web, needle b o a r d design a n d the a m o u n t o f needling given to the web.
A subsequent p u b l i c a t i o n will show how fabric structure alters during a uniaxial
tensile test.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

One o f us (A. T. P.) is i n d e b t e d to the Science Research Council for financial

s u p p o r t during the course o f this work.

REFERENCES

1. J. W. S. HEARLE,M. A. I. SULTANand T. N. CHOUDHARI,J. Text. Inst., 59 (1968) p. 103.

2. L. G.~RDMARKand L. M,~RTENSSON,Text. Res. J., 36 (1966) p. 1037.
3. J. W. S. HEARLEand T. N. C8OLrDnARI,J. Text. Inst., 60 (1969) p. 478.
4. A. T.!PtrRDY,in'Nonworens '71' (P. Lennox-Kerr, ed.) Textile Trade Press, Manchester (1971).
5. J. W. S. HEARLEand M. A. I. SULTAN,J. Text. Inst., 59 (1968) p. 237.
6. B. LOMASand S. C. SIMMENS,J. Microscopy, 92 pt 1 (1970) p. 37.