.

Compare and contrast Lev Vygotsky's Theory with Piaget's Cognitive Theory using a graphical
representation.

II. Show the difference of the four layers of the ecological system. Give examples for each layer.

Sat 10:53 AM

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PART 1-GENE THERAPHY,PART 2-ESSENTIALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

PART 1

The learners are able to…

Describe the structure of DNA

Differentiate between DNA and RNA

Discuss what is gene therapy

Describe the mechanisms of gene therapy

PART 2

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1.Describe an environment
2.Define Ecology

3.List and discuss the basic ecological laws,basic biological principles

4.List and describe the core messages in environmental science

5.Describe an ecosystem and its components.

What is DNA?

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it
is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is
called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA). Mitochondria are structures within cells that convert the energy
from food into a form that cells can use.

The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of
those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the
information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the
alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.

DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is
also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are
called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix.
The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s
rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.

An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the
double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide
because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.

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TRIVIA:

Many people believe that American biologist James Watson and English physicist Francis Crick
discovered DNA in the 1950s. In reality, this is not the case. Rather, DNA was first identified in the late
1860s by Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher. Then, in the decades following Miescher's discovery, other
scientists--notably, Phoebus Levene and Erwin Chargaff--carried out a series of research efforts that
revealed additional details about the DNA molecule, including its primary chemical components and the
ways in which they joined with one another. Without the scientific foundation provided by these
pioneers, Watson and Crick may never have reached their groundbreaking conclusion of 1953: that the
DNA molecule exists in the form of a three-dimensional double helix.

DNA STRUCTURES AND REPLICATION

The proposed model by Watson and Crick, showcase that the DNA consists of two strands of
nucleotides.Each of the nucleotides are made up of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group and a
nitrogenuos base.The groups are connected to each other through covalent bonds.Each strand of the
DNA has a backbone of sugar and phosphate groups, called PENTOPHOSPHATE SKELETON.Sticking out
from the backbone are nitrogenous bases.The model is described to be a ''DOUBLE HELIX'' as the two
strands resembles a twisted ladder.The strands of the double helix twists in a clockwise direction.

NOTE: The bases of one DNA strand is always paired in the bases of the other strand.There are two types
of bases:PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES. PURINE is always paired with pyrimidine.
There are two differences that distinguish DNA from RNA: (a) RNA contains the sugar ribose, while DNA
contains the slightly different sugar deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one oxygen atom), and (b)
RNA has the nucleobase uracil while DNA contains thymine.

TYPES OF DNA

We can divide DNA into chormosomal DNA,mitochondrial DNA and plasmid.Mitochondrial DNA and
plasmid are extrachromosomal.

CHROMOSOMAL DNA

Chromosomal DNA can be divided into:

a. Coding and Non-Coding DNA

- Coding DNA determines sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain (structural genes) and non-
coding DNA belong to sequences of DNA that has not been yet fully explored and thus thier function is
unknown.

b. Number of sequences

- In eukaryotes approximately 60% of the DNA are nonrepetitive sequences. To this group belong the
structural genes (coding polypeptides) and non-coding as well. Only about 1.52% of the human DNA
sequences code poteins.

- Some parts of the DNA consist of repetitive sequences (30%). This can be broadly classified as
moderately or high repetitive. Majority of such sequences are inactive and some play a structural role in
the chromosome. Depending on their length, they can be classified as long interspersed repeat
sequences (LINE) or short intersperseds repeat sequences (SINE)

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Mitochondrial (mtDNA)

At least 1% of the remaining cellural DNA is in the mitochondia, they are considered as "non-
chromosomal DNA".

Plasmids

Besides the nucleoid (nuclear chromosome), the bacterial cells may also contain in their cytosol other
structures that are composed of DNA. These structures are called plasmids. They are extrachromosomal
genetical elements, which are made of a two-stranded circular DNA with a length of 2-15kb.

DNA REPLICATION

We have described in the last chapter that mitosis includes the chromosomal duplication. The DNA must
copy itself and divided to daughter cells for mitosis to occur. The DNA content of daughter cells produced
must be the exact copy of parent cell DNA so that there will be passing of correct genetic information.
This process is known as DNA replication. The main stages of DNA replication are the same in both
prokaryotic RAcells (without a membrane-bound nucleus) and eukaryotic cells (with a membrane bound
nucleus). DNA replication is said to be "semiconservative. It involves separation of the two
complementary strands in the parent cell and using them to synthesized two new strands

Genes
Genes are specific segments of DNA on chromosomes. Genes determine the inherited characteristics or
traits of organisms. We now know that the DNA in every cell in an organism are actually identical and so,
they are described as the genetic blueprint. It was also discussed in the previous chapter how DNA
replicates. The next question is, how then are genes present in the DNA contribute or determine one's
inherited trait? The way the information from the gene is converted into traits is through production of
polypeptides in a process called "gene expression." Proteins form many structures in an organism, such
as skin and muscle, and they also form all of the enzymes in a cell. The products of all genes are
polypeptides.

The process of gene expression is made possible because of a second type of nucleic acid, the
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The RNA is involved in converting information of the gene into polypeptide
chains. The RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that is the same with DNA. The differences between RNA
and DNA are shown below:

a. The sugar of the RNA is ribose rather than deoxyribose.

b. RNA contains the base uracil instead of thymine. Therefore, the complementary base for adenine is
uracil and not thymine

c. RNA is single-stranded, unlike the DNA, which is double-stranded.

There are three types of RNA that are needed to convert genes into proteins: messenger RNA (mRNA),
transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

a. Ribosomal RNA

-rRNAs are associated with ribosomes, which is the site for protein synthesis.

b. Transfer RNA
-tRNA are adaptor molecules that carries specific amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.

C. Messenger RNA

-mRNA carries genetic information from the DNA that is to be used for protein synthesis

THE CENTRAL DOGMA

There are two main stages of gene expression, transcription and translation. In transcription, the O
genetic information is converted from a DNA sequence into messenger RNA (mRNA). In all cells, the
mRNA carries the genetic information from the chromosome to the site of protein synthesis. In
eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus, the mRNA carries the genetic information from the nucleus to
the cytoplasm as it passes through the pores in the nuclear envelope.

The second stage of gene expression is translation. During translation, the genetic information carried by
the mRNA is used to synthesize a polypeptide chain. The two-step process of transferring genetic
information from DNA to RNA and then from RNA to protein is known as the central dogma of molecular
genetics.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Transcription

Transcription is a process by which the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into the sequence of single-
stranded mRNA molecules. There are three processes in transcription: initiation, elongation and
termination. During initiation, an enzyme, RNA polymerase, attaches to the DNA at a region close in the
beginning of the gene. During elongation, RNA polymerase builds the mRNA molecule using the DNA as
a pattern. During termination, RNA polymerase moves at the end of the gene and stops. The mRNA
molecule is released from the pattern strand of DNA.

Translation
As stated in the central dogma of molecular biology's second part is translation of the information
(transcribed from DNA through mRNA) into a chain of amino acids. The final product of this process are
polypeptides. Thus, translation is involved in synthesis of protein.

To be build proteins, the RNA polymerase will read the code for the protein in the DNA and it will copy it
into molecules of mRNA. The mRNA then moves out of the nucleus into ribosomes where tRNA use the
code from the mRNA to build the protein.

The code in the mRNA are made up though combinations of the four RNA nitrogenous bases - C. G. A
and U-that occur in the strand. The length of the strand, the proportion and order of each nucleotides
varies from one mRNA to another. The differences in the code in the mRNA molecules is what
determines the differences in the primary structure of the protein.

During translation, the DNA code is read in groups of three nucleotides, called a codon. Each codon calls
for a specific amino acid to be placed in the growing polypeptide chain. Codons can consist of any
combination of the four nitrogenous bases, so there are 64 (43 = 64) possible different codons for 20
different amino acids. The groups of three bases in both DNA and mRNA are both called codons, so it is
important to clarify which code is being presented when writing out a genetic sequence. Like
transcription, translation can be divided into the same three stages: initiation, elongation, and
termination.

MUTATION

The genetic information in DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein. If the DNA
code is changed, then RNA molecules will also change, which may lead to a change in proteins. If
proteins are changed so that they can't do their job for the cell, then cell function may be altered. For
humans, changes in protein function can lead to diseases. Changes in DNA are called mutations.

DNA polymerase makes mistakes all the time, yet cells continue to function just fine. So, although the
idea of mutation is scary, cells seem to be able to live with a certain level of it. One reason cell continues
to function despite mutation is that not all mutations cause changes in proteins. Some mutations in DNA
occur outside of genes. Even if a mutation does occur in a gene, the mutation may cause a change in
mRNA that doesn't affect the final protein. For example, if the codon AAA were changed to AAG, the
amino acid would not change, both of these codons represent the amino acid lysine (see Figure 5.5.
Mutations like this one that don't affect the final protein are called silent mutations.

Mutation can either be beneficial or harmful to organisms. Beneficial mutations can give selective
advantage to organisms (such as presence of dimples and in low cases resistance to HIV), it tends to be
more common in the long run and it leads to new evolutionary changes over time. Harmful mutations
are those that can cause diseases to organisms and reduce their chance of survival and reproduction
Mutation can also be neutral; it is neither beneficial or harmful.

Causes of Genetic Mutations

Some mutations are simply caused by error of the genetic machinery and are known as spontaneous
mutations. For example, DNA polymerase I occasionally misses a base or two, which results in a point
mutation. Mutations may also arise from exposure to mutagenic agents. These are induced mutations.
Some examples of mutagenic agents include ultraviolet (UV) radiation, cosmic rays, X-rays, and certain
chemicals. Figure shows an illustration of such examples.

What is Gene Therapy?

Human gene therapy seeks to modify or manipulate the expression of a gene or to alter the biological
properties of living cells for therapeutic use

Gene therapy is a technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or cure disease. Gene therapies.can
work by several mechanisms:

*Replacing a disease-causing gene with a healthy copy of the gene

*Inactivating a disease-causing gene that is not functioning properly

*Introducing a new or modified gene into the body to help treat a disease

Gene therapy products are being studied to treat diseases including cancer, genetic diseases, and
infectious diseases.
There are a variety of types of gene therapy products, including:

*Plasmid DNA: Circular DNA molecules can be genetically engineered to carry therapeutic genes into
human cells.

*Viral vectors: Viruses have a natural ability to deliver genetic material into cells, and therefore some
gene therapy products are derived from viruses. Once viruses have been modified to remove their ability
to cause infectious disease, these modified viruses can be used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic
genes into human cells.

*Bacterial vectors: Bacteria can be modified to prevent them from causing infectious disease and then
used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic genes into human tissues.

*Human gene editing technology: The goals of gene editing are to disrupt harmful genes or to repair
mutated genes.

*Patient-derived cellular gene therapy products: Cells are removed from the patient. genetically
modified (often using a viral vector) and then returned to the patient.

PART 2-ESSENTIALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

WHAT IS AN ENVIRONMENT?

An environment is a place where an organism lives. Broadly, the term environment encompasses
everything that surrounds us. As Lee and Anes (2008) defined it, the environment refers to the natural
world in which we live, and all the things that are produced by people.

Today, man has deliberately altered the environment to suit his needs and eventually his wants and the
things that he desires. This natural egoistic tendency of man greatly influenced his relationship with the
environment; hence, the resources have dwindled, bodies of water became polluted, the soil became
infertile and the air has been saturated with obnoxious gases.
Climate change is a very common term that has flooded journals, magazines, books and every form of
educational material that has caused majority of the disasters that humanity is faced with. If this is a
fact, then, we have to accept it. But if it is a possibility, we can still make a difference.

In every aspect of man's relationship to his environment, his survival is still entirely dependent on the
prevailing conditions in the environment. And if humanity's ultimate goal is to perpetuate his species,
there has to be balance ecology.

What is Ecology?

The term ecology is derived from okologie, a word coined by the German zoologist Ernst Haekel to mean
"the scientific study of the relationships that exist among the organisms as well as between organisms
and all aspects, living and non-living, of their environments, both inorganic and organic." The inorganic
environment consists of the atmosphere, light, inorganic salts, soils and so on. All these factors are
interrelated. The primeval atmosphere of the earth, when life began, was very different from the air of
today. It contained many gases that are injurious to life and there was no free oxygen because plants had
not yet evolved. No matter how life on earth first arose it would, almost certainly, never begin again in
exactly the same manner if it were examined.

Soils not only influence the distribution of plants and animals but are created by them. In this regard, the
fluctuating and the ever-changing interactions between plants, fungi, animals, viruses and bacteria will
definitely give us a clearer understanding that ecology is indeed a very complex and profound subject.

Basic Ecological Laws

The following ecological laws are formulated by ecologists to serve as guiding principles on how we
should live in harmony with nature.

Fundamental Laws

Law of Balance "Each organism in the biosphere affects each other and therefore provides equilibrium in
nature."

For instance, man depends on plants and animals for food. Hence, organism survives on other organisms
for sustenance, thereby maintaining their existence. This is referred to as the biotic cycle of life. If this
symbiotic cycle is disturbed, the whole ecosystem is endangered.

Law of Sensitivity

"Some microorganisms are so sensitive to human activity; they die or deteriorate at the slightest danger"

Reproductive organisms such as eggs and larvae for example are stressed immediately even with a slight
change in temperature.

Law of Susceptibility

"Nature has a way of replenishing and controlling itself."

Decomposers mastered breaking down the bodies of plants and animals so that the ecosystem would
not run out of essential nutrients. Prey and predator exist at the same time to regulate both populations.

Law of Universality

"The laws of nature apply in any ecosystem, big or small, land or water, polar or tropical."

Chemicals from mine tailings may be toxic, whether in ponds, rivers or seas.

Law of Temporality
"The biotic components have finite natures. Nothing is permanent and lives forever."

Subsidiary Laws in Ecology

1. Everything is related to everything else

Everything that is found in this world is complimentary to each other. Each is created to serve certain
purpose - that is to keep the Earth in a state of equilibrium.

2. Everything must go somewhere

This law is merely a restatement of the basic law in physics, which states that matter is indestructible. In
short, matter does not go away or vanish into thin air or disappear. It is simply transferred from one
place to another.

3. Nature knows best

The impact of this law is manifested in the damage to the environment caused by man-made technology
intended to improve nature. According to Barry Commoner (1999), artificial

introduction of an organic compound that does not occur in nature, but is man-made and is active in a
living organism, is very likely to be harmful.

Similarly, for every organic substance produced by a living organism, there exists somewhere in nature,
an enzyme capable of breaking down the substance. There is always a provision for the degradation or
decay of all living organisms. Unlike in the case of such man-made materials as detergents and plastics
that accumulate as rubbish because they are non-biodegradable.
4. There is no such thing as free lunch

As in economics, this law in ecology warns that every gain is won at some cost. A few examples showing
gains achieved by modem science and technology and the corresponding ecological loss are centered in
this important law. They put technology against the environment. The conflict between the two gives
rise to the present global ecological ends.

5. There is strength and stability in the unity of differences

Species diversity provides strength and stability in ecosystems. This is because more functions are carried
out to meet the varying needs of different organisms or populations. Diversity also provides a longer
food chain; thus, a forest is more privileged than a monocultured plantation. The former is more diverse
and therefore more stable while the latter is less diverse and is therefore less stable.

Core Messages in Environmental Science

1. Law of Balance

Nature has its own laws and processes to maintain itself.

Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation.

Human activities should be consistent with the laws and processing of nature.

2. Diversity and Stability

Diversity is essential, it promotes stability.

The greater the diversity of species of plants and animals in an ecosystem, the greater its stability.

Wildlife refuge, undisturbed natural areas and reserves are of value in protecting endangered species
and perpetuating the gene pool.

Multiple use is a practice in which a given land area functions in two or more compatible ways.

Respect for the plurality of culture promotes social and environmental stability.

3. Interdependence Everything is related to everything else.

Living things are interdependent with one another and with their environment.

Green plants are sources of food, medicine, clothing, shelter and energy.

Energy is supplied to an ecosystem principally by activities of green plants.

An organism is the product of its environment and heredity.

A knowledge of social, physical and biological sciences is important for environmental understanding.

The way man relaties to his environment and to resources is influenced by his culture

Resources are affected by population size, land use and management practices

Natural and human resources are interdependent, and the use or misuse of one will affect the other.
Goods and service are produced by the interaction of labor, capital, natural resources and technology

The economy of a region depends on the utilization of its natural, human and cultural resources and
technologies over time

Sustainability of a country's resources is affected by domestic and international policies

Environmental policy is determined by the interaction of science and technology, social and political
factors, and aesthetic, ethical and economic consideration

4. Change

Everything changes... some changes enhance the natural state of the environment, others degrade it.

Species and environments are constantly changing

The rate of change in an environment may exceed the rate of species

The earth and life on it are greatly affected by environmental change adaptation

Ecological succession is the gradual and continuous replacement of one kind of plant and animal
complex by another and is characterized by gradual changes in species composition.

Environmental degradation results from conflicting interests among different sectors of society. Natural
processes, like erosion and deposition, modify the environment Materials in the environment undergo
cyclic changes, passing through biological systems.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed; it is changed from one form to another resulting in the
degradation of its quality.

Energy changes lead to a net overall increase in disorder (entropy) on earth.

Natural goods are generally more healthful compared to processed foods.

5. Pollution

Pollution is the undesirable accumulation of substances resulting in diminished utility of resources .

Pollutants are produced by natural and man-made processes.

Safe disposal of wastes reduces harmful effects on people and the environment.

The earth is a closed system, everything goes some place somewhere.

The self-cleansing capacity of nature is limited. . .

Some pollutants can be efficiently transformed into useful materials.

Pollution can be minimized or prevented by using ecological technologies.

6. Finiteness of Resources

Most of the earth's resources are finite. They must, therefore be used prudently and wisely.
Most resources are subject to depletion, degradation or both.

Plant and animal populations are renewable resources.

Water is reusable and transient resource, but the available quantity may be reduced or the quality
impaired.

Soil and fossil fuels are classified as slowly renewable resources, but because they take hundreds of years
to be formed, they are practically depletable resources.

As population increases demand for resources increases.

Nature has limits beyond which its resources can no longer support populations.

The use of resources must ensure maximum benefits for the maximum number of people for the longest
period of time.

The usefulness or resources is determined by the values held by the people and their availability.

A simple lifestyle reduces demands for resources and environmental stress

Resource depletion can be minimized by the development and proper utilization of alternatives,
including recycling.

Efficient distribution of resources is critical to resource use and conservation.

Protected areas are useful in maintaining and restoring wildlife populations.

7. Stewardship Humans are part of nature.

They are not masters, but are stewards of the earth.

Nature is God's gift to all, it is everybody's duty to protect it

Appreciation of the beauty of nature enhances man's commitment to protect it.

Man is morally responsible for decisions relating to his environment.

Environmentally informed and motivated citizens do the least damage to the environment.

People should actively participate in the formulation and implementation of environmental policies.

Cooperation among sectors of society is necessary in planning and managing the environment.

Management of natural resources demands foresight for long-range planning.

The community should take initiative to manage its own resources.

People can utilize resources without destroying them.

Man must respect the rights of others over the use of natural resources.
Stewardship over resources takes precedence over legal ownership.

When demand for resources increases it is necessary to give priority to needs over desires/wants.

Choices between needs (essentials) and wants and desires (non-essentials) are often in conflict.

Man is capable in utilizing scientific/ technological and sociological knowledge to protect the
environment and achieve the harmonious balance between population growth and resource use.

Conflicts emerge between private land use rights and the maintenance of environmental quality for the
general public.

Habitats of environmentally sensitive populations should be properly managed.

Economic efficiency should be measured in terms of sustainability of natural resources and protection of
environment.

Basic Biological Principles

In studying the environment, one must be equipped with some basic principles and concepts essential in
understanding ecological phenomena and its relationship to the human society. However, one of the
problems encountered in the study of the environment is the failure to arrive at these basic principles.
This is because ecological dynamics are very complex and its principles and laws offer many exemptions.
In this regard, the study of the environment may never have any precise principles. First Principle
Nevertheless, some ecological principles may be stated as follows:

First Principle.
The ecosystem is the basic unit in ecology. It includes both the biological (biotic) and the physical
(abiotic) components that are inseparably interconnected through energy flows and biogeochemical
cycles.

Second Principle

The flow of energy and the cycling of the essential nutrients in the ecosystem depend on the great
variety of interactions and structural relationships among the components of the ecosystem.

Third Principle.

The ecosystem functions in relation to its energy flow and the cycling of the essential nutrients through
the structural components of the ecosystem.

Fourth Principle.

The total amount of energy that flows in natural ecosystems is proportional to the amount fixed by the
plants (autotrophs). As energy id transferred from one feeding (trophic) level to the next, some of it is
lost. This limits the number and biomass of organisms that can be maintained at each trophic level.

Fifth Principle.

Natural ecosystems undergo ecological succession. They pass from led complex stages to a more
diversified and usually stable state.

Sixth Principle.

When an ecosystem is pressured and exploited, the stability of the ecosystem is disturbed.
Seventh Principle.

The population is the functional unit of the ecosystem. Each species in the population occupies a definite
niche or role within the system.

Eighth Principle.

A given niche in an ecosystem is never occupied by a self-maintaining population of more than one
species at the same time.

Ninth Principle.

.There is a limit to nature's ability to support life. Eventually, nature will intervene to reduce a population
that it can no longer sustain.

Tenth Principle.

The ecosystem has historical views: the present is related to the past and the future is related to the
present.

What is an Ecosystem?

The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with
each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions
between organisms and their environment. The term "Ecosystem was first coined by AG Tansley, an
English botanist, in 1935.
Types of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of miles.
There are two types of ecosystem:

Terrestrial Ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems, distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems

2. Grassland Ecosystems

3. Tundra Ecosystems

4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination with
the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are
the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem

In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands,
savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem

Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These
are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.

Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot and
the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two
types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem

2. Marine

3. Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content. and greater
biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the climatic
conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

Biotic Components

Abiotic Components

The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the
energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components can be
categorized into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce food
through the process of photosynthesis Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain
rely on producers for food.

Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are
further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.

Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.

Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be a camivore or an
omnivore.

Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can
also be an omnivore.

Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms' prey on tertiary consumers for
energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they have no natural predators.

Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and
decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients
to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerais,
sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
Functions of Ecosystem

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders stability.

2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.

3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.

4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involves the exchange of
energy.

So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an ecosystem
are:

Productivity-It refers to the rate of biomass production.

Energy flow - It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level to another.
The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to decomposers and
finally back to the environment.

Decomposition - It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is the major site
for decomposition.
Nutrient cycling-In an ecosystem nutrient are consumed and recycled back in various forms for the
utilization by various organisms.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain

he sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant life. The
tants utilize this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesize their food.

During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on through
successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator
or a detritivore is called the food chain.

Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by scavengers.
The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers liberate molecules
to the environment, which can be utilized again by the producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids

An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the ecological
pyramid and its principals in 1927.

The biomass, number, and energy of organismsranging from the producer level to the consumer level are
represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.

The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and secondary
consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quatemary consumers are at
the very apex of the food chain.

The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the other
consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.

For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mice, which are comparatively less in number. The mice
are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex predators such as
the brown snake eagle.

In essence:

Grasshopper- Mice-Cobra- Brown Snake Eagle.

3. Food Web

Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a single
ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains. In a marine
environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.