Experiment 01: Familiarization with various electrical elements and measuring

instruments.

1.1 Objectives:
1. To get introduced with different electrical elements and measuring instruments that
will be used throughout this laboratory.
2. To know their functions and the way to operate them.

1.2 Theory:
An electrical circuit is an interconnection of different electrical components in a close
path built with conductors. Then each component in that circuit is called electrical elements.
These elements can be source of EMF, switch, resistor, inductor, capacitor etc. There are two
types of electrical elements:

a) Active elements: These elements can generate energy such as voltage source, current
source.
b) Passive elements: These elements cannot generate energy, they can control current.
For example: resistor, inductor, capacitor etc.

Then there are several measuring instruments that helps to measuring different parameters in a
circuit such as resistance of a resistor, capacitance of a capacitor, power dissipated in an element,
signal generated by a source etc.

Throughout this session, we will get introduced with all these elements and instruments and will
know how they work.
Table 1.1: List of electrical elements and measuring instruments.

Electrical Elements Measuring Instruments

Wire Ammeter
Switch Analog Multimeter
Circuit breaker Wattmeter
Fuse
Resistor (Rheostat)
Inductor (Ballast)
Capacitor (Capacitor Bank)
Bulb
Tube light
Voltage source (DC and AC)
1.3 Experimental Analysis:

1. Wire: Wire is some kind of conductor which carries electric current from one point to
another.

Cable: A cable contains a hot wire carrying the current, a neutral wire to complete
the loop and a grounding wire as well. The basic key difference between wires and
cables is that a wire is a single conductor whereas a cable is a group of conductors.

Fig 1.1: Picture of wire.

Table 1.1: Some specifications of BRB cables used for indoor purpose.

Type Nominal Number and Max DC Voltage Current

cross- Nominal resistance at
sectional diameters of 20° C (Bunched and
area wire enclosed in
(mm2) conduits two
(no./mm2 ) cable. Single
phase 35° C)

BYA 0.5 re 1/0.80 36 Ω/Km 450/750 13 A

volt

BYFA 2*1 re 1/1.13 18.1 Ω/Km 300/500 13 A

volt

BYFYE 2*1.15 re 1/1.38 12.1 Ω/Km 300/500 16 A

volt

BYM 1*1.3 re 3/0.74 14.3 Ω/Km 300/500 15 A

volt
2. Switch: Electrical switches are used to close or open any connection. To add a switch
in any branch, the branch is cut into two portions, and then the two new ends are
connected to the two terminals of the switch.

Fig 1.2: Picture of switch.

Types: Generally, there are two types of switches that are used in an electrical circuit:
i. Electrical switches: These switches work with the help of semiconductors.
They can be built with-
a. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): By biasing the transistor in either
saturation or cutoff region, it either conducts current (ON state) or
doesn’t conduct current (OFF state).
b. Power Diode: When the PN junction of the power diode is forward
biased, it acts as switch on and when the PN junction is reverse biased,
it acts as switch off.
c. MOSFET: It is a voltage controlled device. It the channel exists
between drain and source terminal then it is ‘ON state’. If the channel
does not exist then it is in ‘OFF state’. Channel exists or not depends
on gate voltage.
ii. Mechanical switches: These require manual contact with the switch for
operation. They can be classified as:
a. Single Pole Single Throw (SPST): This type of switch has one input
terminal (Pole) and one output terminal (Throw). Switch in fig 1.2 is a
SPST switch.
b. Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT): This type of switch has one input
terminal (Pole) and two output terminals (Throw). Switch toggles
between two loops in which we can supply current.
c. Double Pole Single Throw (DPST): This type of switch has two input
terminals and two output terminals. Each input has 1 corresponding
output. These two input terminals are connected/disconnected with its
output terminal simultaneously.
 d. Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT): This type of switch has two input
terminals and four output terminals. In this, one pair of input (pole)
toggles between two pair of output (throw).

Symbols of SPST, SPDT, DPST and DPDT switches are:

Fig 1.3: Symbols of SPST, SPDT, DPST & DPDT switches

e. Toggle Switch: This has a lever which is moved up and down for
turning ON and OFF and is used for household applications.
f. Tumbler Switch: It is a switch in which the blades are actuated by a
lever being pushed up or pulled down. Fig 1.2 is a tumbler switch.
g. Push Button Switch: When it is pressed, the circuit gets closed for the
flow of current. When pressure is removed from the switch, the
contact is broken and the flow of current is stopped.

Fig 1.4: Picture of Push Button Switch.

h. Rotary Switch: This switch is used in channel selector or range

selector or band selector.
3. Circuit Breaker: A circuit breaker is an electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by overcurrent/overload or short circuit. Its
basic function is to interrupt current flow after protective relays detect a fault. For
such case it forcefully disconnects the circuit from source. In other words, it acts as a
switch but with additional facility to overcurrent protection or short circuit protection.
 Fig 1.5: Picture of circuit breaker.

Types of Circuit Breaker (Low Voltage):

i. Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB): Molded Case Circuit Breaker is an

electromechanical device which protects a circuit from overcurrent and short
circuit which works with high current (1600 Amp). The primary function of
an MCCB is to provide a means to manually open a circuit and automatically
open a circuit under overload or short circuit conditions. The overcurrent, in
an electrical circuit, may result from short circuit, overload or faulty design. A
MCCB generally has: a thermal element for overcurrent and a magnetic
element for short circuit release which has to operate faster. MCCB can be
used for protection of capacitor bank, generator protection and main electric
feeder distribution.
ii. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB): MCB or Miniature Circuit Breaker is a
circuit breaker which is used for protection where current ratings are lower
(125 Amp). Like MCCBs it also offers protection against overload & short
circuit through bimetal & solenoid. It automatically switches OFF electrical
circuit during any abnormal condition in the electrical network such as
overload & short circuit conditions.
iii. Air Circuit Breaker (ACB): ACB is an electrical switching device used to
protect electrical circuits from overcurrent, under voltage and short circuits.
These devices are generally used in high current (6300 Amp) & low voltage
applications (450V) and operate in free air. Their method of arc quenching
control is entirely different from that of oil circuit-breakers.
iv. Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB): MPCBs are used specially for
motor protections. MPCB as a standalone device offers protection against
Overload, Short Circuit & Single Phasing, thus is used specifically for motor
applications.
v. Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB): RCCBs as the name suggests offer
protection against leakage current and Earth Fault. It is used in homes, offices
& industries. RCCB works on the principle of Kirchhoff’s law, which states
 that the incoming current must be equal to the outgoing current in a circuit.
RCCB thus compares the difference in current values between live and neutral
wires. Ideally, the current flowing to the circuit from the live wire should be
the same as that flowing through the neutral wire. In case of a fault, the
current from the neutral wire is reduced, the differential between the two
known as Residual Current. On spotting a Residual Current, the RCCB is
triggered to trip off the circuit.
4. Fuse: A fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to provide overcurrent
protection of an electrical circuit. For such case its internal wire fuses and thereby
disconnects the rest of the circuits. The main difference between fuse and circuit
breakers is that fuses cannot be reused while circuit breakers can be reused over and
over again.

Fig 1.6: Picture of glass fuse.

5. Resistor: A resistor means a device that provides electrical resistance to the flow of
current. It is a passive two-terminal electrical component.

Types:

i. Linear Resistors: A linear resistor is defined as a two terminal circuit element

which satisfies Ohm’s law i.e. the voltage across the resistor is proportional to
the current flowing through it. The linear resistor is also known as Ohmic
resistor. It has several classes:
a. Fixed resistors: Fixed resistor’s resistances are constant during the
operation. It has several types:
 Wire Wound resistor
 Thin Film resistor
 Carbon Composition resistor etc.
b. Variable Resistors: Its resistance can vary over a range, i.e. it can
possess any value of resistance. Variable Resistors consist of a slider
which taps onto the main resistor element and possess a resistance. Its
types are:
  Rheostat
 Potentiometer
 Trimmer Resistor etc.
ii. Non-Linear Resistor: Non-linear resistors are those types of resistors where
resistance does not obey the Ohm’s law. The non-linear resistor is an
non-Ohmic device, i.e., its I-V characteristic is not a straight line. It has
several classes:
a. Thermistor: It is extremely temperature-sensitive two terminal device.
A thermistor's resistance is inversely correlated with its temperature.
b. Varistor: A varistor is a semiconductor-based non-linear resistor,
meaning that the current flowing through it does not depend linearly
on the applied voltage across it.
c. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR): A light-controlled variable resistor is
known as a photo resistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors). As the
intensity of the incident light increases, the photo resistor resistance
reduces.

However in our laboratory we will use rheostat. Rheostat is a device whose resistance
can be made fixed and in addition resistance can be variable i.e. it can possess any
resistance value within a certain range which is done by moving the sliding contact.

For fixed resistance connection, connect A and B terminal with the circuit.

For variable resistance connection, connect C and B terminal with the circuit.

Fig 1.7: Picture of rheostat.

Materials of Resistor:

i. Wirewound: These kinds are usually produced by spirally winding resistive

wire around a nonconductive core. Commonly made of a nickel-chromium
alloy, resistive wires frequently have ceramic or fiberglass cores. For
protection, a coating like vitreous enamel is utilized.
 ii. Carbon Composition (CCR): Its ingredients are a mixture of fine carbon
particles and a non-conductive ceramic material. The material is formed into a
cylinder and baked. The body's dimensions and the proportion of ceramic to
carbon material determine the resistance value. Lower resistance is associated
with more carbon.
iii. Carbon Film: A thin layer of pure carbon is placed on a cylindrical, insulating
core. The film is cut in a spiral pattern. This both raises the resistance value
and precisely controls to have any value. Resistors ranges from 1 Ω up to 10
MΩ.
iv. Metal Film: Nichrome is typically used to make metal film resistors, but
tantalum nitride and other materials are also used. On an insulating substrate
that is flat or cylindrical, the resistive film is printed. These resistors are also
known as Cermet since the resistive material is a mix of ceramic and metal.
The resistivity is adjusted by cutting a spiral pattern into the film, just like
with carbon film.
v. Metal Oxide Film: The difference between metal film and metal oxide film is
that the resistive material is a metal oxide, such as tin oxide.
vi. Foil: The most precise and reliable type of resistor is still the foil resistor,
which was developed in the 1960s. A thin sheet of bulk metal foil that is
bonded to a ceramic substrate acts as the resistive element. The foil is several
micrometers thick.

Standard Commercially available values of resistors:

Table 1.1: Standard values of commercially available resistors

Ohms KiloOhms MegaOhms

0.10 1.0 10 100 1000 10 100 1.0 10.0
0.11 1.1 11 110 1100 11 110 1.1 11.0
0.12 1.2 12 120 1200 12 120 1.2 12.0
0.13 1.3 13 130 1300 13 130 1.3 13.0
0.15 1.5 15 150 1500 15 150 1.5 15.0
0.16 1.6 16 160 1600 16 160 1.6 16.0
0.18 1.8 18 180 1800 18 180 1.8 18.0
0.20 2.0 20 200 2000 20 200 2.0 20.0
0.22 2.2 22 220 2200 22 220 2.2 22.0
0.24 2.4 24 240 2400 24 240 2.4
0.27 2.7 27 270 2700 27 270 2.7
0.30 3.0 30 300 3000 30 300 3.0
0.33 3.3 33 330 3300 33 330 3.3
0.36 3.6 36 360 3600 36 360 3.6
 0.39 3.9 39 390 3900 39 390 3.9
0.43 4.3 43 430 4300 43 430 4.3
0.47 4.7 47 470 4700 47 470 4.7
0.51 5.1 51 510 5100 51 510 5.1
0.56 5.6 56 560 5600 56 560 5.6
0.62 6.2 62 620 6200 62 620 6.2
0.68 6.8 68 680 6800 68 680 6.8
0.75 7.5 75 750 7500 75 750 7.5
0.82 8.2 82 820 8200 82 820 8.2
0.91 9.1 91 910 9100 91 910 9.1

6. Inductor: An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic

field. Inductance is the property whereby an inductor opposes the changes in
current flow through it. Inductors find numerous applications in electronic and
power systems. They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios etc.

Any conductor with electric current has inductive properties but in order to enhance
the inductive properties, a practical conductor is formed into a cylindrical coil with
many turns.

Types:

i. Iron Core Inductor: These inductors have iron core. These inductors have high
power and inductance value. The audio equipment uses these inductors.
ii. Air Core Inductor: When little inductance is needed, these inductors are
employed. It has no core loss since there isn't any core. However, compared to
inductors with a core, the number of turns the inductor must have is higher for
this type. Thereby its quality factor is higher.
iii. Iron Powder Inductor: Iron oxide constitutes the core of this kind of inductor.
They are made up of extremely fine, insulating iron powder particles. Its air
gap allows for the storage of high magnetic flux. This kind of inductor's core
has relatively little permeability. They typically fall below 100. Their primary
application is in switching power supplies.
iv. Ferrite Core Inductor: The core of this type of inductor is made of ferrite
materials (XFe2O4 where X stands for the transitional substance).
v. Choke: A choke is used to obstruct high-frequency alternating current (AC).
Conversely, it will let low-frequency or DC signals pass. This inductor is
referred to as a choke since its purpose is to restrict changes in current. A coil
of insulated wire wound on a magnetic core makes up this inductor. Chokes
and other inductors differ primarily in that they don't require the high Q factor
 construction methods in order to reduce resistance in inductors found in tuned
circuits.

In our lab we will work with ballast as inductor.

Fig 1.8: Picture of Ballast.

7. Capacitor: A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric

field. A typical capacitor consists of two conducting plate separated by some
insulator. Capacitance is the ability to collect and store energy in the form of an
electrical charge.

When a capacitor is connected to a source then its one plate contains positive charge
and other plate contains negative charge. Then the two plates attract each other by a
developed electric field and it stores energy in the form of electric field. When the
source is disconnected then the capacitor discharges and maintains current flow.

The capacitors are classified into two types according to polarization:

i. Non-Polar Capacitor: Nonpolar capacitors are preferred over polar capacitors

because it doesn’t get destroyed by reverse voltage and can be used in pure
AC circuits. They also find applications in DC circuits as they don’t have
positive and negative ends. The frequency of the nonpolar capacitor is high,
and the leakage current is low. Its classes are:
a) Ceramic Capacitors: This sort of capacitor is made of a dielectric
substance. Additionally, ceramic capacitors are non-polar,
allowing for use in any direction inside a circuit. Printed circuit
boards used in high-density applications require ceramic
capacitors.
 b) Film Capacitor: Film dielectric, polymer film, and plastic film are
other names for film capacitors. Film capacitors have the
advantages of being affordable and having an endless shelf life.
The film capacitor uses. It has a thin dielectric material where the
other side is metalized. The film capacitor is rolled into thin films
based on the application. These capacitors typically operate in the
voltage range of 50 V to 2 kV. These capacitors are employed in
electromagnetic interference and as safety capacitors.
c) Power Film Capacitor: Power film capacitor's construction method
is similar to ordinary film capacitor. Here, polypropylene film
serves as the dielectric.
ii. Polar Capacitor: It is often termed an electrolytic capacitor. These capacitors
are used to achieve high capacitive density. Most commonly used polar
capacitor is electrolytic capacitor.

An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor with an anode or positive

plate consisting of a metal that has undergone the process of anodization to
produce an insulating oxide layer. The capacitor's dielectric is this oxide layer.
The cathode or negative plate of the capacitor, which is a solid, liquid, or gel
electrolyte, is placed to cover the surface of this oxide layer. Electrolytic
capacitors can have huge capacitance values because they have a very thin
dielectric oxide layer and a larger anode surface.

Applications:

 Electrolytic capacitors are used when there is a requirement for large

capacitance.
 They are used as filtering devices that lower the ripple voltage.
 They are used in audio amplifiers to reduce the electrical noise that is
induced by the main supply.

Commercially available capacitor values are:

Table 1.2: Standard values of commercially available capacitors

pF pF pF pF µF µF µF µF µF µF µF
1.0 10 100 1000 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10,000
1.1 11 110 1100
1.2 12 120 1200
1.3 13 130 1300
1.5 15 150 1500 0.015 0.15 1.5 15 150 1500
1.6 16 160 1600
1.8 18 180 1800
2.0 20 200 2000
2.2 22 220 2200 0.022 0.22 2.2 22 220 2200
2.4 24 240 2400
2.7 27 270 2700
3.0 30 300 3000
3.3 33 330 3300 0.033 0.33 3.3 33 330 3300
3.6 36 360 3600
3.9 39 390 3900
4.3 43 430 4300
4.7 47 470 4700 0.047 0.47 4.7 47 470 4700
5.1 51 510 5100
5.6 56 560 5600
6.2 62 620 6200
6.8 68 680 6800 0.068 0.68 6.8 68 680 6800
7.5 75 750 7500
8.2 82 820 8200
9.1 91 910 9100

In our laboratory we will work with capacitor bank. Here any capacitance within a certain
range can be added to the circuit.

Fig 1.9: Picture of Capacitor Bank.

8. Bulb: Bulb is used as a load in circuit & is used to indicate current flow, power
measurement and in various application in the laboratory.

Fig 1.10: Picture of Bulb.

9. Tube Light: Tube light is used in our laboratory for the purpose of studying
fluorescent lamp.

Fig 1.11: Picture of Tube light.

10. DC Voltage Source: Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through
an element, measured in volts (V). Voltage source is that device which continuously
delivers voltage output. The output of a dc voltage source is constant and doesn’t
change over time. Means the polarity of the voltage source is always same. So, while
in a circuit it will make the current to flow from positive terminal to negative
terminal. The direction of current flow through a resistor connected with the source
will always remain in the same direction.
 Fig 1.12: Picture of DC voltage source.

This voltage source has three terminals of which gnd is body ground and is not used.
The positive and negative terminal will supply desired voltage. The voltage and
current can be varied by rotating voltage and current knob respectly.

11. AC Voltage Source: A device which produces alternating voltage output

continuously is known as alternating voltage source. Alternating voltages means the
polarity of the source terminals reverses maintaining some time period. As the
voltage reverses its polarity, so the current direction will also reverse periodically.

In our laboratory we will use 240V 50 Hz AC which is same as the electricity

provided to our household for our day to day life.

Fig 1.13: Picture of AC voltage source

We have also auto transformer which can convert the 240V AC to any required AC
voltage while keeping the frequency fixed at 50Hz.
 Fig 1.14: Picture of Auto Transformer (AC voltage source)

12. Ammeter: An ammeter is a current measuring instrument. It measures the current

flowing through a branch without hampering the original current flow. Thereby it is
connected in series in that branch. As it is connected in series, its internal resistance is
very negligible.

Fig 1.15: Circuit Diagram representing the connection of ammeter.

It has two terminals: positive and negative. So the branch in which the current is to be
measured is cut in half and each wire end is connected to the two terminals of the
ammeter. The positive terminal of ammeter must be connected to current entering
side of the circuit and negative terminal to the current leaving side of the circuit.
 Fig 1.16: Picture of ammeter.

This ammeter shown in fig 1.14 has three scales. If the positive terminal is taken out from
5A then the full scale will be 5A and the lower scale reading would be sub-divided
accordingly. If the positive terminal is taken out from 1A then the full scale will be 1A
and the lower scale reading would be sub-divided accordingly. Similar thing goes for
0.5A scale.

An ammeter ac measure both dc current and ac current (rms).

13. Analog Multimeter: A multimeter is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple
electrical properties. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current.

Fig 1.17: Picture of analog multimeter.

Resistance measurement:

a. Rotate the knob to resistance measurement section with proper scale value.
b. Connect the resistor in between the positive and negative terminal of the
multimeter.
 c. Then read the value the multimeter is giving and calculate the resistance value.

Let you selected 10x in multimeter and got a reading of 20 ohm in multimeter,
then resistance= (20*10)ohm= 200ohm

Current/Voltage measurement:

a. Rotate the knob to current/voltage measurement section with proper scale value.
Remember to consider AC/DC you are measuring.
b. For current measurement connect the multimeter in series.
c. For voltage measurement, connect the multimeter in parallel across the load to
which the voltage drop is to be measured.

Fig 1.18: Circuit Diagram representing the connection of voltmeter.

d. Let, full scale reading on multimeter is=f

You chose scale value by rotating knob= s

You read current or voltage on “f” scale= x

Measurement of your current or voltage= (x*s)/f

14. Wattmeter:

Wattmeter is used to measure power in a circuit. It has two coils: one is potential coil and
another is current coil. Potential coil is to be connected as parallel across the load across
which the power dissipation is to be measured. Current coil is connected in series with
the load. It is shown in fig 1.17.
 Fig 1.19: Circuit diagram of wattmeter connection for power dissipation measurement.

Fig 1.20: Picture of wattmeter

Measurement Process:

a. COM terminal represents common terminal i.e. the point where potential coil and
current coil is connected. Observe the fig 1.17, and see that at this point power
supply is connected. So, connect power supply here. IT IS NOT
MANDATORY THAT ALWAYS POWER SUPPLY WILL BE
CONNECTED HERE. IT DEPENDS ON CIRCUIT DIAGRAM!
b. The M and L terminal represents the two ends of current coil. According to fig
1.17 connect M terminal with the COM terminal.
c. Connect L terminal with the load according to fog 1.17.
d. The three terminals labeled with 600, 300, and 150 represent the maximum
voltage it can measure. They are the second end of potential coil (see fig 1.17. It
is marked as v). Choose a proper terminal suitable with voltage supply and
connect with the other end of power supply according to fig 1.17.
1.4 Experimental Task:
1. Observe each equipment.
2. Observe their ratings and understand how they work.