PROBLEM 1.

3
KNOWN: Inner surface temperature and thermal conductivity of a concrete wall.
FIND: Heat loss by conduction through the wall as a function of outer surface temperatures ranging from
-15 to 38°C.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3)
Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, if q′′x and k are each constant it is evident that the gradient,
dT dx = − q′′x k , is a constant, and hence the temperature distribution is linear. The heat flux must be
constant under one-dimensional, steady-state conditions; and k is approximately constant if it depends
only weakly on temperature. The heat flux and heat rate when the outside wall temperature is T2 = -15°C
are

q′′x = − k
dT
=k
T1 − T2
= 1W m ⋅ K
25o C − −15o C
= 133.3 W m 2 .
( )
(1)
dx L 0.30 m

q x = q′′x × A = 133.3 W m 2 × 20 m 2 = 2667 W . (2) <

Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), the heat rate qx can be determined for the range of outer surface temperature,
-15 ≤ T2 ≤ 38°C, with different wall thermal conductivities, k.

3500

2500
Heat loss, qx (W)

1500

500

-500

-1500
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Ambient
Outside air temperature, T2 (C)
surface

Wall thermal conductivity, k = 1.25 W/m.K

k = 1 W/m.K, concrete wall
k = 0.75 W/m.K

For the concrete wall, k = 1 W/m⋅K, the heat loss varies linearly from +2667 W to -867 W and is zero
when the inside and outer surface temperatures are the same. The magnitude of the heat rate increases
with increasing thermal conductivity.
COMMENTS: Without steady-state conditions and constant k, the temperature distribution in a plane
wall would not be linear.
 PROBLEM 1.5

KNOWN: Thermal conductivity and thickness of a wall. Heat flux through wall. Steady-state
conditions.
FIND: Value of temperature gradient in K/m and in °C/m.
SCHEMATIC:

k = 2.3 W/m·K

q”x = 10 W/m2

x L = 20 mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Under steady-state conditions,

dT q" 10 W/m 2
dx
=− x =−
k 2.3 W/m ⋅ K
= −4.35 K/m = −4.35 °C/m <
Since the K units here represent a temperature difference, and since the temperature difference is the
same in K and °C units, the temperature gradient value is the same in either units.

COMMENTS: A negative value of temperature gradient means that temperature is decreasing with
increasing x, corresponding to a positive heat flux in the x-direction.
 PROBLEM 1.9
KNOWN: Width, height, thickness and thermal conductivity of a single pane window and
the air space of a double pane window. Representative winter surface temperatures of single
pane and air space.
FIND: Heat loss through single and double pane windows.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction through glass or air, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Enclosed air of double pane window is stagnant (negligible buoyancy induced
motion).
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, the heat losses are

Single Pane:
T −T
qg = k g A 1 2 = 1.4 W/m ⋅ K 2m2
L ( )
35 oC
0.005m
= 19, 600 W <

T −T
Double Pane: qa = k a A 1 2 = 0.024 2m 2
L ( )
25 oC
0.010 m
= 120 W <
COMMENTS: Losses associated with a single pane are unacceptable and would remain
excessive, even if the thickness of the glass were doubled to match that of the air space. The
principal advantage of the double pane construction resides with the low thermal conductivity
of air (~ 60 times smaller than that of glass). For a fixed ambient outside air temperature, use
of the double pane construction would also increase the surface temperature of the glass
exposed to the room (inside) air.
 PROBLEM 1.11

KNOWN: Heat flux at one face and air temperature and convection coefficient at other face of plane
wall. Temperature of surface exposed to convection.
FIND: If steady-state conditions exist. If not, whether the temperature is increasing or decreasing.
SCHEMATIC:

q”conv

Air

h = 20 W/m2·K
q” = 20 W/m2
T∞ = 30°C

Ts = 50°C

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) No internal energy generation.

ANALYSIS: Conservation of energy for a control volume around the wall gives

dEst
= E& in − E& out + E& g
dt

dEst
= qin′′ A − hA(Ts − T∞ ) = [ qin′′ − h (Ts − T∞ ) ] A
dt
= ⎡⎣ 20 W/m 2 − 20 W/m 2 ⋅ K(50°C − 30°C) ⎤⎦ A = −380 W/m 2 A

Since dEst/dt ≠ 0, the system is not at steady-state. <

Since dEst/dt < 0, the stored energy is decreasing, therefore the wall temperature is decreasing. <

COMMENTS: When the surface temperature of the face exposed to convection cools to 31°C, qin =
qout and dEst/dt = 0 and the wall will have reached steady-state conditions.
 PROBLEM 1.13

KNOWN: Masonry wall of known thermal conductivity has a heat rate which is 80% of that
through a composite wall of prescribed thermal conductivity and thickness.

FIND: Thickness of masonry wall.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Both walls subjected to same surface temperatures, (2) One-
dimensional conduction, (3) Steady-state conditions, (4) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: For steady-state conditions, the conduction heat flux through a one-
dimensional wall follows from Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2,

ΔT
q ′′ = k
L

where ΔT represents the difference in surface temperatures. Since ΔT is the same for both
walls, it follows that

k1 q ′′
L1 = L2 ⋅ 2.
k2 q1′′

With the heat fluxes related as

q1′′ = 0.8 q ′′2

0.75 W / m ⋅ K 1
L1 = 100mm × = 375mm. <
0.25 W / m ⋅ K 0.8

COMMENTS: Not knowing the temperature difference across the walls, we cannot find the
value of the heat rate.
 PROBLEM 1.14

KNOWN: Expression for variable thermal conductivity of a wall. Constant heat flux.
Temperature at x = 0.

FIND: Expression for temperature gradient and temperature distribution.

SCHEMATIC:
k = ax + b

q”

T1

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction.

ANALYSIS: The heat flux is given by Fourier’s law, and is known to be constant, therefore

dT
q′′x = − k = constant
dx

Solving for the temperature gradient and substituting the expression for k yields

dT q′′ q′′
=− x =− x <
dx k ax + b

This expression can be integrated to find the temperature distribution, as follows:

dT q′′x
∫ dx dx = − ∫ ax + b dx
Since q′′x = constant , we can integrate the right hand side to find

q′′x
T=− ln ( ax + b ) + c
a

where c is a constant of integration. Applying the known condition that T = T1 at x = 0,

we can solve for c.
Continued…
 PROBLEM 1.14 (Cont.)

T(x = 0) = T1
q′′
− x ln b + c = T1
a
q′′
c = T1 + x ln b
a

Therefore, the temperature distribution is given by

q′′x q′′
T=− ln ( ax + b ) + T1 + x ln b <
a a
q ′′ b
= T1 + x ln <
a ax + b

COMMENTS: Temperature distributions are not linear in many situations, such as when the
thermal conductivity varies spatially or is a function of temperature. Non-linear temperature
distributions may also evolve if internal energy generation occurs or non-steady conditions exist.
 PROBLEM 1.22

KNOWN: Hot vertical plate suspended in cool, still air. Change in plate temperature with time at the
instant when the plate temperature is 225°C.

FIND: Convection heat transfer coefficient for this condition.

SCHEMATIC:

-0.022 K/s

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Plate is isothermal, (2) Negligible radiation exchange with surroundings, (3)
Negligible heat lost through suspension wires.

ANALYSIS: As shown in the cooling curve above, the plate temperature decreases with time. The
condition of interest is for time to. For a control surface about the plate, the conservation of energy
requirement is

E& in - E& out = E& st

dT
− 2hA s ( Ts − T∞ ) = M c p
dt
where As is the surface area of one side of the plate. Solving for h, find

Mcp ⎛ -dT ⎞
2As ( Ts - T∞ ) ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
h=

3.75 kg × 2770 J/kg ⋅ K

h= × 0.022 K/s = 6.3 W/m 2 ⋅ K <
2 × ( 0.3 × 0.3) m 2 ( 225 - 25 ) K

COMMENTS: (1) Assuming the plate is very highly polished with emissivity of 0.08, determine
whether radiation exchange with the surroundings at 25°C is negligible compared to convection.

(2) We will later consider the criterion for determining whether the isothermal plate assumption is
reasonable. If the thermal conductivity of the present plate were high (such as aluminum or copper),
the criterion would be satisfied.
 PROBLEM 1.26
KNOWN: Chip width and maximum allowable temperature. Coolant conditions.
FIND: Maximum allowable chip power for air and liquid coolants.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Negligible heat transfer from sides and
bottom, (3) Chip is at a uniform temperature (isothermal), (4) Negligible heat transfer by
radiation in air.
ANALYSIS: All of the electrical power dissipated in the chip is transferred by convection to
the coolant. Hence,
P=q
and from Newton’s law of cooling,
2
P = hA(T - T∞) = h W (T - T∞).
In air,
2 2
Pmax = 200 W/m ⋅K(0.005 m) (85 - 15) ° C = 0.35 W. <
In the dielectric liquid
2 2
Pmax = 3000 W/m ⋅K(0.005 m) (85-15) ° C = 5.25 W. <
COMMENTS: Relative to liquids, air is a poor heat transfer fluid. Hence, in air the chip can
dissipate far less energy than in the dielectric liquid.
 PROBLEM 1.28
KNOWN: Length, diameter, surface temperature and emissivity of steam line. Temperature
and convection coefficient associated with ambient air. Efficiency and fuel cost for gas fired
furnace.
FIND: (a) Rate of heat loss, (b) Annual cost of heat loss.
SCHEMATIC:

= 0.8

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steam line operates continuously throughout year, (2) Net radiation
transfer is between small surface (steam line) and large enclosure (plant walls).
ANALYSIS: (a) From Eqs. (1.3a) and (1.7), the heat loss is

⎣ ( )
q = q conv + q rad = A ⎡ h ( Ts − T∞ ) + εσ Ts4 − Tsur
4 ⎤
⎦

where A = π DL = π ( 0.1m × 25m ) = 7.85m 2 .

Hence,

( )
q = 7.85m 2 ⎡10 W/m 2 ⋅ K (150 − 25 ) K + 0.8 × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 4234 − 2984 K 4 ⎤
⎣ ⎦

q = 7.85m 2 (1, 250 + 1,095 ) W/m 2 = ( 9813 + 8592 ) W = 18, 405 W <
(b) The annual energy loss is
E = qt = 18, 405 W × 3600 s/h × 24h/d × 365 d/y = 5.80 × 1011 J

With a furnace energy consumption of E f = E/ηf = 6.45 × 1011 J, the annual cost of the loss is

C = Cg Ef = 0.02 $/MJ × 6.45 × 105 MJ = $12,900 <

COMMENTS: The heat loss and related costs are unacceptable and should be reduced by
insulating the steam line.
 PROBLEM 1.32

KNOWN: Hot plate suspended in vacuum and surroundings temperature. Mass, specific heat, area
and time rate of change of plate temperature.

FIND: (a) The emissivity of the plate, and (b) The rate at which radiation is emitted from the plate.

SCHEMATIC:
Tsur = 25˚C

Ts
Ts = 225˚C
T(t) qrad
dT
= -0.022 K
dt s
qrad
E& st

Plate, 0.3 m × 0.3 m t0 t

M = 3.75 kg, cp = 2770 J kg ⋅ K

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Plate is isothermal and at uniform temperature, (2) Large surroundings, (3)
Negligible heat loss through suspension wires.

ANALYSIS: For a control volume about the plate, the conservation of energy requirement is

E& in - E& out = E& st (1)

dT
where E& st = Mc p (2)
dt

& - E& = Aεσ(T4 - T4 )

and for large surroundings E (3)
in out sur s

Combining Eqns. (1) through (3) yields

dT
Mcp dt
ε=
Aσ (Tsur - Ts4 )
4

Noting that Tsur = 25˚C + 273 K = 298 K and Ts = 225˚C + 273 K = 498 K, we find
J K
3.75 kg × 2770 × (-0.022 )
kg ⋅ K s
ε= = 0.42
W
2 × 0.3 m × 0.3 m × 5.67 × 10-8 2 4 (4984 - 2984 ) K 4
<
m ⋅K

The rate at which radiation is emitted from the plate is

W
q rad,e = εAσTs4 = 0.42 × 2 × 0.3 m × 0.3 m × 5.67 × 10-8 2 4
× (498 K)4 = 264 W <
m ⋅K

COMMENTS: Note the importance of using kelvins when working with radiation heat transfer.
 PROBLEM 1.44

KNOWN: Radial distribution of heat dissipation in a cylindrical container of radioactive

wastes. Surface convection conditions.
FIND: Total energy generation rate and surface temperature.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Negligible temperature drop across thin
container wall.
ANALYSIS: The rate of energy generation is
o⎡ r
∫ 1- ( r/ro ) ⎤ 2π rLdr
∫
2
E& g = qdV=q
& &o
0 ⎣ ⎢ ⎥⎦
g o o (
&E = 2π Lq& r 2 / 2 − r 2 / 4
o )
or per unit length,
πq& r 2
E& g′ = o o . <
2
Performing an energy balance for a control surface about the container yields, at an instant,
E& g′ − E& out
′ =0

and substituting for the convection heat rate per unit length,
π q& o ro2
= h ( 2π ro )( Ts − T∞ )
2
q& o ro
Ts = T∞ + . <
4h
COMMENTS: The temperature within the radioactive wastes increases with decreasing r
from Ts at ro to a maximum value at the centerline.
 PROBLEM 1.47

KNOWN: Dimensions of a milk carton. Temperatures of milk carton and surrounding air.
Convection heat transfer coefficient and surface emissivity.
FIND: Heat transferred to milk carton for durations of 10, 60, and 300 s.
SCHEMATIC:

Tsur

q″conv
Air q″rad
T∞ = 30°C L = 200 mm
Tm = 5°C

Milk
h = 10 W/m2·K
ε = 0.90

w = 100 mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible heat transfer from bottom surface of milk carton and from top
surface since it is not in contact with cold milk, (2) Radiation is to large surroundings at the air
temperature.

ANALYSIS: The area of the four sides is A = 4L × w = 4(0.2 m × 0.1 m) = 0.08 m2. Thus,

q = ( qconv + qrad ) = hA(T∞ − Ts ) + εσ A(Tsur4 − Ts4 )

= 10 W / m 2 ⋅ K × 0.08 m 2 (30°C − 5°C) + 0.90 × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 × 0.08 m 2 ( (303 K) 4 − (278 K) 4 )
= 20.0 W + 10.0 W = 30.0 W

For a duration of 10 s,

Q = q∆t = 30.0 W × 10 s = 300 J <

Similarly, Q = 1800 J and 9000 J for durations of 60 and 300 s, respectively. <
COMMENTS: (1) The predicted heat transfer rates do not account for the fact that the milk
temperature increases with time. If the increase in milk temperature were accounted for, the values of
Q would be less than calculated. (2) If the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator is 2, COP =
Q/W = 2, then the required work input to re-cool the milk after leaving it in the kitchen for 300 s is
4500 J. At an electricity price of $0.18/kW⋅h, this would cost about $0.0002, which is insignificant.
Preventing bacterial growth is a more important reason to return the milk to the refrigerator promptly.
(3) The analysis neglects condensation that might occur on the outside of the milk carton.
Condensation would increase the rate of heat transfer to the milk significantly, increasing the
importance of returning the milk to the refrigerator promptly.
 PROBLEM 1.49

KNOWN: Boiling point and latent heat of liquid oxygen. Diameter and emissivity of container. Free
convection coefficient and temperature of surrounding air and walls.

FIND: Mass evaporation rate.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Temperature of container outer surface equals
boiling point of oxygen.
ANALYSIS: (a) Applying mass and energy balances to a control surface about the container, it
follows that, at any instant,
dmst dEst &
= −m& out = − m
& evap = E in − E& out = q conv + q rad − q evap . (1a,b)
dt dt
With hf as the enthalpy of liquid oxygen and hg as the enthalpy of oxygen vapor, we have
Est = mst h f q evap = m
& out h g (2a,b)

Combining Equations (1a) and (2a,b), Equation (1b) becomes (with hfg = hg – hf)
& out h fg = q conv + q rad
m

& evap = ( q conv + q rad ) h fg = ⎡ h ( T∞ − Ts ) + εσ Tsur

m
⎣
4
− Ts4 ⎤ π D 2 h fg
⎦ ( (3) )
&
m =
⎡10 W m 2 ⋅ K ( 298 − 263) K + 0.2 × 5.67 × 10−8 W m 2 ⋅ K 4 2984 − 2634 K 4 ⎤ π ( 0.5 m )2
⎣ ⎦ ( )
evap
214 kJ kg

& evap = ( 350 + 35.2 ) W / m 2 0.785 m 2

m ( ) 214 kJ kg = 1.41 × 10−3 kg s . <
(b) Using Equation (3), the mass rate of vapor production can be determined for the range of
emissivity 0.2 to 0.94. The effect of increasing emissivity is to increase the heat rate into the container
and, hence, increase the vapor production rate.
1.9
Evaporation rate, mdot*1000 (kg/s)

1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Surface emissivity, eps

COMMENTS: To reduce the loss of oxygen due to vapor production, insulation should be applied to
the outer surface of the container, in order to reduce qconv and qrad. Note from the calculations in part
(a), that heat transfer by convection is greater than by radiation exchange.
 PROBLEM 1.54

KNOWN: Temperatures of small cake as well as oven air and walls. Convection heat transfer
coefficient under free and forced convection conditions. Emissivity of cake batter and pan.
FIND: Heat flux to cake under free and forced convection conditions.

SCHEMATIC:
Air
T∞ = 180°C Tsur = 180°C
hfr = 3 W/m2·K
hfo = 27 W/m2·K q″conv q″rad

Cake Ti = 24°C, ε = 0.97

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Large surroundings.

ANALYSIS: The heat flux to the cake pan and batter is due to convection and radiation. With the
surface temperature equal to Ti, when the convection feature is disabled,

q′′fr = ( qconv ′′ ) = h fr (T∞ − Ti ) + εσ (Tsur4 − Ti 4 )

′′ + qrad
= 3 W / m 2 ⋅ K(180°C − 24°C) + 0.97 × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 ( (180 + 273 K) 4 − (24 + 273 K) 4 ) <
= 470 W / m 2 + 1890 W / m 2 = 2360 W / m 2

When the convection feature is activated, the heat flux is

q′′fo = (qconv ′′ ) = h fo (T∞ − Ti ) + εσ (Tsur4 − Ti 4 )

′′ + qrad
= 27 W / m 2 ⋅ K(180°C − 24°C) + 0.97 × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 ( (180 + 273 K) 4 − (24 + 273 K) 4 ) <
= 4210 W / m 2 + 1890 W / m 2 = 6100 W / m 2

COMMENTS: Under free convection conditions, the convection contribution is about 20% of the
total heat flux. When forced convection is activated, convection becomes larger than radiation,
accounting for 69% of the total heat flux. The cake will bake faster under forced convection
conditions.
 PROBLEM 1.56
KNOWN: Silicon wafer, radiantly heated by lamps, experiencing an annealing process with known
backside temperature.
FIND: Whether temperature difference across the wafer thickness is less than 2°C in order to avoid
damaging the wafer.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in wafer, (3)

Radiation exchange between upper surface of wafer and surroundings is between a small object and a
large enclosure, and (4) Vacuum condition in chamber, no convection.
PROPERTIES: Wafer: k = 30 W/m⋅K, ε = α l = 0.65.
ANALYSIS: Perform a surface energy balance on the upper surface of the wafer to determine
Tw,u . The processes include the absorbed radiant flux from the lamps, radiation exchange with the
chamber walls, and conduction through the wafer.
E& ′′in − E& ′′out = 0
α l q′′s − q′′rad − q′′cd = 0

(
4 − T4 − k
α l q′′s − εσ Tw,u sur ) Tw,u − Tw,l
L
=0

0.65 × 3.0 ×105 W / m 2 − 0.65 × 5.67 × 10−8 W / m 2 ⋅ K 4 Tw,u ((

4 − 27 + 273
) 4
)K 4

−30W / m ⋅ K ⎡⎣Tw,u − ( 997 + 273) ⎤⎦ K / 0.00078 m = 0

Tw,u = 1273K = 1000°C <

COMMENTS: (1) The temperature difference for this steady-state operating condition,
Tw,u − Tw,l , is larger than 2°C. Warping of the wafer and inducing slip planes in the crystal structure
could occur.
(2) The radiation exchange rate equation requires that temperature must be expressed in kelvin units.
Why is it permissible to use kelvin or Celsius temperature units in the conduction rate equation?
(3) Note how the surface energy balance, Eq. 1.13, is represented schematically. It is essential to
show the control surfaces, and then identify the rate processes associated with the surfaces. Make
sure the directions (in or out) of the process are consistent with the energy balance equation.
 PROBLEM 1.59
KNOWN: Total rate of heat transfer leaving nacelle (from Example 1.3). Dimensions and emissivity
of the nacelle, ambient and surrounding temperatures, convection heat transfer coefficient exterior to
nacelle. Temperature of exiting forced air flow.
FIND: Required mass flow rate of forced air flow.

SCHEMATIC:

T∞ = 25°C
Tsur = 20°C q″conv,oA q″radA
Ts = 30°C

q″conv,iA
Cooling Air
q = 330 kW
Tout, m·
q″conv,iA Ts = 30°C
Cooling Air
T , m·
in

Nacelle

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Large surroundings, (3) Surface of the nacelle that
is adjacent to the hub is adiabatic, (4) Forced air exits nacelle at the nacelle surface temperature.

ANALYSIS: The total rate of heat transfer leaving the nacelle is known from Example 1.3 to be q =
0.33 × 106 W = 330 kW. Heat is removed from the nacelle by radiation and convection from the
exterior surface of the nacelle (qrad and qconv,o, respectively), and by convection from the interior
surface to the forced flow of air through the nacelle (qconv,i). An energy balance on the nacelle based
upon the upper-right part of the schematic yields

q = qrad + qconv,o + qconv,i = A ⎡⎣ qrad

′′ + qconv,o
′′ ⎤⎦ + qconv,i

Thus the required rate of heat removal by the forced air is given by

⎡ π D2 ⎤ ⎡
′′ + qconv,o
qconv,i = q − A ⎣⎡ qrad ′′ ⎦⎤ = q − ⎢π DL+
4
⎥ ⎣εσ Ts − Tsur + h (Ts − T∞ ) ⎤⎦
4 4
( )
⎣ ⎦

In order to maintain a nacelle surface temperature of Ts = 30°C, the required qconv,i is

⎡ π × (3 m) 2 ⎤
qconv,i = 330 kW − ⎢π × 3 m × 6 m + ⎥×
⎣ 4 ⎦
⎡ −8 2 4 4
( 4 4 2
⎤
⎣0.83 × 5.67 × 10 W/m ⋅ K (273 + 30) − (273 + 20) K + 35 W/m ⋅ K(30 − 25)K ⎦ )
= 330 kW − (3 kW + 11 kW) = 316 kW

The required mass flow rate of air can be found by applying an energy balance to the air flowing through the
nacelle, as shown by the control volume on the lower left of the schematic. From Equation 1.12e:
qconv,i qconv,i 316 kW
m& = = = = 63 kg/s <
c p (Tout − Tin ) c p (Ts − T∞ ) 1007 J/kg ⋅ K(30 − 25)K

Continued...
 PROBLEM 1.59 (Cont.)

COMMENTS: (1) With the surface temperature lowered to 30°C, the heat lost by radiation and
convection from the exterior surface of the nacelle is small, and most of the heat must be removed by
convection to the interior forced air flow. (2) The air mass flow rate corresponds to a velocity of
around V = m & / ρ Ac = m& / ( ρπ D 2 / 4) = 7 m/s, using an air density of 1.1 kg/m3 and assuming that
the air flows through the entire nacelle cross-sectional area. This would lead to uncomfortable
working conditions unless the forced air flow were segregated from the working space. (3) The
required heat transfer coefficient on the interior surface can be estimated as hi = qconv,i/(πDL(Ts - T∞)) =
1100 W/m2⋅K. In Chapter 8, you will learn whether this heat transfer coefficient can be achieved
under the given conditions.
 PROBLEM 1.61
KNOWN: Long bus bar of prescribed diameter and ambient air and surroundings temperatures.
Relations for the electrical resistivity and free convection coefficient as a function of temperature.

FIND: (a) Current carrying capacity of the bus bar if its surface temperature is not to exceed 65°C;
compare relative importance of convection and radiation exchange heat rates, and (b) Show
graphically the operating temperature of the bus bar as a function of current for the range 100 ≤ I ≤
5000 A for bus-bar diameters of 10, 20 and 40 mm. Plot the ratio of the heat transfer by convection to
the total heat transfer for these conditions.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Bus bar and conduit are very long, (3) Uniform
bus-bar temperature, (4) Radiation exchange between the outer surface of the bus bar and the conduit
is between a small surface and a large enclosure.
PROPERTIES: Bus-bar material, ρ e = ρ e,o [1 + α ( T − To )] , ρe,o = 0.0171μΩ ⋅ m, To = 25°C,

α = 0.00396 K −1.
ANALYSIS: An energy balance on the bus-bar for a unit length as shown in the schematic above has
the form
E& ′in − E& ′out + E& ′gen = 0
−q′rad − q′conv + I 2 R ′e = 0

(
−επ Dσ T 4 − Tsur
4
)
− hπ D ( T − T∞ ) + I2 ρe / A c = 0

where R ′e = ρ e / A c and A c = π D 2 / 4. Using the relations for ρ e ( T ) and h ( T, D ) , and substituting

numerical values with T = 65°C, find
( 4 4
)
q ′rad = 0.85 π ( 0.020m ) × 5.67 × 10 −8 W / m 2 ⋅ K 4 [65 + 273] − [30 + 273] K 4 = 14.0 W / m <
q′conv = 7.83W / m 2 ⋅ K π ( 0.020m )( 65 − 30 ) K = 17.2 W / m <
−0.25
where h = 1.21W ⋅ m −1.75 ⋅ K −1.25 ( 0.020m ) ( 65 − 30 )0.25 = 7.83W / m2 ⋅ K
( )
I2 R ′e = I 2 198.2 × 10−6 Ω ⋅ m / π ( 0.020 ) m 2 / 4 = 6.31 × 10−5 I2 W / m
2

where ρe = 0.0171 × 10−6 Ω ⋅ m ⎡⎣1 + 0.00396 K −1 ( 65 − 25 ) K ⎤⎦ = 198.2 μΩ ⋅ m

The maximum allowable current capacity and the ratio of the convection to total heat transfer rate are
I = 700 A q′cv / ( q′cv + q′rad ) = q′cv / q′tot = 0.55 <
For this operating condition, convection heat transfer is 55% of the total heat transfer.

(b) Using these equations in the Workspace of IHT, the bus-bar operating temperature is calculated
and plotted as a function of the current for the range 100 ≤ I ≤ 5000 A for diameters of 10, 20 and 40
mm. Also shown below is the corresponding graph of the ratio (expressed in percentage units) of the
heat transfer by convection to the total heat transfer, q ′cv / q ′tot .
Continued …..
 PROBLEM 1.61 (Cont.)

3,000 0.8

Percent convection
0.7
2,500
D 0.6
Current (A)

2,000
0.5
1,500 0.4 D
0.3
1,000
0.2
500
0.1
0 0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Bus bar temperature (C) Bus bar temperature (C)

COMMENTS: (1) The trade-off between current-carrying capacity, operating temperature and bar
diameter is shown in the first graph. If the surface temperature is not to exceed 65°C, the maximum
current capacities for the 10, 20 and 40-mm diameter bus bars are 260, 700, and 1900 A, respectively.
(2) From the second graph with q ′cv / q ′tot vs. T, note that the convection heat transfer rate is typically
comparable to the radiation heat transfer rate. Since the convection heat transfer increases with
decreasing diameter, the convection transfer rate is relatively smaller for the larger diameter bus bars.
(3) The Workspace for the IHT program to perform the parametric analysis and generate the graphs is
shown below. It is good practice to provide commentary with the code making your solution logic
clear, and to summarize the results.

//Temperature Information (Celsius unless otherwise indicated)

Ts = 65
TsK = Ts + 273
Tsur = 30
TsurK = Tsur + 273
Tinf = 30

//Radiation (Stefan-Boltzmann constant and emissivity)

sigma = 5.67*10^-8
eps = 0.85

//Three bus bar diameters (m)

D1 = 10/1000
D2 = 20/1000
D3 = 40/1000

//Electrical resistivity (Ohm-m)

rhoe = (0.0171*10^-6) *(1 + 0.00396*(Ts - 25))

//Radiation per unit length (W/m)

qradp1 = eps*sigma*pi*D1*(TsK^4 - TsurK^4)
qradp2 = eps*sigma*pi*D2*(TsK^4 - TsurK^4)
qradp3 = eps*sigma*pi*D3*(TsK^4 - TsurK^4)

//Free convection coefficients (W/m^2K)

h1 = 1.21*(D1^-0.25)*(Ts - Tinf)^0.25
h2 = 1.21*(D2^-0.25)*(Ts - Tinf)^0.25
h3 = 1.21*(D3^-0.25)*(Ts - Tinf)^0.25
Continued...
 PROBLEM 1.61 (Cont.)

//Free convection per unit length (W/m)

qconvp1 = h1*D1*pi*(Ts - Tinf)
qconvp2 = h2*D2*pi*(Ts - Tinf)
qconvp3 = h3*D3*pi*(Ts - Tinf)

//Electrical resistance per unit length (Ohm/m)

Rep1 = rhoe/Ac1
Rep2 = rhoe/Ac2
Rep3 = rhoe/Ac3

//Cross sectional areas (m^2)

Ac1 = pi*D1*D1/4
Ac2 = pi*D2*D2/4
Ac3 = pi*D3*D3/4

//Energy balances (W/m)

-qradp1-qconvp1+I1*I1*Rep1 = 0
-qradp2-qconvp2+I2*I2*Rep2 = 0
-qradp3-qconvp3+I3*I3*Rep3 = 0

//Ratios of convection to total heat transfer

rat1 = qconvp1/(qconvp1 + qradp1)
rat2 = qconvp2/(qconvp2 + qradp2)
rat3 = qconvp3/(qconvp3 + qradp3)
 PROBLEM 1.65
KNOWN: Frost formation of 2-mm thickness on a freezer compartment. Surface exposed to
convection process with ambient air.

FIND: Time required for the frost to melt, tm.

SCHEMATIC: Ambient air Frost

T∞ = 20°C
h = 2 W/m·K
ΔEst

Ein

Frost layer ·
m out

Adiabatic ·
Eout
surface Melt
Freezer compartment wall

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Frost is isothermal at the fusion temperature, Tf, (2) The water melt falls away
from the exposed surface, (3) Frost exchanges radiation with surrounding frost, so net radiation
exchange is negligible, and (4) Backside surface of frost formation is adiabatic.

PROPERTIES: Frost, ρf = 770 kg / m3 , h sf = 334 kJ / kg.

ANALYSIS: The time tm required to melt a 2-mm thick frost layer may be determined by applying a
mass balance and an energy balance (Eq 1.12b) over the differential time interval dt to a control
volume around the frost layer.
dmst = − m
& out dt (
dEst = E& in − E& out dt ) (1a,b)

With hf as the enthalpy of the melt and hs as the enthalpy of frost, we have
dEst = dmst h s E& out dt = m
& out h f dt (2a,b)

Combining Eqs. (1a) and (2a,b), Eq. (1b) becomes (with hsf = hf – hS)
m& out h sf dt = E& in dt = q′′conv As dt
Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to time, find
ρf As h sf x o = h As ( T∞ − Tf ) t m
ρf h sf x o
tm =
h ( T∞ − Tf )
700 kg / m3 × 334 × 103 J / kg × 0.002m
tm = = 11,690 s = 3.2 hour <
2 W / m 2 ⋅ K ( 20 − 0 ) K

COMMENTS: (1) The energy balance could be formulated intuitively by recognizing that the total
heat in by convection during the time interval t m ( q ′′conv ⋅ t m ) must be equal to the total latent energy
for melting the frost layer ( ρ x o h sf ) . This equality is directly comparable to the derived expression
above for tm.
 PROBLEM 1.67
KNOWN: Dimensions, emissivity, and solar absorptivity of solar photovoltaic panel. Solar
irradiation, air and surroundings temperature, and convection coefficient. Expression for conversion
efficiency.
FIND: Electrical power output on (a) a still summer day, and (b) a breezy winter day.
SCHEMATIC:
T∞ = 35°C or -15°C
h = 10 W/m2·K or 30 W/m2·K
GS = 700 W/m2
Tsur = 35°C or -15°C
ε = 0.90

αS = 0.83

P Photovoltaic panel, Tp

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Lower surface of solar panel is insulated, (3)
Radiation from the environment can be treated as radiation from large surroundings, with α = ε.

ANALYSIS: Recognize that there is conversion from thermal to electrical energy, therefore there is a
negative generation term equal to the electrical power. Performing an energy balance on the solar
panel gives
E& in − E& out + E& g = 0
qrad − qconv − P = 0
⎡⎣α S GS − εσ (Ts4 − Tsur4 ) ⎤⎦ A − hA(Ts − T∞ ) − ηα S GS A = 0
Dividing by A, and substituting the expression for η as a function of Tp yields
⎡⎣α S GS − εσ (Tp4 − Tsur4 ) ⎤⎦ − h (Tp − T∞ ) − (0.553 − 0.001Tp )α S GS = 0

(a) Substituting the parameter values for a summer day:

0.83 × 700 W/m 2 − 0.90 × 5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 (Tp4 − (308 K) 4 ) − 10 W/m 2 ⋅ K (Tp − 308 K)
−(0.553 − 0.001Tp ) × 0.83 × 700 W/m 2 = 0
3799 W/m 2 − 5.1 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4Tp4 − 9.42 W/m 2 ⋅ K T p = 0

Solving this equation for Tp using IHT or other software results in Tp = 335 K. The electrical power
can then be found from
P = ηα S GS A = (0.553 − 0.001Tp )α S GS A
= (0.553 − 0.001 K -1 × 335 K) × 0.83 × 700 W/m 2 × 8 m 2 = 1010 W <
(b) Repeating the calculation for the winter conditions yields Tp = 270 K, P = 1310 W. <
COMMENTS: (1) The conversion efficiency for most photovoltaic materials is higher at lower
temperatures. Therefore, for the same solar irradiation, more electrical power is generated in winter
conditions. (2) The total solar energy generated would generally be less in the winter due to lower
irradiation values and a shorter day.
 PROBLEM 1.69
KNOWN: Average heat sink temperature when total dissipation is 20 W with prescribed air and
surroundings temperature, sink surface area and emissivity.
FIND: Sink temperature when dissipation is 30 W.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) All dissipated power in devices is transferred
to the sink, (3) Sink is isothermal, (4) Surroundings and air temperature remain the same for both
power levels, (5) Convection coefficient is the same for both power levels, (6) Heat sink is a small
surface within a large enclosure, the surroundings.
ANALYSIS: Define a control volume around the heat sink. Power dissipated within the devices
is transferred into the sink, while the sink loses heat to the ambient air and surroundings by
convection and radiation exchange, respectively.
E& in − E& out = 0
(
Pe − hAs ( Ts − T∞ ) − Asεσ Ts4 − Tsur )
4 = 0. (1)

Consider the situation when Pe = 20 W for which Ts = 42°C; find the value of h.

⎢⎣ (
h= ⎡ Pe / As − εσ Ts4 − Tsur )
4 ⎤ / (T − T )
⎥⎦ s ∞

( )
h= ⎡ 20 W/0.045 m 2 − 0.8 × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 ⋅ K 4 3154 − 3004 K 4 ⎤ / ( 315 − 300 ) K
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
h = 24.4 W / m2 ⋅ K.
For the situation when Pe = 30 W, using this value for h with Eq. (1), obtain
30 W - 24.4 W/m 2 ⋅ K × 0.045 m 2 ( Ts − 300 ) K

( )
−0.045 m 2 × 0.8 × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 Ts4 − 3004 K 4 = 0

(
30 = 1.098 ( Ts − 300 ) + 2.041× 10−9 Ts4 − 3004 . )
By trial-and-error, find
Ts ≈ 322 K = 49 o C. <
COMMENTS: (1) It is good practice to express all temperatures in kelvin units when using energy
balances involving radiation exchange.

(2) Note that we have assumed As is the same for the convection and radiation processes. Since not all
portions of the fins are completely exposed to the surroundings, As,rad is less than As,conv = As.
(3) Is the assumption that the heat sink is isothermal reasonable?
 PROBLEM 1.73

KNOWN: Hot plate suspended in a room, plate temperature, room temperature and surroundings
temperature, convection coefficient and plate emissivity, mass and specific heat of the plate.

FIND: (a) The time rate of change of the plate temperature, and (b) Heat loss by convection and heat
loss by radiation.

SCHEMATIC:
Air Ts

qrad
qrad
T∞ = 25°C
h = 6.4 W/m2 ⋅ K
qconv
qconv E& st

Plate, 0.3 m x 0.3 m

M = 3.75 kg, cp = 2770 J/kg·K, ε = 0.42
Tsur = 25°C

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Plate is isothermal and at uniform temperature, (2) Large surroundings, (3)
Negligible heat loss through suspension wires.

ANALYSIS: For a control volume about the plate, the conservation of energy requirement is

E& in - E& out = E& st (1)

dT
where E& st = Mc p (2)
dt
&E - E& 4 4
and in out = εAσ(Tsur - Ts ) + hA(T∞ - Ts ) (3)

4
dT A[εσ(Tsur - Ts4 ) + h(T∞ - Ts )]
Combining Eqs. (1) through (3) yields =
dt Mc p
Noting that Tsur = 25o C + 273 K = 298 K and Ts = 225o C + 273 K = 498 K ,

W W
{2×0.3 m×0.3 m[0.42×5.67×10-8 × (4984 -2984 ) K 4 ]+6.4 2 ×(25o C-225o C)}
dT 2
m ⋅K 4
m ⋅K
=
dt J
3.75 kg×2770
kg ⋅ K

= -0.044 K/s <

The heat loss by radiation is the first term in the numerator of the preceding expression and is
q rad = 230 W <
The heat loss by convection is the second term in the preceding expression and is
q conv = 230 W <

COMMENTS: (1) Note the importance of using kelvins when working with radiation heat transfer.
(2) The temperature difference in Newton’s law of cooling may be expressed in either kelvins or
degrees Celsius. (3) Radiation and convection losses are of the same magnitude. This is typical of
many natural convection systems involving gases such as air.
 PROBLEM 1.76
KNOWN: Thickness and thermal conductivity, k, of an oven wall. Temperature and emissivity, ε, of
front surface. Temperature and convection coefficient, h, of air. Temperature of large surroundings.
FIND: (a) Temperature of back surface, (b) Effect of variations in k, h and ε.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Radiation exchange with large
surroundings.
ANALYSIS: (a) Applying an energy balance, Eq. 1.13 to the front surface and substituting the
appropriate rate equations, Eqs. 1.2, 1.3a and 1.7, find
T −T
k 1 2 = h ( T2 − T∞ ) + εσ T24 − Tsur
L
4 .
( )
Substituting numerical values, find

⎡ W ⎡ 4 ⎤
−8
400 K ) − ( 300 K ) ⎤ ⎥ = 200 K .
0.05 m W
T1 − T2 = ⎢ 20 100 K + 0.8 × 5.67 × 10
⎢ ( 4
⎥⎦
0.7 W/m ⋅ K ⎣ m 2 ⋅ K m2 ⋅ K 4 ⎣ ⎦

Since T2 = 400 K, it follows that T1 = 600 K. <

(b) Parametric effects may be evaluated by using the IHT First Law Model for a Nonisothermal Plane
Wall. Changes in k strongly influence conditions for k < 20 W/m⋅K, but have a negligible effect for
larger values, as T2 approaches T1 and the heat fluxes approach the corresponding limiting values

10000
600
Heat flux, q''(W/m^2)

8000

6000
Temperature, T2(K)

500
4000

2000
400
0
0 100 200 300 400
Thermal conductivity, k(W/m.K)
300
0 100 200 300 400 Conduction heat flux, q''cond(W/m^2)
Convection heat flux, q''conv(W/m^2)
Thermal conductivity, k(W/m.K) Radiation heat flux, q''rad(W/m^2)

Continued…
 PROBLEM 1.76 (Cont.)
The implication is that, for k > 20 W/m⋅K, heat transfer by conduction in the wall is extremely efficient
relative to heat transfer by convection and radiation, which become the limiting heat transfer processes.
Larger fluxes could be obtained by increasing ε and h and/or by decreasing T∞ and Tsur .

With increasing h, the front surface is cooled more effectively ( T2 decreases), and although q′′rad
decreases, the reduction is exceeded by the increase in q′′conv . With a reduction in T2 and fixed values
of k and L, q′′cond must also increase.

30000
600

Heat flux, q''(W/m^2)

20000
Temperature, T2(K)

10000
500

0
0 100 200
Convection coefficient, h(W/m^2.K)
400
Conduction heat flux, q''cond(W/m^2)
0 100 200 Convection heat flux, q''conv(W/m^2)
Convection coefficient, h(W/m^2.K)
Radiation heat flux, q''rad(W/m^2)

The surface temperature also decreases with increasing ε, and the increase in q′′rad exceeds the reduction
in q′′conv , allowing q′′cond to increase with ε.

10000

575
Heat flux, q''(W/m^2)

8000

570 6000
Temperature, T2(K)

565 4000

2000
560

0
555 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Emissivity
550
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Conduction heat flux, q''cond(W/m^2)
Convection heat flux, q''conv(W/m^2)
Emissivity Radiation heat flux, q''rad(W/m^2)

COMMENTS: Conservation of energy, of course, dictates that irrespective of the prescribed conditions,
q′′cond = q′′conv + q′′rad .
 PROBLEM 1.82
KNOWN: Hot-wall oven, in lieu of infrared lamps, with temperature Tsur = 200°C for heating a
coated plate to the cure temperature. See Example 1.9.
FIND: (a) The plate temperature Ts for prescribed convection conditions and coating emissivity, and
(b) Calculate and plot Ts as a function of Tsur for the range 150 ≤ Tsur ≤ 250°C for ambient air
temperatures of 20, 40 and 60°C; identify conditions for which acceptable curing temperatures
between 100 and 110°C may be maintained.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Negligible heat loss from back surface of plate, (3)
Plate is small object in large isothermal surroundings (hot oven walls).
ANALYSIS: (a) The temperature of the plate can be determined from an energy balance on the plate,
considering radiation exchange with the hot oven walls and convection with the ambient air.
E& ′′in − E& ′′out = 0 or q′′rad − q′′conv = 0

( ( s ∞))
4 − T4 − h T − T = 0
εσ Tsur s

0.5 × 5.67 × 10−8 W / m 2 ⋅ K 4 ([200 + 273] 4

)
− Ts4 K 4 − 15 W / m 2 ⋅ K ( Ts − [ 20 + 273]) K = 0

Ts = 357 K = 84°C <

(b) Using the energy balance relation in the Workspace of IHT, the plate temperature can be calculated
and plotted as a function of oven wall temperature for selected ambient air temperatures.

150
Plate temperature, Ts (C)

100

50
150 175 200 225 250
Oven wall tem perature, Tsur (C)

Tinf = 60 C
Tinf = 40 C
Tinf = 20 C

COMMENTS: From the graph, acceptable cure temperatures between 100 and 110°C can be
maintained for these conditions: with T∞ = 20°C when 225 ≤ Tsur ≤ 240°C; with T∞ = 40°C when 205
≤ Tsur ≤ 220°C; and with T∞ = 60°C when 175 ≤ Tsur ≤ 195°C.