Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-019-9478-y

ORIGINAL PAPER

Evolution of Management Cybernetics and Viable

System Model

Amin Vahidi 1 & Alireza Aliahmad 2 & Ebrahim Teimouri 2

Published online: 7 February 2019

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
The Viable System Model have pulled in system specialists’ interests lately. This field could
help system analyzers and designers to deal with systems unpredictability and help them to
handle dynamic evolving situations. This paper investigates Viable System Model recorded
and late research patterns. To start with, presenting and creating verifiable pattern of this model
has been examined. At that point late distribution patterns have been checked on by reviewing
1000 most essential and cited works Based on Google Scholar rank. Cybernetics developed in
the Josiah Macy conferences, beginning in 1946. At that point, Wiener presented the field of
Cybernetics and Ashby, Von Forester, and McCulloch built up this field as a train. This
Management Cybernetics was presented in 1959 by Beer is a blend of frameworks of control,
and management sciences. Beer introduced VSM as an operational model here. Reviewing
1000 most cited publications demonstrates the presentation of this field achieved maturity and
further advancement turned out to be generally under development. In addition, in view of
investigated patterns, application of VSM model would now be able to be firmly alluring.

Keywords Viable system model . Variety . Systems science, law of requisite variety

Introduction

This paper reviews the underpinning principles and scientific trends of cybernetics and viable
system model (VSM). Therefore, it could guide authors and managers active in management
cybernetics and inform them about the past, current, and future trends in this discipline.
Therefore, it guides authors and manager to most appropriate research directions in the field
by analyzing current research gaps and trends. In this paper, the steps of VSM development
have been reviewed. Then recent trends (topic, authors and journals analysis) have been

* Amin Vahidi
amin.vahidi@gmail.com

1
School of Progress Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
2
School of Industrial Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
298 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

surveyed by analyzing first 1000 publication in this field. The number of citations is a key
factor in the ranking of the results and, therefore, that Google Scholar is able to identify highly-
cited papers effectively. Given the unique coverage of Google Scholar (no restrictions on
document type and source), this makes it an invaluable tool for bibliometric analysis (Martin-
Martin et al. 2017).
By this analysis, researchers could find out which type of researches (Introduction,
Development or Application) on this model has reached maturity and which the current
research trend is. Also in this paper, we analyze researchers who have most publications in
this field and review their researches trends and interests. Then we analyze which journals had
most publications in this field and what are their research interests.
These analysis will help researches in this field to understand that who and how developed
VSM. In addition, this paper helps researchers seeking references to choose more appropriate
papers from more appropriate authors. Also from this analysis, they could focus on the more
appropriate research type. Moreover, this paper will help them to find a more appropriate
journal for their researches.
Beer (1926–2002), as a theorist in the field of systems theory, wrote several books on
management systems (Beer 1994a, 1994b). The result of his efforts is introduction of a new
multidisciplinary concept called Bmanagement cybernetics,^ that is a combination of system,
control and management sciences (Brecher et al. 2013; Preece et al. 2013; Rahayu and
Zulhamdani 2014). In his book entitled BBrain of the Firm^, he introduced the VSM and
built his model based on the recursive systems. The model is based on five sub-systems that
sustain both identity and survival (Espejo and Harnden 1990; Espinosa et al. 2008; Espinosa
et al. 2015).
In this paper, first a brief review of The Viable System Model is introduced. Then VSM
historical trends and the steps of its development have been reviewed. In the next part, recent
trends had been reviewed by analyzing first 1000 publication in this field (based on Google
Scholar rank). This part includes topic, authors and journals analysis of this paper. In the
conclusion part historical, recent, authors and journals trends briefly reviewed.

Viable System Model Evolution

Description of VSM

Beer was a theorist in systems who compiled several books on the topic of management
systems. Beer’s efforts led to the introduction of a new multidisciplinary field called
Bmanagement cybernetics^ (Beer 1994a, 1994b) in his books such as ‘cybernetics and
management’, ‘decision and control’, ‘designing freedom’ and ‘Brain of the Firm’.
The VSM ensures recursive structures. Recursiveness refers to structural patterns which
recur at different levels of embedded organisation. The basic principles of the Viable System
Model are: recursion, autonomy, cohesion and viability (Brecher et al. 2013; Preece et al.
2013; Rahayu and Zulhamdani 2014). The model is based on five sub-systems that sustain
both identity and survival. In other words, this model identifies five subsystems that make up
the operations (circles) and the managements (Rectangles and triangle) of any viable system.
These subsystems are denoted as systems 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 as shown in Fig. 1. Operations are
main activities of the system and managerial system help to govern and direct these operations.
Also, 3* subsystem is the auditing subsystem. This subsystem is located in right hand-side of
Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 299

operations in Fig. 1. The principle of viability implies that viability means capability of
independent existence. The VSM suggests that in order to be viable a system must have
certain patterns of interaction explained by the VSM. This structure enables the system to
recognize internal disturbances and changes in its environment and to react appropriately
(Espejo and Harnden 1990; Espinosa et al. 2008; Espinosa et al. 2015).
A viable system is composed of five interacting subsystems which may be mapped onto
aspects of organizational structure.
This model identifies five subsystems that make up the operations and the meta-system of any
viable system. These subsystems are denoted as systems 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, as shown in Fig. 1.
The principle of viability implies that every system, which effectively maintains its
existence, includes the invariant structure of a Viable System. This structure enables the
system to recognize internal disturbances and changes in its environment and to react
appropriately (Espejo and Harnden 1990; Espinosa et al. 2008; Espinosa et al. 2015).
A closer look at Fig. 1 reveals the following regarding each of the above subsystems:

& System 1 is the collection of operating units that carry out the primary activities of the
organization. Thus, System 1 is composed of all the units that carry out operations in
practice and is analogous to the muscles and organs in the human body (Dominici and
Palumbo 2013).
& However, system 2 is analogous to the autonomic nervous system which monitors the
interactions between muscles and organs in the body. System 2 is responsible for resolving

Fig. 1 VSM Overview (Beer 1975)

300 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

the potential conflicts between the operating units and maintaining the system’s overall
stability (Espejo 2013).
& System 3 optimizes the collective operations of the muscles and organs in the body via a
thorough screening. In addition to carrying out the functions of System 2, System 3 is
additionally responsible for finding ways to generate synergies between the operating units
(Beer 1994a, 1994b).
& System 3* meets the requirement for an audit channel that can control details, regardless of
detailed-management. Financial auditing is the clearest example, but it can be an energy
audit, a security audit, an IT compliance audit, customer complaints, and so on (Leonard
2009).
& System 4 is analogous to the human conscious nervous system and looks the environment,
collects information, and makes predictions about the environment. System 4 also adopts
the necessary strategies and plans to have an optimum adaptation to the environment
(Espejo 2013).
& Finally, system 5 is analogous to the human higher brain functions. It defines the system’s
identity and its overall vision or reason for being. This system decides which operating
policies and guidelines the system will follow (Beer 1994a, 1994b).

Note: BHigher^ and Blower^ subsystems in this paper refer to the S5, S4, S3, S2 and S1
sequence.
Also, VSM is a recursive model, meaning that every system 1 is supposed to be a viable
system in itself. In this research, VSM has been chosen because it bears a number of advantages
as listed below (Leonard 2009):

& It offers a conceptual framework for organizational structure development,

& It is a comprehensive framework in various sectors including public, private and political
sectors,
& It has not been rejected to date,
& Its applications is increasing,
& It is based on a strong theoretical and mathematical framework,
& It has a holistic view of an organizational system,
& It is a straightforward framework with complexity reduction rules (Beer 1972). It could
handle external and internal complexities by Ashby law of requisite variety for reaching a
balance in system complexity.

Law of Requisite Variety

Ashby, in the book BIntroduction to Cybernetic^, stated that living systems for compliance
with the environment follow specific rules. These rules are general and related to control
theory (Ashby 1958). He set out these rules as law of requisite variety. BBeer^ used variety
theory to face the ever-changing environment in cybernetic literature (Beer 1972).
The total number of possible scenarios of the system is its variety. Based on the
primary rules of control, the controller variety should not be less than the controlled
variety. Otherwise, in some cases, the controller cannot maintain a controlled state (Beer
1979). According to the theory of variety, variety alone can be absorb variety. In other
words, in uncontrolled state, the system environment variety (E) is much larger than the
Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 301

system variety (S), and system variety is much larger than the management variety (M)
(Beer 1972).
VE >> VS >> VM

The proper design of the system is such that it makes management variety more than system
variety, and system variety is more than environment variety (Beer 1979).
VM >> VS >> VE

Variety Engineering provides a platform for understanding the balance of central control and
local autonomy. If we move from this point of equilibrium to the central control, we will get
bureaucracy and system obstinacy. In contrast, if the local autonomy of each component of the
system is more than equilibrium, the inefficient structure and chaos occurs (Schwaninger
2006b).
In the VSM structure, each interconnection between the environments, the main process
and management processes (support) include a combination of attenuation of lower system and
amplification of upper system variety (1989b).
A remarkable point is the dissolution of the environmental variety within the recursive
embedded networks of a viable system. In other words, the responsiveness of a viable system
to the various situations it finds, is possible at one or more recursive levels of that system (Beer
1984).

Viable System Model History

The framework was introduced by Beer in the 1960s in the context of cybernetics and it was
developed by him in next decades (Beer 1981, 1970, 1984). It should be noted that the Josiah
Macy Foundation has shaped the new discipline of cybernetics during 1946 to 1951. At that
time, Wiener (Wiener 1948) introduced cybernetics through the feedback and control concepts
in man and machine. Then, English mathematician Ashby (Ashby 1956; Ashby 1958, 1999;
Ashby 1952a, 1952b; and Conant and Ross Ashby 1970) introduced law of requisite variety
for this style of control. After him, Mc Colloch defined the first mathematical model of the
brain (McCulloch 1965), which later became the basis for the formation of VSM subsystems.
Table 1 give a brief look at the history of management cybernetics papers. In addition,
Table 2 represents a summary of the origins and evolution of the VSM. The brief findings from
reviewing the articles and scientific evidence on the evolution of management cybernetics are
presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Cybernetics’ evolution

Year Scholar Event

1946–1951 Macy Conference (Josiah The invention of cybernetic, feedback mechanisms, casual and
Macy Foundation) feedback on social and biological systems
1948 Weiner Cybernetics or Control and Communication in humans and Machine
1956 Ashby Mathematical rules of Cybernetics
1961 Pask Cybernetics and cognition
1965 Mc Colloch Mind Visualization
1974 Von Foerster Second-order cybernetics
302 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

Table 2 Management cybernetics’ evolution

Year Scholar Concept

1959 Beer Cybernetics and Management

1962 Beer Cybernetic factory
1966 Beer Decision and Control in Cybernetics
1972 Beer Brain of the firm
1974 Von Foerster Second order cybernetics
1979 Beer Heart of Enterprise and creation of VSM
2001 Reyes Second order control in VSM
2004 Schwaninger Needs to combination of VSM, SD and other systemic methodologies
Nowadays Various Researchers Application of VSM

Management cybernetics was introduced in 1959 by Beer (Beer 1959) as Bcybernetics and
management^ term, then Beer stated Bcybernetic factory^ in 1962. Then, Von Foerster
introduced the concept of Bsecond order cybernetics^ in 1974.
The VSM was proposed by Beer in his book entitled BHeart of Enterprise^ (Beer 1979).
After him, Reyes described the second order control in VSM (Reyes 2001). Then,
Schwaninger and Perez Rios described the needs for the combination of VSM, System
Dynamics (SD), and other systemic methodologies and frameworks (Schwaninger 2004),
(Schwaninger 2006a) (Schwaninger 2004) (Vahidi and Aliahmadi 2018).
Beer introduced management cybernetics in 1959, then he described cybernetic factory in
1962. In 1966, Beer defined decision and control in cybernetic. VSM was introduced by Beer
in 1972.
After Beer, Von Foerster described second order cybernetics so the fractal features of
management cybernetics have been shaped. The birth of VSM occurred in the Beer’s BHeart
of Enterprise^ book. After Beer and Von Foerster works, Reyes introduced second order
control in VSM in 2001. Then, many authors such as Schwaninger and Perez Rios described
the needs for combination of VSM, SD, and other systemic methodologies Schwaninger
(Schwaninger 2004) and (Schwaninger and Perez Rios 2008). Moreover, in the last decade,
presenting the combination of VSM, SD, and other systemic methodologies and frameworks
has become the main trends in this discipline. Table 2 and present a brief overview on the
history of VSM as a summary of origins and evolution of management cybernetics.

Creation of VSM

Beer 1972 book, Brain of the Firm, laid out another vision of what he called the Viable System
Model—VSM for short (Beer 1972).
VSM is based on two pillars. To begin with, the reenactment of the cybernetic factory.
Second, Beer broadened and expounded his origination of data streams impressively. The
point of the firm must be to get by in a domain that was fluctuating and evolving. How was
this now to be proficient? The place to search for motivation, as per Beer said, was, yet again,
nature. Natural living beings have effectively survived and adapted, and Beer thought natural
life forms could be patterned for organizational systems. We should copy their key highlights
to the structure of viable systems. Specifically, Beer picked the human nervous system as his
model. On the off chance that his unique thought was that the firm expected to contain an
artificial brain.
Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 303

In the Brain of the Firm (1972, 1981), consequently, a neurocybernetic model of the human body
and nervous system is made. A comparative model, Beer illustrates, can be utilized to see how firms
must work so they are to be viable. From this relation of brain and administration structures, Beer
can develop a logical model of the organization of any viable system (Flood and Jackson 1991).
The soul of the VSM is communicated in the adjacency of two figures (Fig. 3) from Brain
of the organization, one a schematic of the human body, the other of the organization. Briefly,
Beer contended that it is needed to recognize, at least, five systems of control in any viable
system.
There are also books on VSM that are useful for studying. These books are surveyed in the
Appendix.

Critical Comments on VSM

The Viable System Model embodies a theory about the preconditions of organizational viability.
This theory has been discussed extensively by the academics and professionals of organizational
cybernetics. VSM methodology bears a number of advantages as listed below (Leonard 2009):

& It offers a conceptual system for organizational structure development,

& It is a comprehensive methodology in various sectors including public, private, and
political sectors,
& It has not been rejected to date,
& It is finding increasing application,
& It is based on a strong theoretical and mathematical system,
& It has a holistic view of the system,
& It is a straightforward methodology with clear complexity reduction steps. Therefore, it
reduces the external and internal complexities based on the Ashby law of requisite variety
for reaching a balance in system complexity.

However, VSM has many advantages it includes some weaknesses that described more in BNeed
to the combination of VSM, SD, and other systemic methodologies^ part. However, some
researchers believe that the danger of surpassing the VSM’s ‘jurisdiction’ is very genuine. It is
inferred that in light of the fact that the VSM is functional, it must be utilized for the conclusion of
existing or proposed hierarchical structures. It cannot add to the outline of basic hierarchical
structures. This is an immediate feedback of those cases where the VSM was utilized amid post-
diagnostic change stages. Post-diagnostic utilization cannot be guided utilizing just the VSM, yet
should depend some other methodologies to work properly. Scientists should know about the
utilitarian idea of the VSM and its related restrictions. This will keep the misattribution of the
achievement or disappointment of progress endeavors to the VSM, where in actuality different
sources have verifiably controlled the procedure (Haslett and Oka 2000; Schwaninger 2004).
The theoretical claim of the Viable System Model is bold. It asserts to specify the necessary
and sufficient preconditions for the viability of any organization. The empirical evidence, to
date, amounts to a substantial corpus of case studies from applications that support the claim of
the theory. Schwaninger and Scheef (2016) test the theory empirically, on the grounds of a
broad survey and pertinent quantitative analysis. The available data support the hypotheses and
therewith corroborate the theory of the VSM. This implies that the VSM is a reliable
orientation device for the diagnosis and design of organizations to strengthen their vitality,
resilience, and development potential (Schwaninger and Scheef 2016).
304 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

Mapping the Evolution of VSM

Based on evolution steps described in this section, as it is shown in Fig. 2, after each scientific
event some methods added to management cybernetics. Each method adds a concept (feature) to
this field. Briefly, today management cybernetics is a systemic methodology with these features:

& Learning System

& Ashbean Homeostat
& Fractal System
& Self-Organizing
& Autopoiesis
& Cyborg Brain
& Evolving Survival System
& Homomorphic Mappings
& Second-Order Control
& Autogenesis
& Complementariness (Holistic)

Viable System Model Researches Directions

Needs to Combination of VSM, SD and Other Systemic Methodologies

The trend in VSM literature shows a clear demand for a multi-methodology approach that
combines VSM and SD as depicted in Table 2. Several researchers over a number of years
emphasize the need for combining VSM and SD. Haslett and Oka (2000), Schwaninger (2004)
and Schwaninger and Perez Rios (2008) emphasize on the necessity of combining VSM and

Year Event Method Added Concept (Feature) Added

Ashby's Law Of
Learning System
Cybernetics And Management Requisite Variety
1959
Open-Finished Reflexes Homeostat

Adaptiveness Ashbean Homeostat

1962 Cybernetic Factory Recursive Modeling Fractal System

Time Trend

Time Trend

The T-,U-, and V-

Self-Organizing
Machines
Decision And Control In Cybernetics Decision
1966 Autopoiesis
Cybernetics And Control
Human Managers Cyborg Brain
1972 Brain Of The Firm
Evolving Survival
Human Nervous System
System
1974 Heart Of Enterprise VSM Illustration Homomorphic Mappings
Second Order Cybernetics In Unfolding Of
1979 Second-Order Control
VSM Complexity
2004 VSM And Agency Theory Agency Theory Concepts Autogenesis
Combination of VSM, and Complementariness
2004 VSM Multimethodolgies
Other Methodologies (Holism)

Fig. 2 VSM Evolution Map

Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 305

SD. However, not a detailed framework, nor a simulation model of this combination has ever
been made.
Combination of VSM and SD can minimize defects and handle complexity in organiza-
tions. Moreover, Mingers suggests principles of multi-methodological approaches (Mingers
2000, 1980, 1997a, 1997b, 2006, 2010; Mingers and Brocklesby 1997; Mingers 2001; Munro
and Mingers 2002). Also Jackson suggests that multi-methodological approach can be devel-
oped only if the two candidate methodologies are in the same paradigm and have different
metaphors (Jackson 2007).
Here, SD is in the so-called Functionalist paradigm (Mignot 2000; Mingers 1997a; Morgan
1980). SD uses stock and rate variables as the main concepts of its model building process so it
has the Flux and Flow metaphors (Mignot 2000; Morgan 1980). VSM is also in the so-called
Functionalist paradigm (Espejo 2013; Mignot 2000; Mingers 1997a; Morgan 1980). VSM is
based on the human nervous system (including brain) and models system similar to nervous
system organs. Therefore, it has the Brain and Organism metaphors (Mignot 2000; Morgan
1980). Therefore, in principle, the combination of SD and VSM can be useful for improving
the organizational framework (Jackson 2007).
From a practical viewpoint, SD does not cater for organizational architecture. On the other
hand, VSM provides a suitable framework for diagnosis and design of modern system
architecture. Then, SD can provide the dynamic view VSM required (Espejo and Harnden
1990; Hoverstadt 2010; Preece et al. 2015; Haslett 2000). Therefore, the combination of these
two methodologies will be useful from both theoretical and practical perspectives.

Recent Publication Analysis

Totally, above 4000 articles and books published about the VSM. Therefore, we will narrow
the search in these publications for the following analysis.
In addition to the pioneer researches in this area, books and articles on this model had been
published especially during the last decade.
Initial articles and books written in this field generally seek to explain what this framework
is. As Beer explained in 1984, he had written the BHeart of the Enterprise^ and drew graphical
explanation of the VSM model because readers did not readily understand the previous book,
the BBrain of the Firm^ that described VSM in mathematical form. Therefore, the 1970s to the
1980s Beer introduced the VSM. After that, people like Von Foerster or Espejo began to
develop the model. So that the methods of applying the model as well as the diagnosis of
organization structure were introduced by individuals such as Espejo, from the 1980s to the
first decade of the twenty-first century. Then, in the middle of the first decade of the twenty-
first century, deploying, application and using the original and developed models based on
VSM have expanded.
Hence, the articles in this field can be classified under one of the following three categories:

1. Introduction and description of VSM

2. Development and analysis of VSM
3. Application of VSM

In this research the first 1000 publication based on GS rank (Google Scholar Rank) has been
analyzed. As mentioned, the number of citations is a key factor in the ranking of the results
306 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

and, therefore, that Google Scholar is able to identify highly-cited papers effectively (Martin-
Martin et al. 2017).
Table 3 reviews 1000 mostly related publications and briefly discusses the classification of
primary researches in this field. Table 3 time begins from 1970s to the present time.
Also, for the precision of segmentation of articles between time intervals, the following
formula is used. The reason is supposedly, for example if a large number of articles were
published in 1979, by simple categorizing these articles will not be related to the 1980s, and
they were completely assigned to the 1970s. Therefore, we need a more precise formula for
categorization. It is therefore fairer to calculate the distance of the publication year from the
middle of every decade rather than simply allocating it to a decade. In other words, instead of
zero and one assigning to the decades, relative membership rates to each decade are calculated.
This will has a much higher accuracy.
1
Publication Category Score ¼ ð1Þ
jPublication Year−decade middle timej þ 1

The denominator plus 1 is used to avoid the division by zero error. This formula means that
how much an article is published more close to the middle of a decade; it will have the greatest
relationship with this decade. The result of analyzing first 1000 publication (GS rank) based on
above formula are as Table 3.
In addition, because the paper wrote in late 2017, 2010s numbers multiplied by 10/7 so the
comparison became rational. Three years publications from 2010s (2018, 2019, 2020) are not
coming yet so these multiplier is needed to adjust 2010s results. This adjustment cause a fair
comparison between decades. Figure 3 shows analysis results after adjustment.
As shown in the Fig. 3, related articles grew rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s, and in the
following decades, they are growing at a slower pace.
It is also apparent in Fig. 4 that the articles related to the introduction of this method grew
during the 1980s and 1990s and became stable in the first decade of 2000, and have matured
and declined in the 2010s. 1970s, 1980s and 1990s are the introduction decade of this field
(See Figs. 4, 5 and 6).
The development of this method has also received special attention during the 1980s and
1990s and has matured in next decades. 2000s is the development decade of this field (See
Fig. 7).
The applied topics of this field of science during the 1980s and 1990s had high growth, and
in the following decades, the growth of its application is continued. 2010s is the application
decade of this field (See Fig. 8).
In short, the decades of introduction and development of this field of science has almost
reached its end and this method became mature. The current decade is the decade of
application of this method).
Next, we will look at the journals in which articles related to this field are published.

Table 3 Reviews of 1000 mostly related publications

1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s

Introduction 13.54 28.87 60.77 61.97 41.58

Development 12.89 21.44 43.94 95.92 93.59
Application 15.08 26.63 46.34 98.89 138.67
Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 307

1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s

Introcucon Development
Applicaon Total

Fig. 3 1,000 mostly related publications trends

As you can see, the sum of three parts is more than total because some of the resources are
in more than one part. In other words, 20% of the articles are published in 8 specific journals
and 80% of the articles are in other journals (See Fig. 9).
Next, we will look at the authors who published articles related to this field. The Table 4
shows that most articles have been published respectively by the following authors:
Most papers on the introduction of this model have been published by Espejo and Beer.
Espejo, Schwaninger and Yolles have published most articles on the development of this
model. Also, most articles on the application of this model have also been published by
Espinosa, Rosenkranz and Espejo.
Totally, we can say in addition to Beer, Espejo has played a significant role in the
propagation of this model.
After the introduction of this model in the early 1970s by Beer, He attempted to describe
and promote this model from 1970s to 2000s until he passed out in 2002.
Since the 1980s, Espejo after collaborating with Beer in the Cybersyn project, began
publishing articles explaining and promoting the model until the 1990s. After the introduction
decade of the model, Espejo began to develop and use this model in the coming decades.

1970s

Introcucon
Development
Applicaon

Fig. 4 1970s related publications trends

308 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

1980s

Introcucon
Development
Applicaon

Fig. 5 1980s related publications trends

Schwaninger and Yolles are more recent researchers of this model and started their work
seriously since the 1990s. During the 2000s and 2010s, they focused on the development and
application of this model. The expansion of Schwaninger and Yolles’s researches had made the
two researchers, along with Espejo, known as contemporary researchers of the model.
Here is an overview of the application of the VSM to determine which areas of the
application of the model are more appealing. As shown in Fig. 10, VSM is used for
problem-solving in the areas of IT, Policy Making (PP), Production, Social Issues, Organiza-
tional Architecture (EA), Knowledge Management (KM), Software Development, Business
Process (BP), Project Management (PM), Safety, Services, SMEs, Disaster Management
(DM), Risk Management (RM), Supply Chain Management (SCM) etc.
Of course, if we consider KM, EA, and software in IT classification, 18% of VSM
applications will be in IT and related issues. Therefore, it could be said that this model is a
great attraction for researchers and practitioners in the IT field. This point is due to the fact that
this model is basically based on the variety (information type concept).

1990s

Introcucon
Development
Applicaon

Fig. 6 1990s related publications trends

Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 309

2000s

Introcucon
Development
Applicaon

Fig. 7 2000s related publications trends

After IT field, the model has the most applications in areas of policy, production, and social
issues. As shown in Fig. 10, SMEs have less use of this model because VSM implementations
need to have enough components to form and create its five main subsystems. On the other
hand, the main reason for using this model is the complexity within the system, which is
generally due to the high number of system components or relationships. Therefore, the
operators of this model generally do not have companies with small numbers of personals
or organizational units.

Summarization of Researches Directions

1970s until 1980s was the decades of introduction of this model and this method became
mature. 1990s was the main development decade and 2000s and 2010s was the decade of
application of this method.

2010s

Introcucon
Development
Applicaon

Fig. 8 2010s related publications trends

310 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

Kybernetes
Systemic Pracce and Acon Research
Systems Research and Behavioral Science
Journal of the operaonal research society
IEEE
European Journal of Operaonal Research
Cybernecs and Systems
Dyna
Service Science
ECIS (European Conference on Informaon Systems)

8%
4%
3%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
0%
0%

80%

Fig. 9 Most publisher journals in this field

Kybernetes, Systemic Practice and Action Research, Systems Research and Behavioral
Science, Journal of the operational research society, IEEE, European Journal of Operational
Research, Cybernetics and Systems and Service Science was the main journals that publish
papers about VSM.

Table 4 Topics of most publisher authors in this field

Authors Count Introduction Development Application

Espejo 50 33 22 7
Schwaninger 33 12 17 6
Yolles 27 7 17 6
Beer 24 19 6 2
Leonard 18 8 12 4
A Espinosa 18 8 7 9
Rosenkranz 12 1 5 8
Ríos 12 1 7 4
Harnden 12 9 5 3
Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 311

IT, 9
Public Policy, 8

Production, 7

Etc, 49
Social, 5

EA, 3

KM, 3
Software, 3
BP, 2
SCM, PM, 2
1 RM, 1 Safety, 2
DM, 1 SME, 2 Services, 2

Fig. 10 Application areas of VSM (This research finding)

In addition to Beer who is the classic author of this field, Espejo, Schwaninger and Yolles
are renowned as recent researchers of this field. This analysis has been done based on first
1000 VSM publication in Google scholar (GS) ranking. As mentioned, GS rank is mainly
based on citations (Martin-Martin et al. 2017). So, this analysis is based on most cited and
well-known publication in the field.

Conclusion

This paper reviews the underpinning principles and scientific trends of cybernetics and viable
system model (VSM). Therefore, it could guide authors and managers active in management
cybernetics and inform them about the past, current, and future trends in this discipline.
Therefore, it guides authors and manager to most appropriate research directions in the field
by analyzing current research gaps and trends. The ascent of Cybernetics idea happened at the
Macey conferences, trailed by Wiener’s presentation of Cybernetics field. At that point, Ashby
proceeded and finished Wieners work. Von Foerster offered second-order guidelines and Mc
Colloch exhibited mind perception through fusing the mental tenets into the Von Foerster
model of Cybernetics. Then, Beer presented management cybernetics in 1959. This activity
turned into making a cerebrum for organizational systems.
The hypothetical claims of the Viable System Model is intense. It affirms to indicate the
vital and adequate preconditions for the viability of any system. The exact proof, to date, adds
up to a significant corpus of contextual analyses from applications that help the claims.
Researchers test the hypothesis experimentally, on the grounds of an expansive review and
appropriate quantitative investigation. The accessible information confirm the theories and
therewith prove the hypothesis of the VSM. This infers the VSM is a solid introduction
methodology for the diagnosis and design of organizations to reinforce their imperativeness,
strength, and improvement potential.
However, VSM has numerous points of interest it incorporates a few shortcomings
that depicted more in BNeeds to combination of VSM, SD and other systemic
312 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

methodologies^ part. Notwithstanding, a few analysts trust that the threat of

outperforming the VSM’s ‘jurisdiction’ is extremely authentic. It is construed that in
light of the way that the VSM is utilitarian, it must be used for the finish of existing or
proposed hierarchical structures. It can’t add to the diagram of essential hierarchical
structures. This is a quick criticism of those situations where the VSM was used in the
midst of post- diagnostic change stages. Post- diagnostic use can’t be guided using only
the VSM, yet ought to depend some different strategies to work legitimately. Researchers
should think about the utilitarian thought of the VSM and its related confinements. This
will keep the misattribution of the accomplishment or disillusionment of advancement
attempts to the VSM, where in reality extraordinary sources have obviously controlled
the strategy.
Examination of 1000 most cited articles appears:

& Beer is the introducer and highly respected scientist of this field.
& 2010s is the application many years of this model.
& Development of this model has been engaged in 2000s
& The presentation and analysis ventures in the field have achieved a relative development in
1990s.
& Espejo, Schwaninger and Yolles are most active researchers of the field.
& Application is the current pattern of the field.

By this investigation, scientists could discover which point, analyst and diary are more
identified with their exploration.

Appendix

Table 5 Influential books on VSM (The findings of this research)

Title Authors Year Introduction Development Application

1 The Viable System Model: R Espejo, R 1989 * * *

Interpretations and Applications of Harnden
Stafford Beer’s VSM
2 Design and Diagnosis for Sustainable J. P. Rios 2008 * *
Organizations: The Viable System
Method
3 Intelligent Organizations: Powerful M 2008 * *
Models for Systemic Management Schwaninger
4 Organizational Systems: Managing R Espejo, A 2011 * *
Complexity with the Viable System Reyes
Model
6 The Fractal Organization: Creating P Hoverstadt 2011 * *
sustainable organizations with the
Viable System Model
7 A Complexity Approach to A Espinosa, J 2017 * *
Sustainability: Theory and Walker
Application
Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314 313

Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

References

Ashby WR (1952a) Can a mechanical chess-player outplay its designer? Br J Philos Sci 3(9):44–57. https://doi.
org/10.1093/bjps/III.9.44
Ashby WR (1952b) Design for a Brain. Chapman & Hall.. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830260302/abstract
Ashby WR (1956) An introduction to cybernetics. New York, J. Wiley (Vol. 16). https://doi.org/10.2307
/3006723
Ashby WR (1958) Requisite variety and its implications for the control of complex systems. Cybernetica 1(2):
83–99
Ashby WR (1999) Design for a Brain an introduction to. Director 80(4):295. https://doi.org/10.2307/3006723
Beer S (1959) What has cybernetics to do with operational research? J Oper Res Soc 10(1):1–21. https://doi.
org/10.1057/jors.1959.1
Beer S (1970) Brain of the firm: a development in management cybernetics. McGraw-Hill
Beer S (1972) Brain of the firm: a development in management cybernetics. McGraw-Hill. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com/books/about/Brain_of_the_firm.html?id=T_A9AAAAIAAJ&pgis=1
Beer S (1975) Platform for Change. Wiley
Beer S (1979) The heart of Enterprise. J Oper Res Soc Wiley. https://doi.org/10.2307/2581902
Beer S (1981) The Viable System Model: Its Provenance. Development, Methodology, and Pathology
Beer S (1984) The viable system model: its provenance, development, methodology and pathology. J Oper Res
Soc 35(1):7–25. https://doi.org/10.1057/jors.1984.2
Beer S (1994a) Beyond dispute: the invention of team Syntegrity. Wiley. Retrieved from http://books.google.
com/books?id=VwVPAAAAMAAJ
Beer S (1994b) Cybernetics of National Development evolved from work in Chile. In Zaheer Science
Foundation. Retrieved from http://vidyardhi.org/Resources/books/beer.pdf. Accessed 25 Oct 2017
Brecher C, Müller S, Breitbach T, Lohse W (2013) Viable system model for manufacturing execution systems.
Procedia CIRP 7:461–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2013.06.016
Conant RC, Ross Ashby W (1970) Every good regulator of a system must be a model of that system†. Int J Syst
Sci 1(2):89–97
Dominici G, Palumbo F (2013) Decoding the Japanese lean production system according to a viable systems
perspective. Syst Pract Action Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-012-9242-z
Espejo R (2013) Organisational Cybernetics as a Systemic Paradigm : Lessons from the Past -Progress for the
Future. Bus Syst Rev 2(2):1–9
Espejo R, Harnden R (1990) The viable system model: interpretations of Stafford Beer’s VSM. Wiley (Vol. 44).
https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-2217(90)90368-L
Espinosa A, Harnden R, Walker J (2008) A complexity approach to sustainability – Stafford Beer revisited. Eur J
Oper Res 187(2):636–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2007.03.023
Espinosa A, Reficco E, Martínez A, Guzmán D (2015) A methodology for supporting strategy implementation
based on the VSM: a case study in a Latin-American multi-national. Eur J Oper Res 240(1):202–212.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2014.06.014
Flood RL, Jackson MC (1991) Critical systems thinking. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/b102400.pdf
Haslett T (2000) Using VSM to integrate SD modelling into an organization context
Haslett T, Oka M (2000) Using VSM to integrate SD modelling into an organization context. Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.143.33
Hoverstadt P (2010) The viable system model. In Systems Approaches to Managing Change: A Practical Guide
(pp. 87–133). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84882-809-4_3
Jackson MC (2007) Systems Thinking: Creative Holism for Managers, vol. 6. Wiley
Leonard A (2009) The viable system model and its application to complex organizations. Syst Pract Action Res
22(4):223–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-009-9126-z
McCulloch W (1965) Embodiments of mind. Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press [©1965]. https://mitpress.mit.
edu/books/embodiments-mind-1
Mignot P (2000) Metaphor: a paradigm for practice-based research into’career’. British Journal of Guidance &
Counselling. https://doi.org/10.1080/713652314
Mingers J (1980) Towards an appropriate social theory for applied systems thinking: critical theory and soft
systems methodology. J Appl Syst Anal
Mingers J (1997a) Multi-paradigm multimethodology
Mingers J (1997b) Towards critical pluralism
Mingers J (2000) What is it to be critical? undergraduates. Manag Learn 2000
314 Systemic Practice and Action Research (2019) 32:297–314

Mingers J (2001) Combining IS Research Methods: Towards a Pluralist Methodology. Inf Syst Res 12(3):240–
259. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.12.3.240.9709
Mingers J (2006) Realising Systems Thinking: Knowledge and Action in Management Science: knowledge and
action in management science
Mingers J (2010) Multimethodology. Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science
Mingers J, Brocklesby J (1997) Multimethodology: Towards a framework for mixing methodologies. Omega
25(5):489–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-0483(97)00018-2
Morgan G (1980) Paradigms, metaphors, and puzzle solving in organization theory. Adm Sci Q, 1980
Munro I, Mingers J (2002) The use of multimethodology in practice—results of a survey of practitioners. J Oper
Res Soc
Preece G, Shaw D, Hayashi H (2013) Using the viable system model (VSM) to structure information processing
complexity in disaster response. Eur J Oper Res 224(1):209–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2012.06.032
Preece G, Shaw D, Hayashi H (2015) Application of the Viable System Model to analyze communications
structures: A case study of disaster response in Japan. Eur J Oper Res
Rahayu S, Zulhamdani M (2014) Understanding local innovation system as an intelligent organism using the
viable system model case study of palm oil industry in North Sumatra Province. Procedia Soc Behav Sci
115:68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.416
Reyes A (2001) Second-order auditing practices. Syst Pract Action Res 14(2):157–180
Schwaninger M (2004) Methodologies in conflict: achieving synergies between system dynamics and organiza-
tional cybernetics. Syst Res Behav Sci 21(4):411–431. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.649
Schwaninger M (2006a) The evolution of organizational cybernetics. Scientiae Mathematicae Japonicae
Schwaninger M (2006b) Intelligent Organizations. Intelligent Organizations: Powerful Models for Systemic
Management
Schwaninger M, Ríos JP (2008) System dynamics and cybernetics: a synergetic pair. Syst Dyn Rev 24(2):145–
174. https://doi.org/10.1002/sdr.400
Schwaninger M, Scheef C (2016) A Test of the Viable System Model: Theoretical Claim vs. Empirical Evidence.
Cybern Syst. https://doi.org/10.1080/01969722.2016.1209375
Vahidi A, Aliahmadi A (2018) Describing the necessity of multi-methodological approach for viable system
model: Case study of viable system model and system dynamics multi-methodology. Syst Pract Action Res.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-018-9452-0
Wiener N (1948) Cybernetics. Retrieved from http://ems.music.uiuc.edu/courses/tipei/I3/Notes/cybernetics.doc.
Accessed 25 Oct 2017