Ob Unit1 Mba
Ob Unit1 Mba
Ob Unit1 Mba
DEFINITION OF OB :
“Organisational behaviour is a subset of management activities concerned with
understanding, predicting and influencing individual behaviour in organisational setting.”—
Callahan, Fleenor and Kudson.
CONCEPT RELEVANCE OF OB
Elements of Organisational Behaviour
1. People: People make up the internal social system of the organisation. They consists of
individuals and groups. Groups may be formal or informal.
2. Structure: Structures define the formal relationship between people in an organisation.
3. Technology: Technology consist of physical objects, activities and process, knowledge, etc
through which people accomplish their tasks to achieve organisational objectives.
4. Environment: All organizations operate within an external environment. It is part of a larger
system that contains thousand of other elements.This includes the suppliers, customers,
competitors, governments’ agencies, employees, unions, political parties, and economic,
political, cultural, technological and social factors in which the organization embedded.
➢ Psychology
➢ Sociology
➢ Social Psychology
➢ Anthropology
➢ Political Sciences
➢ Economics
Psychology
Psychology has perhaps the first influence on the field of organizational behavior because it is
a science of behavior. A psychologist studies almost all aspects Of behavior.Psychology deals
with studying human behavior that seeks to explain and sometimes change the behavior of
humans and other animals.Psychologistsare primarily interested in predicting the behavior of
individuals to a great extent by observing the dynamicsof personal factors.Those who have
contributed and continued to add to the knowledge of OB are teaching theorists, personality
theorists, counseling psychologists, and primary, industrial, and organizational psychologists.
Some of the numerous areas of interest within the disciplines of psychology are:
◆ General Psychology
◆ Experimental Psychology
◆ Clinical Psychology
◆ Consumer Psychology
◆ Personality and Social Psychology
◆ Industrial Psychology
◆ Counseling Psychology
◆ Educational Psychology
◆ Consulting Psychology
Understanding Psychological principles and their models helps significantly in gaining the
knowledge of determinants of individual behavior, such as
Sociology
The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which individuals fill their
roles. The focus is on group dynamics.
They have made their greatest contribution to OB through their study of group behavior in
organizations, particularly formal and sophisticated organizations.
Sociological concepts, theories, models, and techniques help significantly to understand better
group dynamics, organizational culture, formal organization theory and structure, corporate
technology, bureaucracy,communications, power, conflict, and intergroup behavior.
P
e
o
p
l
e
o
r
a
c
t
o
r
s
A
c
t
s
o
r
B
e
h
a
v
i
o
r
E
n
d
s
o
r
G
o
a
l
s
Norms, rules, or regulations controlling
conduct or behaviorBeliefs held by people
as actors
Status and status relationships
Authority or power to influence other actors
Role expectations, role performances, and role relationships.
Therefore, sociologists view organizations as consisting of a variety of people with different
roles, statuses,and degrees of authority.
Social Psychology
It has been defined as the scientific investigation of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings,
and behavior areinfluenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.
It deals with how people are affected by other individuals who are physically present or who
are imagined to be present, or even whose presence is implied.In general, sociology focuses on
how groups, organizations, social categories, and societies are organized, function, and
change.The unit of analysis is the group as awhole rather than the individuals who compose
the group.Social Psychology deals with many of the same phenomena but seeks to explain
whole individual human interaction and human cognition influences culture and is influenced
by culture.The unit of analysis is the individual within the group.In reality, some forms of
sociology are closely related to social psychology.Social Psychologists study an enormous
range of topics, including conformity, persuasion, power, influence, obedience, prejudice,
discrimination, stereotyping,
sexism and racism, small groups, social categories, inter-group behavior, crowd behavior,
social conflict, social change, decision making, etc.
Among them, the most important topics relevant to the organizational behavior field are
behavioral change, attitude change, communication, group process, and group decision-
making.
Anthropology
The main aim of anthropology is to better understand the relationship between human beings
and the environment.Adaptations to surroundings constitute culture. The manner in which
people view their surroundings is a part of the culture.Culture includes those ideas shared by
groups of individuals and languages by which these ideas are communicated. In essence, culture
is a system of learned behavior.
Their work on culture and environment has helped us to understand differences in fundamental
values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and within different
organizations.Much of our current understanding of organizational culture, environments, and
differences between national cultures are the results of the work of anthropologists or those
using their methodologies.The world is the laboratory of anthropologists, and human beings
must be studied in their natural habitat. Understanding the importance of studying man in
natural settings over time enables one to grasp the range of anthropology.Familiarity with some
of the cultural differences of employees can lead to greater managerial objectivity and depth in
the interpretation of behavior and performance.Anthropologists contribute to studying some
aspects of organizational settings – similar values, comparative attitudes, and cross-cultural
analysis between or among employees.
Political Sciences
The contributions of political scientists are significant to understanding behavior in
organizations. Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups within a political
environment.They contribute to understanding the dynamics of power centers, structuring of
conflict and conflict resolution tactics, allocation of power, and how people manipulate power
for individual self-interest.In the business field, organizations want to attain supremacy in their
field and indulge in politicking activities to gain maximum advantages by following certain
tasks like Machiavellianism, coalition formation, malpractices, etc.
The knowledge of political science can be utilized in studying the behavior of employees and
executives at the micro and macro levels.
Economics
Economics contributes to organizational behavior to a great extent in designing the
organizational structure. Transaction cost economics influence the organization and its
structure.Transaction costs economics implies cost components to make an exchange on the
market.This transaction cost economics examines the extent to which the organization structure
and size of an organization vary in response to attempts to avoid market failures by minimizing
production and transaction costs within the constraints of human and environmental
factors.Costs of transactions include both costs of market transactions and internal
coordination.A transaction occurs when a good or service is transferred across a
‘technologically separable barrier’ Transaction costs arise for many reasons.
Challenges for organizational behavior are enormous and are at the same time rapidly changing
for improvingefficiency and meeting business goals. The nature of job changes, however some
problems never change.
Absence of direction is one of the most common organizational problems and it has two
prominent causes. They are as follows −
◆ First − Either leaders rarely discuss or chart an intentional direction or strategy for the
future, or they fail to communicate a reasonable message about the strategy to all members
of the organization.
◆ Second − There are always numerous activities to execute and the organization lacks the
coincide needed to gain the friction necessary to help the organization modify, adapt, and
shape its future-activities that would ensure the organization’s long-term sustainable
growth.
Difficulty in blending multiple personalities
Blending multiple personalities into a cohesive and unified team can be a massive challenge.
People’s personalities vary broadly, and the assortment of backgrounds, judgements, views,
and experiences can cause challenges for teams to come together and work peacefully.
Absence of perception
Constructing a reasonable organization takes hard work and an eager insight of the culture and
environment that exists in a business. Market conditions can change fast in a rapidity,
unpredictability, difficulty, and ambivalence world and demand huge positions of a leader’s
time. Therefore, a clear perception of market requirements and market forecast are essential.
Absence of these can result in huge loss in every sector.
Responding to globalism
Globalization of businesses is nothing new in the present time. Businesses are conducted
beyond one nation and this is performed mostly through the Internet. This globalization as
become possible only because of organizational behavior.
➢ Inherited characteristics
➢ Learned characteristics
➢ Inherited Characteristics
The features individuals acquire from their parents or from our forefathers are the inherited
characteristics. In other words, the gifted features an individual possesses by birth is considered
as inherited characteristics.
Abilities
Abilities are the traits a person learns from the environment around as well as the traits a
person is gifted withby birth. These traits are broadly classified as −
➢ Intellectual abilities
➢ Physical abilities
➢ Self-awareness abilities
Gender
Research proves that men and women both stand equal in terms of job performance and mental
abilities; however, society still emphasizes differences between the two genders. Absenteeism
is one area in anorganization where differences are found as women are considered to be the
primary caregiver for children. Afactor that might influence work allocation and evaluation in
an organization is the manager’s perception and personal values.
Perception
Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli into meaningful
information. It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and
use it later to judge and give a verdicton a situation, person, group, etc.
➢ Taste − The ability to detect flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs
known as taste buds.
➢ Other senses − Other senses include balance, acceleration, pain, time, sensation felt in
throat and lungsetc.
➢ Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and groups of their
social world.
Attribution
Attribution is the course of observing behavior followed by determining its cause based
on individual’spersonality or situation.
.
BASIC OB MODELS
1. Inputs
Inputs refer to the various factors and resources that enter an organizational system and influence
its functioning. These inputs can be categorized into several types:
2. Processes
Processes are the mechanisms through which inputs are interpreted and transformed into
outcomes. These processes involve various cognitive and behavioral activities:
• Perception: This process involves how individuals interpret and understand sensory
information. Perception affects how individuals make sense of their environment,
recognize patterns, and respond to stimuli based on their experiences and expectations.
• Attribution: This refers to the process of explaining the causes of events and behaviors.
Attribution theory examines how individuals infer the reasons behind their own and others'
actions, which can influence judgments and interactions.
• Motivation: Motivation involves the factors that drive individuals to pursue goals and
engage in specific behaviors. It encompasses the needs, desires, and incentives that
influence how individuals approach their tasks and responsibilities.
• Decision-Making: This process involves evaluating options and making choices.
Decision-making theories explore how individuals and groups identify problems, generate
alternatives, assess risks, and select courses of action.
• Communication: Communication is the exchange of information between individuals and
groups. Effective communication involves the transmission of messages, feedback, and
the establishment of understanding within the organization.
• Leadership: Leadership encompasses the ways in which individuals guide, influence, and
manage others. Leadership processes include motivating team members, setting goals, and
directing efforts towards achieving organizational objectives.
3. Outcomes
Outcomes are the results of the processes and reflect the effectiveness of the inputs and processes.
These outcomes can be measured in various ways:
4. Feedback
Feedback is the mechanism through which outcomes are evaluated, and adjustments are made for
future processes. Feedback helps organizations refine their practices and improve performance:
Integration of Components
In the Basic OB Model, the components are interconnected in a dynamic and iterative cycle:
1. Job Performance
Definition: Measures the effectiveness and efficiency with which employees fulfill their job
responsibilities and achieve work objectives.
Description: Job performance encompasses various aspects such as the quality of work,
achievement of goals, and productivity. It is evaluated through metrics such as output, accuracy,
and the completion of tasks. Performance assessments can be based on objective criteria or
subjective evaluations.
2. Employee Satisfaction
Definition: Reflects employees’ overall contentment with their job roles, work environment,
and organizational conditions.
Description: Employee satisfaction gauges how employees feel about different facets of their
job, including their tasks, working conditions, and relationships with colleagues and supervisors.
It is a key indicator of morale and general well-being at work.
3. Organizational Commitment
Definition: Represents the extent to which employees are dedicated to the organization and its
goals.
4. Employee Turnover
Definition: Measures the rate at which employees leave the organization and are replaced.
Description: Employee turnover is tracked through metrics such as turnover rates, retention
rates, and the frequency of employee departures. It reflects the stability of the workforce and can
indicate issues related to job satisfaction or organizational effectiveness.
5. Absenteeism
Definition: The frequency and duration of employees' unplanned absences from work.
Description: Absenteeism is measured by tracking the number of missed workdays or the
absentee rate among employees. It can signal issues such as dissatisfaction, stress, or health
problems that need to be addressed.
6. Job Satisfaction
Definition: A measure of how happy or content employees are with their job roles and
responsibilities.
Description: Job satisfaction encompasses employees’ feelings about various aspects of their
jobs, including the nature of their work, the level of compensation, and the support they receive
from the organization.
7. Work Engagement
Definition: Represents the level of enthusiasm and dedication employees have towards their
work.
8. Employee Motivation
9. Team Cohesion
10. Innovation
Definition: Measures the frequency and impact of new ideas, processes, or products developed
within the organization.
Definition: Reflects how satisfied customers are with the organization’s products or services.
Definition: Measures the extent to which an organization achieves its goals and objectives.
Description: Learning and development are evaluated by tracking training outcomes, skill
acquisition, and professional growth. It reflects the effectiveness of development programs and
opportunities for career advancement.
14. Work-Life Balance
Definition: Reflects employees' ability to manage work responsibilities alongside personal life.
Description: Work-life balance is assessed through employees’ perceptions of how well they
can juggle their job demands with personal and family responsibilities. It indicates the support
for a healthy balance between work and life.
Definition: Measures voluntary behaviors that contribute to the organization’s success but are
not part of formal job requirements.
Definition: Measures the effectiveness of resolving disagreements and disputes within the
organization.
Definition: Reflects the intensity of stress experienced by employees in their work environment.
Description: Stress levels are measured through self-reported stress, perceived workload, and
coping mechanisms. It indicates the impact of job demands on employees’ well-being.
Definition: Assesses the effectiveness of a team in achieving collective objectives and tasks.
Description: Team performance is measured by evaluating the team’s ability to meet goals,
collaborate effectively, and produce results. It reflects the success of team dynamics and
processes.
Definition: Measures the overall atmosphere and environment within the organization.
In organizational behavior, independent variables are factors that influence or cause changes in
dependent variables. These variables include inputs, conditions, and processes that affect
employee behavior, performance, and organizational outcomes.
Individual Factors
Personality Traits
Stable characteristics that influence how individuals think, feel, and behave. Personality traits
such as extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability impact work attitudes, job
performance, and interactions with others.
Core principles and convictions that guide individual behavior and decision-making. Values and
beliefs shape employees' goals, motivations, and perceptions of their roles and the organization.
Skills and Abilities
Competencies and proficiencies employees possess for performing tasks and responsibilities.
Skills and abilities affect job performance, problem-solving capabilities, and effectiveness in
achieving work objectives.
Emotional Intelligence
The capacity to recognize, understand, and manage one’s own emotions and those of others.
Emotional intelligence influences interpersonal relationships, leadership effectiveness, and
conflict resolution.
Motivation
The internal drive that stimulates behavior towards achieving goals. Motivation impacts work
effort, goal-setting, and persistence in overcoming challenges.
Group Dynamics
Team Structure
The organization of roles, responsibilities, and relationships within a team. Team structure
affects communication patterns, collaboration, and the achievement of team objectives.
Group Norms
Shared expectations and rules that guide group behavior. Group norms influence team cohesion,
performance standards, and the consistency of behavior among team members.
Leadership Styles
The approaches leaders use to influence, motivate, and manage employees. Leadership styles
such as transformational or transactional impact team morale, performance, and motivation.
Communication Patterns
Team Cohesion
The degree of unity and mutual support among team members. Team cohesion influences
collaboration, group satisfaction, and overall team effectiveness.
Organizational Factors
Organizational Culture
The shared values, beliefs, and norms that define the organization’s environment. Organizational
culture affects employee behavior, satisfaction, and alignment with organizational goals.
Organizational Structure
Work Environment
The physical and psychological conditions in which employees work. The work environment
affects employee comfort, productivity, and overall job satisfaction.
Organizational Policies
Formal rules and guidelines governing employee behavior and organizational operations.
Organizational policies influence compliance, performance standards, and employee behavior.
The strategies and methods employed by leaders and managers to direct and support employees.
Leadership and management practices impact motivation, performance, and organizational
effectiveness.
External Factors
Market Conditions
The economic environment and competitive landscape affecting the organization. Market
conditions influence strategic decisions, organizational priorities, and resource allocation.
Technological Advances
Innovations and developments in technology that affect work processes and products.
Technological advances influence productivity, job roles, and competitive advantage.
Economic Conditions
The broader economic environment, including factors like inflation, unemployment, and
economic growth. Economic conditions affect organizational stability, budgeting, and strategic
planning.
Social Trends
Changes and developments in societal values, norms, and behaviors. Social trends impact
organizational practices, employee expectations, and market demands.
Work-related Factors
Job Design
The structuring of tasks, responsibilities, and duties for a particular role. Job design affects job
satisfaction, motivation, and performance.
The financial and non-financial rewards provided to employees. Compensation and benefits
influence job satisfaction, motivation, and employee retention.
Programs and opportunities for skill enhancement and career growth. Training and development
impact employee performance, career advancement, and job satisfaction.
The amount and complexity of tasks and responsibilities assigned to employees. Workload and
job demands affect stress levels, job satisfaction, and work-life balance.
Work-Life Balance Initiatives
Programs and policies aimed at helping employees manage work and personal life. Work-life
balance initiatives impact employee well-being, job satisfaction, and productivity.
Individual Factors
• Personality Traits
• Values and Beliefs
• Skills and Abilities
• Emotional Intelligence
• Motivation
Group Dynamics
• Team Structure
• Group Norms
• Leadership Styles
• Communication Patterns
• Team Cohesion
Organizational Factors
• Organizational Culture
• Organizational Structure
• Work Environment
• Organizational Policies
• Leadership and Management Practices
External Factors
• Market Conditions
• Legal and Regulatory Environment
• Technological Advances
• Economic Conditions
• Social Trends
Work-related Factors
• Job Design
• Compensation and Benefits
• Training and Development
• Workload and Job Demands
• Work-Life Balance Initiatives
Influence on
• Job Performance
• Employee Satisfaction
• Organizational Commitment
• Employee Turnover
• Absenteeism
• Innovation
• Team Performance
• Workplace Climate
• Learning and Development
• Conflict Resolution
• Employee Well-being
• Organizational Effectiveness
• Work Engagement
• Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB
LEARNING
Learning in organizational behavior (OB) refers to the process through which individuals
acquire knowledge, skills, and behaviors that enhance their job performance and contribute to
organizational success. This process is essential for personal growth, adapting to changes, and
improving overall effectiveness within the organization.
Learning involves the acquisition of new information, skills, or behaviors and the application of
these learnings to improve performance and achieve goals. It encompasses the changes in
knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors that result from experience, education, or training.
Types of Learning
1. Formal Learning
Structured learning that takes place in an organized setting, such as classrooms, workshops, or
online courses. It is typically planned and follows a curriculum or training program.
2. Informal Learning
Unstructured and spontaneous learning that occurs through everyday experiences, interactions,
and observations. It includes learning from colleagues, on-the-job experiences, and self-directed
exploration.
3. Experiential Learning
Learning through direct experience and reflection. It involves engaging in tasks, reflecting on
outcomes, and applying insights to future situations. This type of learning emphasizes hands-on
involvement.
4. Social Learning
Learning that occurs through observing and imitating the behavior of others. It involves learning
from mentors, role models, and peers through interactions and shared experiences.
5. Self-Directed Learning
A proactive approach where individuals take the initiative to identify their learning needs, set
goals, and seek resources to achieve those goals. It requires self-motivation and discipline.
Theories of Learning
1. Behaviorism
Definition: A theory that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through
interactions with the environment.
Key Aspects: Emphasizes reinforcement and punishment as primary mechanisms for learning.
Behaviors are shaped by stimuli and responses, with learning viewed as a change in observable
behavior.
2. Cognitivism
Definition: A theory that focuses on internal mental processes and how individuals perceive,
process, and store information.
Key Aspects: Emphasizes understanding how people think, remember, and solve problems.
Learning is seen as a process of acquiring knowledge and mental representations.
3. Constructivism
Definition: A theory that posits that learners build their own understanding and knowledge
through experiences and reflections.
Key Aspects: Emphasizes the role of personal experience and context in learning. Learners
actively construct their own knowledge rather than passively receiving information.
Definition: A theory that emphasizes learning through observation, imitation, and modeling.
Key Aspects: Learning occurs by observing others and mimicking their behaviors. It also
involves cognitive processes such as attention, retention, and motivation.
Definition: A theory that focuses on learning through experience and the reflection on those
experiences.
Definition: A theory focused on the specific needs and approaches to learning for adults.
Key Aspects: Highlights that adults are self-directed learners who bring prior experiences and
knowledge to the learning process. It emphasizes practical, problem-solving approaches to
learning.
Learning Processes
1. Attention
Key Aspects: Attention is crucial for effective learning as it determines which information is
processed and encoded into memory.
2. Encoding
Definition: The process of converting information into a format that can be stored in memory.
Key Aspects: Encoding involves organizing information into meaningful units, which facilitates
retention and retrieval.
3. Storage
Key Aspects: Information must be stored in long-term memory to be available for future use.
Effective storage involves rehearsal and meaningful associations.
4. Retrieval
Key Aspects: Retrieval relies on cues and retrieval strategies to bring stored information to
conscious awareness.
5. Reinforcement
6. Reflection
Key Aspects: Reflection involves reviewing past experiences to understand outcomes and
improve future performance.
Learning Outcomes
1. Knowledge Acquisition
Key Aspects: Learning leads to the development of factual knowledge and theoretical
understanding.
2. Skill Development
Key Aspects: Skills are practical abilities developed through practice and application.
3. Behavioral Change
Key Aspects: Learning results in changes in behavior patterns, such as improved work habits or
new approaches to problem-solving.
4. Attitude Adjustment
Definition: Shifting perspectives and beliefs about work, roles, or the organization.
Key Aspects: Learning can influence attitudes towards work, including job satisfaction and
commitment.
5. Performance Improvement
1. Motivation
Key Aspects: High motivation leads to greater effort and persistence in learning tasks.
2. Learning Environment
Key Aspects: A supportive environment with resources and encouragement enhances the
learning experience.
3. Feedback
Key Aspects: Constructive feedback helps learners understand their progress and areas for
improvement.
4. Prior Experience
Key Aspects: Prior experience influences how new information is integrated and applied.
5. Learning Styles
Key Aspects: Understanding learning styles helps tailor instructional approaches to meet
diverse needs.
Applications of Learning in Organizations
1. Training Programs
Key Aspects: Training programs address specific learning objectives and enhance employee
competencies.
2. Development Opportunities
Key Aspects: These initiatives involve identifying performance gaps and implementing learning
solutions.
Definition: Tools and practices for capturing, sharing, and utilizing organizational knowledge.
Key Aspects: Knowledge management systems support ongoing learning and knowledge
dissemination.
Key Aspects: A continuous learning culture encourages employees to seek new knowledge and
improve their skills.
SHAPING BEHAVIOUR
Shaping behavior refers to the process of influencing and guiding individuals' actions, reactions,
and attitudes within an organization. It involves strategies and techniques designed to promote
desirable behaviors and reduce undesirable ones, ultimately aiming to improve individual
performance and achieve organizational goals.
Definition: Shaping behavior is a systematic process used to guide individuals toward desired
behaviors through reinforcement, feedback, and modeling. It involves structuring the
environment and interactions to encourage positive actions and discourage negative ones.
Purpose: The primary goal is to align individual behaviors with organizational objectives,
enhance performance, and foster a positive work environment.
1. Reinforcement
Definition: The process of encouraging desired behaviors through rewards or positive outcomes.
Types of Reinforcement:
• Positive Reinforcement: Providing a reward for desired behavior to encourage its repetition.
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus when a desired behavior occurs.
• Avoidance Reinforcement: Preventing an undesirable situation by engaging in a specific
behavior.
• Extinction: Withholding reinforcement to decrease unwanted behavior.
Mechanisms:
2. Behavior Modeling
3. Setting Goals
Components:
Application: Goal setting directs behavior by providing targets for performance and motivation.
4. Feedback
Application: Effective feedback helps employees understand how their behavior affects
performance and where improvements are needed.
Definition: Providing educational programs and resources to enhance skills and knowledge.
Types of Training:
Application: Training and development focus on improving skills and knowledge necessary for
desired behaviors and job performance.
Definition: Offering guidance and support to help individuals develop skills and achieve goals.
Definition: Setting informal standards and expectations for behavior within a group or
organization.
Types of Norms:
Definition: Defining the specific actions and attitudes that align with organizational goals.
Process:
Application: Identifying desired behaviors sets the foundation for the shaping process and
clarifies what needs to be achieved.
2. Developing Strategies
Strategies:
Steps:
Application: Implementation and monitoring ensure that behavior-shaping efforts are effective
and adapted as needed.
4. Evaluating Outcomes
Definition: Assessing the success of behavior-shaping efforts and their impact on organizational
goals.
Metrics:
1. Performance Management
Approaches:
• Performance Reviews: Regular evaluations of individual achievements.
• Performance Improvement Plans: Structured efforts to address performance issues.
Application: Performance management uses shaping techniques to help employees meet and
exceed performance expectations.
2. Leadership Development
Approaches:
Application: Leadership development focuses on shaping future leaders' behaviors and skills for
effective management.
3. Organizational Change
Approaches:
4. Employee Engagement
Approaches:
Application: Employee engagement efforts aim to enhance motivation, satisfaction, and overall
job performance.
Definition: A behavioral theory developed by B.F. Skinner that explains how behaviors are
influenced by rewards and punishments.
Key Components:
Key Components:
Application: Social learning theory underpins techniques like behavior modeling and
mentorship.
3. Expectancy Theory
Definition: A theory by Victor Vroom that explains how individuals’ expectations about
outcomes influence their motivation and behavior.
Key Components:
Application: Expectancy theory guides goal setting and reinforcement strategies based on
anticipated rewards and outcomes.
1. Resistance to Change
Challenges:
Approach:
2. Inconsistent Application
Challenges:
Approach:
Challenges:
Approach:
Shaping behavior involves guiding individuals towards desired actions and attitudes using various
techniques. These methods are designed to reinforce positive behaviors and discourage negative
ones.
1. Reinforcement
Types of Reinforcement:
2. Behavior Modeling
3. Shaping
Steps in Shaping:
4. Goal Setting
Components:
5. Feedback
Types of Feedback:
Key Aspects:
Types of Training:
Types:
8. Establishing Norms
Definition: Setting informal standards and expectations for behavior within a group.
Types of Norms:
9. Contingency Management
Methods:
Schedules of Reinforcement
1. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Types:
Characteristics:
Application: Used to maintain behavior over time and in situations where outcomes are uncertain.
3. Fixed-Interval Schedule
Definition: Reinforcement is provided for the first response after a fixed period.
Types:
4. Variable-Interval Schedule
Definition: Reinforcement is given for the first response after varying time intervals.
Characteristics:
5. Continuous Reinforcement
Characteristics:
6. Partial Reinforcement
Definition: Reinforcement is given only some of the time, following specific patterns.
Types:
Application: Used for maintaining established behaviors and avoiding dependency on rewards.
7. Token Economy
Definition: A system where individuals earn tokens for desired behaviors that can be exchanged
for rewards.
Components:
Application: Used in programs where individuals can earn tokens for meeting performance goals.