J. Ind. Geophys.

Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83

Volume, mass of sediments and igneous crustal thickness below the Arabian
Basin, northwest Indian Ocean
Shravan Kumar1*, A.K. Chaubey2, Uma Shankar1, Akhil Mishra3 and Jensen Jacob4
1Department of Geophysics, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India.
2Department of Applied Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad-826004, India.
3CSIR- National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad-500007, India
4CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa-403004, India.

*Corresponding author: sk.bhu89@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Evolutionary history of the Arabian Basin has been complex. It has evolved due to complex processes of seafloor spreading and ridge propagation
along the paleo Carlsberg Ridge in the early Tertiary under the influence of Reunion hotspot. Although the crystalline crust of the basin is considered
similar to a normal oceanic crust, basement depth anomalies are reported in the basin. Above complexity necessitates estimation of sediment and
igneous crustal load below the seafloor of the basin in order to provide constraints for the evolution of the basin. In order to do so, ship-borne as well
as satellite altimetry derived bathymetry and free-air gravity anomaly data, have been analyzed in the light of available seismic information. The
purpose is to investigate spatial distribution of sediment thickness, igneous crustal thickness and depth to the Moho derived from 2D forward gravity
modeling as well as 3D gravity inversion. The study shows that northwestern region of the Arabian Basin is carpeted with thick Indus fan sediments
(~3.5 km), whereas northeastern flank of the Carlsberg Ridge is covered with a thin veneer of sediments (~500 m). Sediment gravity values are
calculated from the parabolic density function obtained from P-wave seismic velocities. The Moho depth in the basin ranges from 9 km near the
flanks of the Carlsberg Ridge to 13 km in northern part of the basin filled with thick sediments, whereas igneous crustal thickness varies between 3
km and 8 km. These results can be used as constraints to refine the tectonic evolution of the basin. These results may also be useful for investigating
thermal subsidence in the oceanic lithosphere as well as paleo-bathymetry of the basin.

Keywords: Arabian Sea Basin, Sediment thickness, Igneous crustal thickness, Gravity inversion, Gravity modeling, Moho depth.

INTRODUCTION Tertiary (McKenzie and Sclater, 1971; Whitmarsh, 1974;

Norton and Sclater, 1979; Naini and Talwani, 1983;
The Arabian Basin is a triangular basin bounded by various
Chaubey et al.,1993, 1995; Miles and Roest, 1993). More
morphological features (Figure 1). To the northwest, it is
recent research advancements in these basins have
bounded by the Owen fracture zone which offsets the
accentuated the theory of the evolution of the basins and
Carlsberg and Sheba ridges. In the northwards, it is bounded
explained that the evolution was primarily dominated by a
by the Murray Ridge which is considered as an extension of
complex pattern of spreading-ridge propagation between
the Owen fracture zone, although it shows a slightly
~63 and 42 Ma (Dyment, 1998; Chaubey et al., 1998,
different orientation. To the south-west, it is bounded by the
2002a; Royer et al., 2002). The systematic episodes of
active Carlsberg Ridge which acts as a barrier to the
propagation of spreading ridges have resulted in an
sediments flow and is segmented by a NE-SW oriented
asymmetric crustal accretion in conjugate basins.
fracture zones. To the northeast, the basin is bounded by the
Evolutionary episodes of these basins were also affected by
aseismic Laxmi and Laccadive ridges. Seabed topography
two major geodynamic events- movement of Indian plate
undulations have shown that the bathymetry in the basin
over Reunion hotspot and the Indo-Eurasian continental
varies from ~3.4 km in the north to ~4.4 km in the south.
collisions.
The basin is covered by huge amounts of sediments
deposited by the Indus River which shows continuous Indus Fan, which extends from continental shelf off
progradation of the Indus fan southward. Several studies Pakistan in the north to the active Carlsberg Ridge in the
(Naini and Talwani, 1983; Miles and Roest, 1993; Miles et south, is the second largest deep-sea fan and one of the
al., 1998; Chaubey et al., 1993, 1995, 1998, 2002a; Dyment, largest sediments bodies in modern ocean basins (Kolla and
1998; Royer et al., 2002) have identified well developed Coumes, 1987). The fan mainly comprises material which
sea-floor spreading type magnetic anomalies in the basin got deposited due to erosion from the western Himalaya,
and concluded that the basin is underlain by oceanic crust. Karakoram and Hindu Kush (Clift et al., 2002). Huge
amounts of sediments deposited by the Indus River shows
There are several studies about the evolutionary history of
continuous progradation of the Indus Fan southward. The
the basin. It is well established that Arabian and Eastern
sediments, in general, are thicker in the western part of the
Somali basins are conjugate basins, created by seafloor
Arabian Basin than that of eastern part.
spreading along the paleo Carlsberg Ridge in the early

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Figure 1. Tectonic map of the Arabian Basin and adjoining region, showing magnetic isochrons (coloured blocks), pseudo faults
(black colour lines), super psuedofaults (blue colour dotted and dashed line), fracture zones (dashed black lines) and structural
features (Chaubey et al., 2002a). Solid thick red colour line represents the computer-modelled Reunion hotspot track. CR: Carlsberg
Ridge; OFZ- Owen Fracture Zone; R: Raman Seamount; P: Panikkar Seamount; W: Wadia Guyot. The dark red and light green
colour mark the onshore outcrop of Deccan flood basalts and Laxmi Ridge gravity low, respectively. Bathymetric contours are in
meters. Solid red-colour stars are DSDP drill sites annotated with site numbers.

Thus, the complex breakup history together with the sedimentation history and occurrences of seamounts (Ewing
northward movement of Indian subcontinent and its passage et al., 1969; Naini and Kolla, 1982; Naini and Talwani,
over the Reunion hotspot, large-scale sedimentation 1983; Kolla and Coumes, 1987; Chaubey et al., 1993, 1995,
processes and collision of Indian plate with Eurasia, may all 1998, 2002a; Miles and Roest, 1993; Miles et al., 1998;
have significantly impacted the crustal structure of the Clift et al., 2001, 2002, 2019; Ferrier et al., 2015; Sreejith et
basin. al., 2016). Since knowledge of sediment thickness is critical
in understanding geological evolution and processes
Previous investigations in the region have mainly been
involved, the correct estimation of sediment thickness
focused on the nature of basin crust, its evolution,
becomes very important parameter. In Arabian Sea,

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sediment thickness maps presently available are given by the continental lithosphere of the central-western India,
Naini and Kolla (1982), and Kolla and Coumes (1987) followed by stretched continental lithosphere of the western
which is poorly resolved. Apart from this, a global sediment margin of India and finally with oceanic lithosphere during
thickness grid with 5 arc-minute resolution (Straume et al., the rapid northward drift of the Indian Plate.
2019) is also available at National Centers for
Three major phases for evolution of the Arabian and its
Environmental Information (NCEI). Since global sediment
conjugate Eastern Somali basins have been suggested by
thickness grids often result from the insufficient data
Chaubey et al. (2002a) which is based on magnetic anomaly
coverage at several places, it causes uncertainties in
identification. This shows that evolutionary period of both
sediment thickness due to insufficient seismic reflection and
the basins lasted between magnetic chrons 28n (~63 Ma)
refraction profiles. This data deficiency problem mostly
and 20n (~43 Ma) which involved different episodes of
occurs in the deeper part of the ocean. In this study, our
eastward and westward spreading ridge propagations. The
focus is to refine/update the distribution of sediment
first phase was characterized by westward propagation
thickness in the Arabian Basin by modeling several profiles
between chrons 28n (~63 Ma) and 27n (~61 Ma) near the
using gravity data along with available seismic refraction as
Laxmi Ridge (Figure 1). The second phase shows a general
well as seismic multi-channel and single-channel reflection
eastward propagation between chrons 26n (~57.7 Ma) and
data. As the evolution of the study region is complex in
25n (~56.2 Ma). In last and third phase, a systematic
nature, estimates of sediment load as well as igneous crustal
westward propagation was observed between chrons 24r
thickness can provide some constraints to refine its tectonic
(~55 Ma) and 20n (~43 Ma). The major consequence of
evolution.
ridge propagations was observed as asymmetric crustal
The present study is aimed to provide an updated isopach accretion in the conjugate basins between chrons 28n (~63
map, depth to the Moho and igneous crustal thickness with Ma) and 20n (~43 Ma) during different episodes. ~65% of
2’x2’ grid resolution for the region 60°E-70°E, 7°N-19°N the crust formed at the Carlsberg Ridge between chrons 26n
with estimates of volume and mass of sediments and (~57.7 Ma) and 25n (~56.2 Ma) was accreted in the Eastern
igneous crust lying beneath the seafloor of the Arabian Somali Basin (African Plate), whereas about 75% of the
Basin. crust formed between chrons 24r (~55 Ma) and 20n (~43
Ma) was accreted in the Arabian Basin (Indian Plate).
TECTONIC AND GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
Indian plate started moving after the breakup of Madagascar
The Western Continental Margin of India (WCMI) and
from India by Marion plume around 90 Ma with super
adjacent oceanic regions were evolved due to multi-stage
mobile phase between 80 and 53 Ma (Negi et al., 1986;
rifting and drifting during the geological past. The main
Agrawal et al., 1992). During this phase, the Deccan
stages are (i) rifting and subsequent drifting of Madagascar
volcanic eruptions occurred mainly in <1 My (Courtillot et
from India during the Late Cretaceous under the influence
al., 1986, Kumar and Chaubey, 2019, 2022) during
of Marian hotspot, which resulted the in the formation of
magnetic chron 29r (~65.6-64.8 Ma) by the Reunion plume
south-western continental margin of India, (ii) short span of
at the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary. This event
rifting between Seychelles-Laxmi Ridge and India at the
probably triggered the rapid northward motion of the Indian
end of Cretaceous, causing evolution of the Laxmi Basin,
plate (Cande and Stegman, 2011) which abruptly got
and (iii) rifting and subsequent drifting of Seychelles from
flagging after the start of India-Eurasia collision. Initial
India-Laxmi Ridge during the Early Tertiary, creating the
collision occurred at ~52 Ma (Early Eocene) when
conjugate Arabian and Eastern Somali basins along paleo-
continental India came into contact with Kohistan-Ladakh
Carlsberg Ridge (Norton and Sclater, 1979; Courtillot et al.,
Island Arc (KLA) system closing the Neo-Tethys along the
1988; White and McKenzie, 1989; Bhattacharya et al.,
Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone. Then, India including the KLA
1994; Storey, 1995; Chaubey et al., 1998, 2002a; Dyment,
collided with Eurasia mainland at ~44 Ma. This continent-
1998; Royer et al., 2002; Krishna et al., 2006; Yatheesh et
continent collision event (~44 Ma) is termed as 'soft
al., 2006; Collier et al., 2008; Minshull et al., 2008;
collision' (Gibbons et al., 2015). The soft collision resulted
Bhattacharya and Yatheesh, 2015). It is observed that the
in considerable slowing down of the spreading rates at the
last two phases of rift/drift scenario were contemporaneous
Carlsberg Ridge from chron 21n onward (Chaubey et al.,
with the volcanic eruption by the Reunion mantle plume,
1993). It also resulted reorganization of spreading geometry
which resulted in eruption of continental flood basalts on
in the Indian Ocean (Mckenzie and Sclater, 1971; Chaubey
central-western India and Seychelles at ~65 Ma (Fisk et al.,
et al., 1993; Royer et al., 2002). During chron 18n,
1989). The Reunion mantle plume interacted initially with

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spreading along the Carlsberg Ridge became indiscernible probably initiated with the Himalayan uplift combined with
due to continued collision (Chaubey et al., 1993). When the the Middle Oligocene-Early Miocene sea-level lowering.
entire oceanic crust north of Indian Plate subducted, i.e. According to the results of the DSDP Site 221 (Figure 2), it
complete closure of Tethys Sea, continental crust of Indian has been observed that illite-rich clayey sediments,
and Eurasian plates came into complete-contact at ~34 Ma. characteristic of Indus Fan sedimentation, started depositing
This complete continent-continent contact is known as 'hard in distal part of the Arabian Basin by the Middle-Late
collision' (Gibbons et al., 2015). Consequently, rapid rise of Oligocene (Weser, 1974). Channel and levee complexes are
the Himalayas continued and by the Late Miocene (~11.2- most pronounced after the early Miocene which is
5.3 Ma), it took a form of lofty mountain range. Indus River coincident with an increase in sedimentation rates (Clift et
came into existence after the Early Eocene. Subsequently al., 2001). Erosional record of Indus Fan is necessary to
the Indus River with its tributaries emanating from understand the links between the tectonic evolution of the
Himalaya started bringing large volume of eroded sediments region, and the regional climate, most notably the monsoon
by Early Oligocene time and started debouching it into the and the erosion of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the
Arabian Sea as Indus Fan. Indus Fan sedimentation Tibetan Plateau.

Figure 2. Map showing dataset of single channel seismic reflection and multi-channel reflection tracks used in this study. Single
channel seismic data tracks are shown with blue lines, whereas multi-channel seismic data tracks are shown with red lines. Black
circles denote the refraction stations, whereas dark-red stars denote DSDP drilled well sites. Numerals on the single channel
tracklines denote the fix numbers, whereas numerals on the multi-channel lines denote shot points. CR: Carlsberg Ridge; OFZ: Owen
Fracture Zone; LR: Laxmi Ridge. FAA contours are drawn in background for reference.

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GEOPHYSICAL DATA P-wave velocity and density

Bathymetry and Free-air gravity anomaly data We have utilized all available seismic refraction data in the
‘Bedrock’ version of ETOPO1, high resolution 1’x1’ global present study (Figure 2). The seismic velocity structure
relief model are used for bathymetry data and preparation of underlying the Arabian Basin was first given by Naini and
maps. This dataset are generated from global and regional Talwani (1983). The data indicate that the velocities, in
digital datasets (Amante and Eakins, 2009). The gravity general, vary from 1.7 km/s to 3.8 km/s in sedimentary
data are obtained from satellite altimetry-derived global layers above acoustic basement. The crust underlying the
marine gravity data (grav.img.29.1) of Sandwell et al. sediment is represented by velocities that range between 5-7
(2014) as shown in Figure 2. This dataset is derived by km/s. This velocity range results in two discontinuities. The
amalgamation of CryoSat-2 and Jason-1 satellite data with first has a velocity range of 5.5-6.0 km/s, whereas the
earlier existed gravity data from GEOSAT and ERS-1 second one ranges between 6.5-7.0 km/s. Moho velocity of
satellite altimetry, resulting two times more accurate than
7.9-8.3 km/s has been observed at several locations in the
the earlier gravity datasets of Sandwell and Smith (2009).
basin (Naini and Talwani, 1983).
This gravity data is mainly effective to understand the
regional tectonic processes and mapping thousands of Density of each layer is necessary to interpret the gravity
previously uncharted seamounts (Sandwell et al., 2014). In anomalies into crustal mass anomalies. For this purpose,
addition to these data, ship-borne bathymetry and free-air Brocher (2005) formula was used to calculate density values
gravity data were also utilized for the present study. The
in each layer from the observed average P-wave velocity
accuracy of satellite derived bathymetry and gravity data
data. In the study area, computed density for sediments is
has been tested by comparing with several ship-borne
taken as a uniform value of 2.2 g/cm3, whereas two layered
bathymetry and gravity profiles. It is found that both the
datasets match very well. Average Root Mean Square oceanic crust are considered to have the density values as
(RMS) errors between satellite altimetry derived bathymetry 2.62 g/cm3 and 2.88 g/cm3 for layer 2 and layer 3,
and ship-borne bathymetry, and between satellite altimetry respectively. A uniform density value of 3.33 g/cm3 has
derived gravity and ship-borne gravity data are ~53 m and been taken for the upper mantle (Table 1). These density
3.4 mGal, respectively. In view of this, ship track data along values in each layer have been used while performing the
SK12-07 have been extended with satellite bathymetry and forward gravity data modeling.
gravity data to fill the data gaps within the limit of the basin.

Table 1. Average P-wave velocity in different crustal layers. Brocher (2005) formula is used
for density conversion of each layer.

Crustal layers Avg. P-wave velocity Density

(km/s) (g/cm3)
Sediments 2.72 2.20

Basalt flow 4.46 2.46

Crustal Layer-1 5.43 2.60

Crustal Layer-2 6.30 2.78

Underplated Layer 7.20 3.03

Oceanic Layer-2 5.51 2.62

Oceanic Layer-3 6.67 2.88

Upper Mantle 8.10 3.33

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Seismic reflection data combination of 7 air guns spaced at varied intervals – with
7.98 litre total capacity. In addition, Single Channel Seismic
Published seismic sections from Chaubey et al. (2002b)
(SCS) data from NCEI, earlier known as National
along track SK12-07 (Figure 3) and Sreejith et al. (2016)
Geophysical Data Centre, have also been utilized in the
along track SK12-06 in the Arabian Basin have been used
present study. There are several surveyed tracks along
for imaging subsurface layers viz. seabed and igneous
which SCS data were collected from various cruises
basement as constraints in performing forward gravity data
onboard the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
modeling. Multi-Channel Seismic (MCS) data along tracks
research vessels such as R/V Vema (cruise V34 in 1977,
SK12-06 and SK12-07 collected onboard ORV Sagar
cruise V35 in 1978 and cruise V36 in 1980) and R/V Robert
Kanya during 1984-85 are used in the present study. The
D. Conrad (cruise RC09 in 1965 and cruise RC17 in 1974).
data were acquired using DFS-V (Digital Field System-V)
The tracks within the limit of the study area were compiled
seismic system with 24-channel seismic streamer at a ship
and utilized in the present study. Seismic section along
speed of 4-5 knots. A record length of 8 s and a sampling
RC1707-01 is shown in Figure 4 which has been used to
interval of 4 ms were chosen to achieve a 12-fold coverage.
prepare the sediment thickness map.
The seismic source consisted of a D-type air gun array –

Figure 3. Seismic section along track SK12-07. Interpreted basement is shown with solid black curve.

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J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83 Shravan Kumar et al.,

Figure 4. Seismic section along track RC1707-01.

METHODOLOGY assumed structure is matched with the observed anomaly.

This process is continued till the discrepancy becomes
Forward modeling of gravity anomaly data
minimum between observed and calculated anomalies.
As a first step, available MCS time sections and refraction Modelling of anomaly data was performed assuming Airy-
data were analysed for identification and understanding of type isostatic equilibrium.
main crustal layers and thickness of each layer. Once the
basic knowledge of the study area is gained, 2D forward 3D gravity inversion
gravity modeling was performed using GM-SYS module of In present study, gravity data was inverted after
Oasis Montaj Geosoft software which is based on the incorporating all the corrections by using a MATLAB code
algorithm developed by Talwani et al. (1959). Density developed by Gomez-Ortiz and Agarwal (2005). Inversion
values for gravity modeling (Table-1) were computed from scheme described by Oldenburg (1974) was used to
the average seismic P-wave velocities with the formula determine the depth to the undulating interface from the
given by Brocher (2005). Then trial and error method have Residual Mantle Bouguer Anomaly (RMBA) by means of
been used until calculated gravity anomaly due to an an iterative process which is as follows:

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Shravan Kumar et al., J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83

𝐹[∆𝑔(𝑥,𝑦)]𝑒 |𝑘|𝑧 |𝑘|𝑛−1 the gravity anomaly (Gomez-Ortiz et al., 2011). In this
𝐹[ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦)]= - -∑∞𝑛=2 𝐹[ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑛 ] ….. (1)
2𝜋𝐺𝜌 𝑛!
study, the filtering technique used in Parker-Oldenburg
where, F [ ] stands for 2D discrete Fourier transform, gravity inversion scheme is 69tilized. RMBA data was
filtered before downward continuation by a cosine taper in a
G is the universal gravitational constant, wavelength range 60-100 km. The intermediate wavelengths
ρ denotes the density of the interface, are partially passed.

Δg (x,y) is the gridded gravity anomaly, ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

h(x,y) is the depth to the interface, Sediment thickness gridded data
z is the mean reference depth of the horizontal interface, 2D forward gravity data modeling was performed along
several profiles considering the basin, seamounts and Laxmi
and |k| is for absolute value of the wave vector. It is not easy
Ridge (Figure 5). Several profiles were modeled for the
to decide the wavelengths to be filtered out and the range of
entire basin but here we have presented only four profiles
wavelengths which will be used in inversion process
namely,
because it depends on target depth and spectrum analysis of

Figure 5. Colour shaded map of free air gravity anomalies in Arabian Basin prepared from 1-minute high resolution satellite
altimetry derived data. Black filled circles in the offshore areas show locations of seismic refraction stations from Naini and Talwani
(1983). S1, S2, S3 are the three identified seamounts. CR: Carlsberg Ridge; OFZ: Owen fracture zone. All the lines show the
locations of regional traverses utilized for structural modeling in this study.

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J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83 Shravan Kumar et al.,

L2, L4, SK12-07 and L10 with some profiles crossing the and basement, wherever found necessary. SK12-07 seismic
Laxmi Ridge (Figures 6a-d) for understanding the crustal track line is extended to the Carlsberg Ridge flank and is
architecture beneath the basin. Forward modeling along modeled as a whole (Figure 6c). Likewise, in RC1707-01
these profiles has been carried out using the constraints seismic section annotated with fix numbers, sediment
available from published velocity model (Naini and thickness variation is clearly visible from Carlsberg Ridge
Talwani, 1983). Available MCS (SK12-06 and SK12-07) as flank to Laxmi Ridge boundary (Figure 4).
well as SCS sections were used as constraints for seabed

(Contd.)

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Figure 6. 2D gravity crustal models along profiles L2, L4, SK12-07 and L10 respectively (a-d). Location of profiles are
shown in Figure 5.

Both the bathymetry and gravity data along these selected g/ cm3 and 3.03 g/ cm3 (Table 1). In all crustal models, the
profiles are filtered using a Gaussian filter of width 20 km layer of density 2.46 g/ cm3 corresponds to basaltic flow
before resampling it to an interval of 1 minute. The (Kumar and Chaubey, 2019, 2022). Though this study is
crossover error analysis at different interfaces was also mainly focused in the Arabian Basin west of Laxmi-
performed for the intersecting lines and corrected Laccadive Ridge system, the Laxmi Ridge is also modelled
accordingly. For modeling in oceanic Arabian Basin, the (Figure 6a,b) for its crustal architecture. Since nature of the
density for sediments, oceanic layer-2 and oceanic layer-3 crust of the Laxmi Ridge is debated, it is here modelled with
has been taken as 2.2 g/cm3, 2.62 g/ cm3 and 2.88 g/ cm3, layers as sediments, basaltic flow layer, crustal layer-1,
respectively. For modeling over Laxmi Ridge, five crustal crustal layer-2 and an underplated layer (Pandey et al.,
layers have been considered and densities for these layers 1995; Mishra et al., 2018, 2020; Vasanthi, 2022).
have been taken as 2.2 g/ cm3, 2.46 g/ cm3, 2.60 g/ cm3, 2.78

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J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83 Shravan Kumar et al.,

For obtaining sediment thickness data, it is necessary to Carlsberg Ridge to more than 3 km in the Indus Basin
subtract the depth of seabed from the depth of basement. (Figure 7). This sediment thickness map is further used for
The data was further smoothened by calculating 10*10 km the calculation of gravity effect of sedimentary layers.
block medians to remove short wavelengths and spatial
Above generated map was compared to NCEI world’s
aliasing during gridding. To fill the data gaps between the
sediment thickness map (Divins, 2003; Whittaker et al.,
points, the dataset was gridded using continuous curvature
2013) shown in Figure 8a and a good correlation was found.
spline algorithms (Smith and Wessel, 1990). Tension factor
The difference in sediment thickness is shown in Figure 8b
of 0.2 was taken to suppress local maxima and minima.
which reveals ~800 m more thickness in Indus Fan region
Short range variations from the sediment thickness grid
and ~300 m more in south-east part of the study region as
were removed by non-convolution median filter with a
compared to NCEI estimated thickness. In regions along
cutoff wavelength of 100 km (Wobbe et al., 2014). The 2-
Owen fracture zone, thickness of sediments has been found
minute gridded sediment thickness map shows the variation
~200 m lesser.
of sediments from less than 1 km near the flanks of the

Figure 7. Colour shaded contour map of sediment thickness generated from gravity modelling with available seismic constraints.
Thickness is in kilometers.

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Figure 8. (a) Colour shaded contour map of sediment thickness for the same region obtained from NCEI world sediment thickness
data. Thickness is in kilometers, (b) Colour shaded contour map showing difference between the sediments thickness derived from
this study (Figure 7) and obtained from NCEI world sediment thickness data (Figure 8a).

Figure 9. (a) Crustal age map based on regional magnetic isochron map of Chaubey et al. (2002a), (b) Map showing the
mean sedimentation rate (m/My) within the basin.

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J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83 Shravan Kumar et al.,

Figure 10. (a) Map showing the decrease in density contrast with depth of burial defined by a quadratic density function in the
Arabian Basin obtained by sediment seismic velocities, (b) Gravity effect of sedimentary layer in the Arabian Basin considering the
sediment thickness and density contrast vs. depth relation from Figures. 7 and 10a, respectively.

Sedimentation rate gridded data (Figure 10a). The graph shows a decrease of density
contrast with respect to underlying basement and shows
For computation of age of the ocean crust, we considered
parabolic variation with depth (Bhaskara Rao, 1986; Radha
the normal oceanic lithosphere of the basin. Age grid data is
Krishna et al., 2010). For gravity computation due to the
necessary to compute sedimentation rate in the basin. For
entire sedimentary layer, entire sedimentary layer is divided
the present study magnetic isochron map by Chaubey et al.
into four sub-layers with stepwise density values. In the
(2002a) and geomagnetic reversal timescale by Cande and
present study, a quadratic density function method is
Kent (1995) have been used for age determination. The age
adopted for fitting the depth dependent density distribution
interval of igneous crust in the Arabian Basin varies from
in the basin which is as follows:
~63.1 Ma in the northern part to ~44.5 Ma in the southern
part (Figure 9a). In the present study, the computed Δρ(z)= a0+ a1z+a2z2 …… (2)
sedimentation rate is almost continuously decreasing from
where, z denotes the depth below seabed, a0 denotes the
north to south in the basin with an average rate as ~30
extrapolated density contrast at the surface and a 1 & a2 are
m/My. It is maximum (~50 m/My) in Indus Fan region
the constants of the quadratic function.
located south-west of the Laxmi Ridge, whereas north-east
flank of the Carlsberg Ridge shows least sedimentation rate Gravity effect of sediment
(~10 m/My) as shown in Figure 9b.
Whatever gravity values we observe at the surface, is the
Sediment gravity gridded data aggregate of all the underlying layers. Sediment load has its
own gravity contribution in the observed values. To
Density-depth relationship for sediments
compute the gravity effect of sediments, sedimentary layer
The density-depth relation for the Arabian Basin sediments was considered as a number of adjacent regular prismatic
is required for quantitative estimation of gravity effect of bodies that stretch down to the oceanic basement with the
the sedimentary layers. Since density of deeper layers dataset interpolated onto a 2’x2’ sediment thickness grid.
increases due to compaction in case of sedimentary basins, The dataset was extended beyond the study area to avoid the
we generated a map between density contrast and depth in edge effects in gravity calculation of the sedimentary layer.
the entire basin sediments with respect to oceanic basement Gravity anomaly of these prismatic bodies with known

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Shravan Kumar et al., J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83

density values across each sedimentary layers is defined by Sediment corrected basement and Mantle Bouguer
a quadratic density function. A function subprogram from Anomaly (MBA)
Bhaskara Rao and Ramesh Babu (1991) was used for
It is necessary to correct observed sea floor depths for the
computation of gravity anomaly at each grid and is shown
effect of sediment loading while examining the uplift and
in Figure 10b. The map shows variations in gravity value
subsidence of the oceanic lithosphere. Indus fan sediment
due to uneven deposits of sediments. It ranges from -10
has a significant role in subsidence of the crust in northern
mGal near the north-eastern flank of the Carlsberg Ridge
part of the study area. Therefore, the effect of sediment load
where sediment thickness is less than 1 km, to as low as -80
was removed after multiplying by a correction factor value
mGal in Indus fan region having maximum sediment
of 0.48 to sediment thickness map (Crough, 1983) to get the
thickness off India-Pakistan shelf region. The deep basinal
sediment corrected basement. Computation of gravity
parts of central Arabian Basin show gravity low of ~ -50
anomaly from bathymetry and density contrast is carried out
mGal.
using an algorithm developed by Parker (1972). Since free
Moho depth grid data air gravity map is mainly governed by gravity attraction of
density contrast at the seafloor, MBA map is generated
Gravity inversion technique has been used to map the depth
which reflects the deeper subsurface structure. For this
to the Moho in present study. For that, crustal gravity
purpose, gravity attractions for seafloor topography,
effects are to be subtracted above Moho interface. To get
sediments and crustal thickness were subtracted from free
that, the following necessary computations are required
air anomaly.
which are summarized as follows:

Figure 11. (a) Mantle Bouguer Anomaly (MBA) map of the basin, (b) Colour shaded contour map showing lithospheric thermal
gravity value within the study area.

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J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83 Shravan Kumar et al.,

After subtracting these effects, resultant map gives is computed as ~ -120 mGal near the north-eastern flank of
information about deeper crust as well as undulations in the Carlsberg Ridge and it continuously keeps on decreasing
Moho. MBA map of the study area is shown in Figure 11a but with still substantial values away from the ridge-flank
which shows that relatively smaller MBA values indicate
deeper regions, whereas more positive MBA values indicate (Figure 11b).
shallower regions.
3D inversion of Residual Mantle Bouguer anomaly data
Lithospheric thermal gravity correction
As oceanic lithosphere gets cooled by the passage of time
It is reported that oceanic lithosphere is associated with away from the ridge crest, it generates a thermal anomaly.
elevated geotherms. The lithosphere thermal gravity If we invert MBA to get the Moho topography with an
anomaly is an important factor in active seafloor spreading appropriate value of crust-mantle density contrast and mean
oceanic regions as it generates a large negative anomaly at Moho depth, we get relatively deeper Moho (Chappell and
the oceanic ridges (Greenhalgh and Kusznir, 2007). It is Kusznir, 2008). Therefore, thermal structure based on
clear that maximum lithospheric thermal gravity correction Mckenzie plate model (Mckenzie, 1978) was calculated for
is required near the ridge crest. Therefore, correction for 0 to 100 km with the use of oceanic age grid to compensate
lithospheric thermal gravity is necessary to be computed as the lithospheric cooling effects. Further, computed thermal
it compensates for large negative anomaly from oceanic gravity effect due to cooling of lithosphere was subtracted
lithosphere (Cowie and Kusznir, 2012). For this purpose, from MBA to give RMBA as shown in Figure 12a. This
following formula was used for thermal gravity anomaly map was further detrended with a linear fit as shown in
calculations. Crustal age data was used from Chaubey et al. Figure 12b. This figure shows RMBA values vary from -30
(2002a) and the thermal structure was calculated from 0 to to 60 mGal, indicative of nearly flat and regular Moho. It
100 km depth based on the plate cooling model of Mckenzie also reflects well in terms of Moho variations across the
(1978). Δgt is caused by the density contrast arising from basin. Positive values indicate regions of shallower Moho,
lateral variations in lithospheric temperatures and is whereas negative values show regions of relatively deeper
evaluated using Δρt = ραΔT. Moho.
(8𝐺𝛼𝜌𝑎𝑇𝑚) 1 β (2𝑚+1)𝜋
.Δgt = . ∑∞𝑚=0 (2𝑚+1)2 [(2𝑚+1)𝜋 sin ]. exp (- In this study, the Moho reference depth has been determined
𝜋 𝛽
(2𝑚+1)2𝑡
using available seismic refraction stations in the basin that
) …… (3) corresponds to the thickness of crust that has zero
𝜏
bathymetry (Mooney et al., 1998; Alvey et al., 2008). We
The parameters used in calculation of lithospheric thermal
calculated a series of the Moho depth models for the study
gravity correction are given in Table 2. For oceanic
area, corresponding to assumed crust-mantle density
lithosphere, lithosphere stretching factor, 𝛽 = ∞ and t
contrast in 0.05 g/cm3 steps, while fixing mantle density at
denotes the oceanic crustal age as defined by magnetic
3.3 g/cm3. RMBA values were downward continued to a
isochrons. For the present study, thermal gravity correction
constant depth before the calculations.

Table 2. Parameters used in calculation of lithospheric thermal gravity.

Parameter Definition Value

G Universal gravitational constant 6.67x 10-11 Nm2/Kg2
ρ Mantle density 3300 kg/m3
a Plate thickness 100 km
Tm Temperature at the bottom of the plate 1300 ˚C
α Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion 3.0 x 10-5 ˚C-1
 Lithosphere cooling thermal decay constant 65 Ma

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Shravan Kumar et al., J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83

Figure 12. (a) Residual Mantle Bouguer Anomaly (RMBA) map of the basin, (b) RMBA map of the study area after detrending it by
a linear fit.

Table 3. Sensitivity of inversion results to assumed density contrast at crust-mantle interface.

Assumed density contrast (g/cc) Best fitting slope* RMS (km)#

0.40 0.41 1.01
0.45 0.53 0.95
0.50 0.62 0.92
0.55 0.72 0.90
0.60 0.81 0.89
*Fit to the data using the relationship: seismic refraction Moho, Mseism = Mc + R × Mgrav, where Mc is the y-axis intercept,
R is the best fitting slope, and Mgrav is gravity-derived Moho.

#Root mean square for the difference between gravity-derived and seismically determined Moho.

We have tested downward continuation depths at 11, 11.5 Above analysis shows the variation in the Moho depth
and 12 km. In the present study, results from downward across the basin (Figure 13a). The depth to the Moho in
continuation depths of 12 km are presented. Since inversion entire basin varies from 9-13 km. The average Moho depth
results are greatly affected by the crustal-mantle density in northern part of the basin as well as in south-eastern part
contrast and the reference Moho depth, we took the best is ~12 km, whereas it is ~10.5 km near the flank of the
suited combination of crust-mantle density contrast and the Carlsberg Ridge. Deeper Moho over seamounts was
reference Moho depth for this study as 0.6 g/cm3 and 12 km observed with an average value of 13-14 km.
respectively after exercising several combinations (Table 3).

77
J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83 Shravan Kumar et al.,

Figure 13. (a) Map showing the Moho variations of the basin obtained from the inversion of RMBA data, (b) Igneous crustal
thickness map of the Arabian Basin.

Igneous crustal thickness grid data gravity values. Deeper Moho and thicker igneous crust are
observed below seamounts due to isostatic compensation. It
Igneous crustal thickness map is generated after subtracting
is clearly visible that the Moho depth and crustal thickness
the water and sedimentary layer from the Moho depth. The
under a seamount along profile L4 are deeper than the
data has been used to generate gridded database of igneous
surroundings (Figure 13a, b), so as in 2D forward gravity
crustal thickness, and finally igneous crustal thickness map
model along profile L4 at ~100 km distance (Figure 6b).
of the basin is generated (Figure 13b). RMBA map mimics
the igneous crustal thickness variations. In RMBA, crust Volume, mass of sediments and igneous crust
and mantle density variations both contribute to RMBA
Sedimentation is second most important mechanism which
together with mean Moho depth (Magde et al., 1995;
controls the volume of ocean basins after seafloor
Canales et al., 2002). Igneous crustal thickness variations
spreading. As it is evident that huge sediment deposition in
across the basin caused due to variation in observed RMBA
the Arabian Basin is mainly due to Indus derived sediments
signal are shown in Figure 13b. For the same RMBA, a
which is eroded from the Himalayan region, correct
larger density contrast at Moho produces a smaller lateral
estimate of volume will be beneficial/required to understand
change in crustal thickness and vice versa. In addition to
the tectonic evolution of the basin in greater detail. The
this, gravity inversion results depend on the age of oceanic
limits of sediment thickness map coincide with the north-
lithosphere which is included as the lithospheric thermal
eastern flank of the Carlsberg Ridge and western end of the
gravity correction. Igneous crustal thickness variations are
Laxmi and Laccadive ridges. Polygon-shaped sediment
in range of 3-8 km (Figure 13b). The average igneous crust
thickness map was converted to volume by interpolating the
in northern part of the basin is 5 km, whereas it is 6 km in
thickness values at the intersections of 2-minute grid for a
south-eastern part of the basin. It is ~4.5 km near the
total of 66117 points, superimposed over the sediment
Carlsberg Ridge. Thicker igneous crust over the seamounts
thickness map. The resulting volume is estimated as
is observed with an average value of 6.5 km.
1.48x106 km3. Further, a weightage density was calculated
The free air gravity anomaly map of the Arabian Basin also from velocity-density relationship for the sedimentary layer
reveals three seamounts that are associated with high and mass of the sediments was computed. The estimated

78
Shravan Kumar et al., J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83

mass of sediments is 3.2x 1018 kg. Likewise, estimated during the Oligocene-Miocene (~23 Ma) and the start of
volume and mass of igneous crust beneath the basin are turbidity system. This provides an important age marker
4.87x 106 km3 and 1.36x1019 kg, respectively. which corresponds to rapid erosion of the Himalayan rock
materials, responsible for commencement of Indus Fan
DISCUSSION
sedimentation. As the fan progrades, pelagic sediments are
Spatial distribution of sediment thickness and overlain by turbidites of the fan. It is shown by ‘R’ reflector
sedimentation rate (Chaubey et al., 2002b) which probably demarcates pre-
collision sediments dominated with aeolian sources, to post-
For the present study, total thickness of sediments is collision sediments dominated with fluvial and monsoonal
considered irrespective of their origin. It contains sources of sources.
fluvial, aeolian, biogenous, and authigenic origin all
together. However, fluvial detritus is one of the major Collision of Indo-Eurasian plates caused a significant uplift
sources of sediments in Arabian Sea. Indus River solely of the Himalayas by about early Oligocene (Molnar and
contributes ~440 million tons of sediment annually among Tapponnier, 1975) and this activity initiated the formation
several sediment contributors (Holeman, 1968). Clayey of the Indus River after millions of years. Upliftment of
minerals are deposited by several major drainage areas with Himalayan mountains occurred several times in geological
its erosional products. Clear identification of illite rich past which subsequently became the source of monsoonal
sediments at DSDP site 221 has been dated as Middle activity. Consequently, Indus River drainage system was
Oligocene which confirms that it got transported to down originated by Oligocene time as suggested by Weser (1974)
south from Himalayas to its present location. by studying sediments at the DSDP site 221 with
sedimentation rate 3-5 m/My. However, sedimentation rates
Although Indus River is the main source of sedimentation in at site 221 are fairly uniform which suggests that such distal
the basin, some continental rivers viz Narmada and Tapti sites are not good records of temporal variations. Thus, to
also play some role in sedimentation. The northwestern address the mass flux issues, a thick, proximal fan is
region of the basin is dominantly covered with the Indus fan required to analyze that can clearly give sedimentation rates
sediments with maximum thickness (~3.5 km) and clearly in different times. In the present study, sedimentation rate is
demonstrates in sediment thickness map, whereas in almost continuously decreasing from north to south with an
southern and south-eastern region, thickness of sediments is average rate as ~30 m/My with a maximum rate (~50
continuously getting thinner. On the north-eastern flank of m/My) in Indus Fan region located south-west of the Laxmi
the Carlsberg Ridge, thickness is observed as ~500 m. Since Ridge forming a depocenter, whereas north-east flank of the
Carlsberg Ridge is still active, sediment accumulation at the Carlsberg Ridge shows least sedimentation rate (~10
ridge axis is negligible but increases off the flanks due to m/My). Though Indus River is the main source of sediment
cooling of the lithosphere. Apart from this, source of the deposit in the basin, sea level changes in different
sediment in Indus Fan lies in western Himalayan belt which geological time intervals have also affected sedimentation
continuously feed sediment materials to the fan. rate. This possibly implies that climatic and sea level
Sedimentary fill shows continuous progradation of the Indus changes along with tectonic processes have played a major
Fan southward. In overall, sedimentation rate within the role in erosion and sediment transportation to basin.
basin also follows the same trend as the thickness of
sediments. It suggests that sedimentation in the basin almost Tectonic controls on sedimentation
follow a direct correlation between the thickness of
The evolutionary history of WCMI and its adjoining ocean
sediments and the crustal age. Rate of sediment
basins has been very complex. Later on, it became more
accumulation and the amount of sediment in depocentres
complex after Indian plate passed over the Reunion hotspot
can provide some insight into tectonics and geological
which changed the structural configuration of the region
history of the basin. In case of Bay of Bengal, sediment
thoroughly. Likewise, basin also has complex sedimentary
deposit is extremely high due to continuous denudation of
history since its creation. Passive continental margins
Himalayan rocks by several rivers. Curray (1994) proposed
always get more sediment in comparison to deep sea
the volume of Bengal Fan as 12.5 x 10 6 km3 mostly post
because of its proximity to coastal rivers. Apart from this,
collision sediments and sedimentary rocks. Contrary to this,
there are several other factors that influence sediment
volume of sediments in present study for the Arabian Basin
deposition in the basin. Climatic conditions over landmasses
is calculated as 1.48x106 km3. Several researchers have
adjoining the Arabian Sea also provide the type of material
discussed about a distinct increase in sediment discharge
and sediment volume transported into the sea. India’s

79
J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83 Shravan Kumar et al.,

eastern margin is having a humid climate that provides the variations will not abruptly change but will gradually vary
necessary rainfall for abundant river run-off. This river run- near the edges. The reason of these differences arises from a
off eventually empties into the sea. Even if a large portion number of effects. Like, the lateral density variations
of it drains into the Bay of Bengal, a significant amount of between crust and upper mantle during inversion process is
water body with loaded sediments still enters the Arabian not considered. This may account for much of the variation
Sea. If we analyze the type of sediments transported to the in the Moho. Several other reasons for the Moho differences
sea, India’s northern and western margins are specified by a are resolutional differences among bathymetry, gravity and
desert climate where sediment supply is strongly influenced sediment thickness data used in inversion process (Wang et
by aeolian processes but if it is observed on a year-round al., 2011; Dwivedi et al., 2019). After analyzing these
basis, a considerable quantity of aeolian detritus is supplied aspects, it is clear that inversion results do not accurately
to the Arabian Sea. predict local Moho but they provide important information
about variations at regional scale.
Another reason for varying sediment thickness in the basin
could be the basement depth anomaly. Western part of the Since deep seismic refraction surveys are expensive, gravity
Arabian Basin exhibits zone of positive depth anomalies, inversion technique proves a more practical approach for
which indicate excess subsidence of the oceanic crust that mapping the Moho topography over regional scale.
has resulted into deeper basement depth causing more Integration with available ship-borne gravity and seismic
sediment thickness in this region (Ajay and Chaubey, 2008). data within the region gives better picture of the study area.
On contrary to this, eastern part of the basin is dominated The present study proposes that average Moho depth in
with negative depth anomalies which indicate vertical northern and south-eastern part of the Arabian Basin is ~12
upwelling due to convection. This resulted the shallower km. In order to examine the Moho undulations in the basin,
basement in eastern part of the basin, causing less sediment we compared the Moho results estimated in present work
thickness in this part. Basement over the active Carlsberg with the available seismic refraction Moho. Depth to Moho
Ridge has been observed very rugged over the flank of the beneath the seamounts does not match well in results
ridge generating basement highs and lows and therefore less generated from inversion and forward 2D gravity data
sedimentation is clearly observed in RC1707-01 seismic modeling because seamount features have been modeled
section (Figure 4). considering the Airy Type isostatic compensation.
Therefore, the Moho undulations derived from gravity
Moho and igneous crustal thickness variations
inversion technique are smaller in amplitude than those of
To calibrate the inversion results with available seismic derived from isostatically compensated seismically
refraction data, we compared our results to Moho depth constrained 2D crustal modelling. However, crustal
observed at seven refraction stations in the study area. RMS thickness derived from inversion of RMBA mainly depends
error was calculated for every case between Moho derived on the density contrast at Moho as well as mean Moho
from inversion results and seismically derived refraction depth.
Moho. A best fitting slope between inversion Moho and
In northern part of the study area, sediment deposition has
seismically derived refraction Moho was computed for each
profoundly taken place with excess influx of sediments
case (Table 3). We observe that the result with average
from Indus River causing subsidence of the underlying
crustal density of 2.7 g/cm3 has both the smallest RMS as
crust. On contrary to this, thickness of sediments in eastern
well as best fitting slope that approaches to unity (Table 3).
part of study area near the Laccadive ridge is relatively less
Since available seismic refraction data are limited and
and the basement depth is shallower. It can be inferred that
scattered at long distances, it is not easy to get an ideal
depth anomalies across the Arabian Basin are responsible
correlation, which has best fitting slope 1, between
for the variations in basement but it doesn’t show any
inversion derived Moho and seismic refraction Moho.
significant effect over Moho undulations. If we analyze the
Gravity inversion results broadly agree with seismic
available MCS reflection time sections viz. SK12-06, SK12-
refraction data for the Moho variations. However, Moho
07 in eastern part of the study area, we observe the Moho
with inversion result and seismically constrained crustal
being deeper near the Laccadive Ridge in comparison to
layers rarely correlate closely. At refraction stations 70V
western part of the study area. As eastern part of the basin is
and 55V, difference in Moho is nearly 1 km. Since these
in proximity to aseismic ridges, tectonic processes such as
refraction stations fall near the Laxmi Ridge, it can be
rifting and drifting with the onset of Reunion hotspot has an
justified that the Moho values would be more than 11 km
impact to certain extent over this part. There may be several
because at any profiles shown in Figures 6a-d, Moho

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Shravan Kumar et al., J. Ind. Geophys. Union, 27(2) (2023), 62-83

interpretations for this but magmatic emplacement during ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

the northward movement of Indian plate may have caused
Leading author is thankful to Department of Geophysics,
subsidence in subsequent years after the major catastrophic
Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University for providing
volcanic event occurred ~65 Ma. It may have affected the
the basic research facilities. Authors are also grateful to
nearby region of the basin. Therefore, crustal thickness in
Prof. Sunil Kumar Singh, Director, CSIR-National Institute
south-eastern region of the study area are thicker as
of Oceanography for his encouragement, support and
compared to the northern part. It is interesting to note that
permission to publish this work. Authors are very thankful
sediment load due to Indus Fan sediment deposit does not
to reviewers for their constructive comments and
play a significant role in subsidence of the Moho in the
suggestions. Authors would also like to sincerely thank Dr.
northern part of the study area as this region is cold and
O.P. Pandey, Chief Editor, JIGU for his input and positive
underlain by high density materials. Overall, the Moho
suggestions, which have improved the quality of the
variations in the basin was found to be regular and flat
manuscript enormously. Figures were generated using GMT
except at the seamounts. The seismic refraction stations,
software of Wessel and Smith (1998).
too, don’t provide any evidence of magmatic underplating
material in the basin which can cause increased crustal Compliance with Ethical Standards
thickness in the region.
The authors declare no conflict of interest and adhere to
CONCLUSIONS copyright norms.

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Received on: 05.11.2022; Revised on: 23.01.2023; Accepted on: 26.01.2023

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