Unit 1: History of Psychology

Important Philosophers
● Socrates suggested we learn about our own behavior by carefully examining our own thoughts and feelings.
● Psychologists call this method of learning introspection, which means “looking within.”
Socrates ● Too often we are so busy with our lives, that we never get a chance to reflect on our own thoughts and behaviors.
● Introspection forces us to stop and investigate what we do and feel the things we do.
● This insight with ourselves gives insight to others.

● Founded the first experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879.
● In this laboratory, emphasis was placed on the study of introspection through the controlled and disciplined observation of one's
own mind.
● Founded Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt
● Structuralism breaks down conscious experience into two categories (objective & subjective experience)
- objective sensations like sight, taste were seen as accurately representing the outside world.
- subjective feelings were thoughts including emotional responses and mental images.
- human mind combines these elements of experience.

● John B. Watson. The B stands for Broadus, but we are going to remember it as Behaviorist. John Behaviorist Watson.
● Watson defined psychology as the “scientific study of observable behavior.” - Behaviorism.
● Before Watson, psychology was defined as the science of mental life. Watson’s definition was the scientific study of observable
John B. Watson
behavior.
● He said, You cannot observe a sensation, a feeling, or a thought, but you CAN observe and record people’s behavior as they
respond to different situations.

● Wrote the 1st Modern book of Psychology in 1890 - The Principles of Psychology.
● Consciousness works to help people adapt to their environments.
William James
● Because James thought that the function of sensations, ideas and memories was important, his view became known as
functionalism.

● Believed unconscious motives & internal conflicts determine behavior.

Sigmund Freud
● Most famous psychologist.

Definitions
 Introspection is the process of examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and mental processes. It involves looking inward to
Introspection analyze and understand personal experiences and emotions, often used as a method in psychology to gain insight into human
consciousness.

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. It explores how individuals think, feel, and act, both individually and
Psychology in groups. This field encompasses various subfields, including cognitive, developmental, social, and clinical psychology, among
others.

Behavior refers to the observable actions and reactions of an individual in response to external or internal stimuli. It includes both
Behavior voluntary actions, such as speaking or walking, and involuntary responses, such as reflexes. In psychology, behavior is often
studied to understand how it is influenced by mental processes and environmental factors.

Cognitive activities are mental processes that involve the acquisition, processing, and storage of information. These activities
Cognitive Activities include thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, memory, and decision-making. Cognitive psychology focuses on these
processes and how they influence behavior and learning.

Different Approaches
The biological approach emphasizes the influence of genetics, brain structure, and neurochemistry on behavior and mental
Biological Approach processes. It seeks to understand how physiological factors, such as hormones and neurotransmitters, affect thoughts, feelings, and
actions.

The evolutionary approach focuses on how evolutionary principles, such as natural selection, shape behaviors and mental
Evolutionary Approach processes. It suggests that certain psychological traits and behaviors have developed to enhance survival and reproductive success
over time.

The psychodynamic approach, founded by Sigmund Freud, explores the influence of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and
Psychodynamic childhood experiences on behavior. It emphasizes the role of internal conflicts and motivations in shaping personality and mental
health.

The behavioral approach studies observable behaviors and the ways they are learned and reinforced through interactions with the
Behavioral
environment.

The humanistic approach emphasizes individual potential and stresses the importance of personal growth and self-actualization. It
Humanistic views people as inherently good and capable of making choices that lead to fulfilling and meaningful lives, highlighting concepts
like empathy and personal responsibility.

The social-cultural approach examines how social interactions and cultural contexts influence behavior and mental processes. It
Social-Cultural considers the impact of societal norms, values, and traditions on individual psychology, emphasizing the importance of
understanding behavior within its social and cultural frameworks.
 Subfields in Psychology
Basic Research Pure knowledge aimed to increase Psychology’s knowledge base.

Biological psychologists study the relationship between biological processes and behavior, focusing on how genetics, brain
Biological Psychologist structures, and neurotransmitters influence mental functions and actions. They often conduct research to understand how
physiological factors affect emotions, cognition, and behavior.

Developmental psychologists examine psychological growth and changes across the lifespan, from infancy through old age. They
Developmental
explore how individuals develop cognitively, emotionally, and socially, and the impact of various influences, such as family,
Psychologists culture, and education, on development.

Cognitive psychologists study mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. They investigate
Cognitive Psychologists how people acquire, process, and store information, often using experimental methods to understand how these cognitive functions
influence behavior.

Personality psychologists focus on understanding individual differences in personality traits and how these traits influence
Personality
behavior and thought patterns. They explore various theories of personality development and assessment, aiming to identify the
Psychologists factors that shape an individual's unique character.

Social psychologists study how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence and actions of others.
Social Psychologists They investigate topics such as group dynamics, social perception, conformity, and the effects of social environments on
individual behavior.

Industrial / Industrial/organizational psychologists apply psychological principles to the workplace to improve employee performance,
Organizational satisfaction, and well-being. They focus on areas such as recruitment, training, performance evaluation, and organizational
Psychologists behavior, aiming to enhance both individual and organizational effectiveness.

Applied Research Study that aims to solve practical problems.

Counseling psychologists assist individuals in overcoming personal challenges and improving their overall well-being through talk
Counseling
therapy and guidance. They often work with clients facing life transitions, relationship issues, and stress management, helping
Psychologists them develop coping strategies and enhance their personal growth.

Clinical psychologists diagnose and treat mental health disorders, providing therapy and interventions to individuals with a wide
Clinical Psychologists range of psychological issues. They use various therapeutic techniques to address conditions such as anxiety, depression, and
personality disorders, often working in clinical settings or private practice.

Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in diagnosing and treating mental health disorders, with the ability to prescribe
Psychiatrist medication as part of treatment. They integrate biological and psychological approaches to manage conditions such as
 schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe depression, often collaborating with psychologists and other mental health
professionals.

Environmental psychologists study the interaction between individuals and their physical surroundings, examining how
Environmental environments affect behavior, emotions, and well-being. They explore topics such as urban design, environmental stressors, and
the psychological impact of space, aiming to create healthier and more sustainable environments.

Consumer psychologists investigate the behaviors and motivations of consumers in the marketplace, focusing on how
Consumer psychological factors influence purchasing decisions. They apply their understanding of human behavior to help businesses
develop effective marketing strategies and improve customer experiences.

School psychologists work in educational settings to support students' mental health, learning, and development. They conduct
School Psychologist assessments, provide counseling, and collaborate with educators and parents to create effective learning environments and address
issues such as learning disabilities and behavioral problems.

*** Make sure to also look at your Careers in Psychology - Research Project (Essay) - There will be a question on it.

Unit 2: Sensation and Perception

Definitions
● Is the stimulation of sensory receptors, & transmission of sensory information to the Central Nervous System.
● (Central Nervous System being the spinal cord & brain) Sensory receptors located in places like the eyes & ears &
elsewhere in the body.
Sensation ● The stimulation of senses is automatic.
● All incoming sensation must be interpreted by the brain.
● As a result, often we see what we want to see and hear what we want to hear or vice versa.
● So sensation is not merely a physical event, it can be very psychological.

● Is the psychological process by which we interpret sensory information.

● Imagine you're at one end of a football field. There are players close to you, while other players are at the other end of the
field. Those players who are far away look small compared to those players who are close to you. You still know that the
Perception players at the far end are really not tiny.
● How do you know? Whether you think it or not, it’s from experience. Experience that you gained as a child or even an
infant.
● Perception reflects learning expectations, and attitudes.
 Transduction refers to changing physical energy into electrical signals (neural impulses) that can make their way to the brain. For
Transduction example, your ears receive energy (sound waves) and transduce (or convert) this energy into neural messages that make their way
to your brain and are processed as sounds.

Basics

The absolute threshold is the minimum level of stimulus intensity

Absolute
needed for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. It represents
Threshold the lowest point at which a sensory system can detect a stimulus.

The difference threshold is the smallest change in stimulus intensity

Difference
that can be detected between two stimuli. It reflects the ability to
Threshold perceive differences in sensory input.

Signal detection theory is a framework used to understand how

Signal individuals distinguish between signal (meaningful information) and
detection noise (irrelevant background information) in the presence of
Theory uncertainty. It considers both the sensitivity to the stimulus and the
decision-making process involved in detection.

Sensory adaptation is the process by which sensory receptors become

Sensory less sensitive to constant or unchanging stimuli over time. This
adaptation phenomenon allows individuals to focus on changes in their
environment rather than constant background sensations.

Perception Theories
● Gestalt is a term that describes studying perception as “the whole is more than the sum of its parts”.
● Essentially, through perception, the brain is always trying to build “wholes” out of random stimuli.
● We call this process Gestalt. And there are different principles of Gestalt.
 Gestalt Principles
Gestalt is a psychological concept that emphasizes understanding the whole of a perception rather than its individual parts. It is
Gestalt based on the idea that the mind organizes sensory information into meaningful patterns and forms, suggesting that "the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts."

Proximity suggests that objects that are close together are

Proximity
perceived as related or grouped together.

Similarity indicates that items that share visual characteristics,

Similarity
such as color, shape, or size, are grouped together in perception.

Continuity proposes that our perception tends to follow smooth,

Continuity continuous lines and patterns rather than abrupt changes or
disjointed segments.

Common Common fate refers to the tendency to perceive objects moving

Fate in the same direction or at the same rate as a single group.

Closure is the principle that the mind fills in gaps in incomplete

Closure
shapes or figures to perceive them as whole objects.
 Figure- Figure-ground perception is the ability to distinguish an object
Ground (the figure) from its background (the ground), allowing us to
Perception focus on specific elements in our visual field.

Stroboscopic motion describes the illusion of movement

Stroboscopic
created when a series of still images are presented in rapid
Motion
succession, making it appear as though the images are moving.

Perceptual Constancies
Linear perspective is a visual perception technique where
Linear parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the
perspective distance, creating the illusion of depth and three-dimensionality
in a two-dimensional space.

Shape constancy is the perceptual phenomenon where an object

Shape
is perceived as maintaining its shape despite changes in its
Constancy
orientation or the angle from which it is viewed.

Size constancy refers to the ability to perceive an object as

Size having a constant size, even when its distance from the observer
Constancy changes, affecting the size of its retinal image.

*** Make sure to also look at your Psychology of Color Project - There will be a question on it.
 Unit 3: Intelligence

Definitions
● The ability to learn from experience, to think rationally, & to deal with the environment effectively.
Intelligence
● It is NOT achievement.

Achievement Is knowledge & skills gained from experience.

Heritability is a statistical estimate that indicates the proportion of variation in a trait among individuals in a population that can be
Heritability
attributed to genetic differences.

Validity refers to the extent to which a test or measurement accurately assesses what it is intended to measure, ensuring that the
Validity
results are meaningful and applicable to the intended context.

Howard Gardner

8 different kinds of intelligence within us - (independent).

Focuses on: Sensitivity to other people’s feelings and the ability to respond to them appropriately.

Linguistic Linguistic intelligence is the ability to use language effectively for communication, understanding, and expression, often seen in writers, poets,
intelligence and speakers.

Logical
Logical-mathematical intelligence involves the capacity for deductive reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding abstract concepts,
mathematical
typically associated with mathematicians and scientists.
intelligence

Visual-spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive and manipulate visual information and spatial relationships, commonly found in artists,
Visual spatial
architects, and navigators.

Body Body-kinesthetic intelligence refers to the skill in using one’s body to express feelings, solve problems, or create products, often seen in
kinesthetics athletes, dancers, and surgeons.

Musical Musical-rhythmic intelligence is the capability to recognize, create, and appreciate musical pitch, rhythm, and timbre, characteristic of
rhythmic musicians and composers.

Interpersonal Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand and interact effectively with others, including being sensitive to their emotions,
intelligence motivations, and desires, typical of teachers and leaders.
Intrapersonal Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity for self-awareness and self-reflection, allowing individuals to understand their own emotions,
intelligence motivations, and thoughts, often seen in philosophers and psychologists.

Naturalistic intelligence is the ability to recognize, categorize, and draw upon certain features of the environment, often exhibited by
Naturalistic
biologists, environmentalists, and farmers.

Daniel Goleman - Emotional intelligence

5 factors involved in academic or occupational success.
(Emotional intelligence )

Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand one's own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, and values, enabling better
Self Awareness
decision-making and personal growth.

Mood Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand one's own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, and values, enabling better
management decision-making and personal growth.

Self-motivation is the ability to harness one's emotions to pursue goals and maintain perseverance and enthusiasm in the face of obstacles and
Self motivation
setbacks.

Impulse Impulse control involves the capacity to manage immediate desires and urges, allowing individuals to think before acting and make more
control thoughtful decisions.

People skills, or social skills, encompass the ability to effectively communicate, empathize, and build relationships with others, facilitating
People skills
collaboration and understanding in social interactions.

Thurstone’s Theory of Primary - Mental Abilities

Louis Thurstone – 7 separate factors of primary mental abilities

● Visual & Spatial relations

● Perceptual speed
● Numerical ability
● Verbal comprehension
● Memory
● Word fluency
● Deductive reasoning & Inductive reasoning
 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Analytic intelligence refers to the ability to analyze, evaluate, and compare information, often demonstrated through problem-solving and
Analytic
critical thinking skills.

Creative intelligence involves the capacity to generate novel ideas and solutions, enabling individuals to think outside the box and approach
Creative
problems in innovative ways.

Practical intelligence is the ability to apply knowledge and skills in real-world situations, often referred to as "street smarts," and involves
Practical
adapting to, shaping, and selecting environments to meet personal and societal goals.

Overlapping intelligence
The Mozart Effect is a phenomenon suggesting that listening to classical music, particularly compositions by Mozart, may temporarily
Mozart effect enhance cognitive performance, particularly spatial-temporal reasoning abilities, although the long-term effects and implications remain
debated in the field of psychology.

Measuring Intelligence
● A test is reliable when: it produces consistent and stable and similar results every time.
● A test is valid when: it accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

Environmental influences on intelligence

Even though genetic susceptibility plays a crucial role on the IQ of the individual, various modifiable environmental factors like education, premature birth,
nutrition, pollution, drug and alcohol abuse, mental illnesses, and diseases can have an influence on an individual's IQ.

Intellectual disabilities
I.Q. Term Description
About 80% of people with retardation are classified as mild retarded with an IQ ranging from 50 to 70.
55-70 Mild: Most can learn to read and do arithmetic.
40-55 Moderate: Most do not learn to read or do math.
25-40 Severe: Usually require constant supervision.
25 and below Profound: Constant institutional care.
 Dyslexia is a specific learning disability characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and
Dyslexia
decoding abilities, often impacting reading comprehension and written expression.

Dyscalculia is a learning disorder that involves difficulty in understanding and working with numbers, leading to challenges in mathematical
Dyscalculia
reasoning, calculation, and number sense.

*** Make sure to understand Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences for the longer question in this section.

Unit 4: Learning

Learning
Conditioning = Learning.

Associative Learning = Learning that certain events occur together.

2 Types - Classical Conditioning & Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning
Learning where a neutral stimulus is paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and elicits a conditioned response (CR).
Think about Pavlov and his dog.

Unconditioned An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning (e.g.,
Stimulus (US) food causing salivation in dogs).

Unconditioned An unconditioned response (UR) is the natural, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to
Response (UR) food).

Conditioned A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to
Stimulus (CS) elicit a conditioned response (e.g., a bell that rings before food is presented).
 Conditioned A conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to a conditioned stimulus that occurs after the CS has been paired with an
Response (CR) unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Extinction is the process in classical conditioning where the conditioned response diminishes or disappears after repeated
Extinction
presentations of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Reconditioning is the process of relearning a conditioned response after it has been extinguished, typically requiring fewer trials
Reconditioning
than the original conditioning.

Spontaneous Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of rest and without further conditioning,
Recovery following extinction.

Generalization is the tendency for a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus,
Generalization
leading to responses to a range of similar stimuli.

What is the practical application of classical conditioning?

Phobias and Treatment
Flooding is a behavioral therapy technique that involves exposing a person to their feared object or situation in a controlled
Flooding
environment until the fear response decreases, effectively confronting the fear head-on.

Systematic Systematic desensitization is a therapeutic process used to help individuals overcome phobias and anxiety by gradually exposing
desensitization them to the feared stimulus while teaching relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety.

Counter Counter conditioning is a behavioral technique that involves pairing a feared or undesirable response to a stimulus with a new,
conditioning positive response, effectively replacing the original response with a more desirable one.

Discrimination in psychology refers to the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently based on the
Discrimination
specific characteristics of each stimulus, often developed through classical conditioning.

Operant conditioning
Learning behavior as a result of effects & consequences.
OR
Learning based on the consequences of actions.
 Punishment is a behavioral consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by presenting an aversive
Punishment
stimulus or removing a desirable stimulus following the behavior.

Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, which can occur through the
Reinforcement
presentation of a rewarding stimulus (positive reinforcement) or the removal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement).

Primary Reinforcement that uses a physical survival need. (food, water & adequate warmth).
reinforcement

Secondary Reinforcement that comes to represent a primary reinforcer. (money, attention, social approval).
reinforcement

Positive Positive reinforcement is the process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior by presenting a rewarding stimulus immediately
reinforcement after the behavior occurs, encouraging its repetition.

Negative Negative reinforcement is the process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus following the
reinforcement behavior, thereby providing relief and encouraging the behavior to occur again.

Punishments and reinforcements - Consequences

Problems with punishment:

1. Doesn’t erase behavior, just suppresses it.

2. Only works when guaranteed & immediate.
3. May have bad side effects - resent parent, & no admittance, or opposite effect.
4. May be abusive or imitated as the only way to solve problems.
5. Does not teach acceptable behavior.
 Types of punishment

1. Positive Punishment:
Administer a “bad stimulus” to decrease a behavior.
Example: spanking, speeding ticket.

2. Negative Punishment:
Withdraw a rewarding stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Example: take away cell phones, or a driver’s license.

3. Positive Reinforcement:
A stimulus that increases the frequency of a behavior when it is
presented.
Example: If you are hungry you eat food.

4. Negative Reinforcement:
An unpleasant stimulus that increases the frequency of behavior when it
is removed or avoided.
Example: Take out trash to avoid your mother yelling at you.

Cognitive Learning
Learning is NOT so mechanical, but we learn because we want to. We seek out knowledge by thinking or watching people.

Cognitive factors in learning

Latent
(Hidden) Learning that occurs but remains hidden until there is a need to use it.
learning

Cognitive
Mental map of a physical area.
maps

Insight In psychology, insight occurs when a solution to a problem presents itself quickly and without warning.
 Learning by watching & imitating others.

Observational Mirror Neurons fire when performing a certain action, or observing a certain action.
learning Alfred Bandura showed that we acquire knowledge by Modeling.

*** Make sure to go through your scenario worksheets and make sure you can identify the US / UR / CS / CR.