radioactivity

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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Physics Your notes
Radioactivity
Contents
Background Radiation
Types of Radiation
Ionising Power & Deflection
Radioactive Decay
Half-Life
Uses of Radiation
Dangers of Radiation
Page 1 of 53
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Background Radiation
Your notes
Background radiation
Background radiation is defined as:
The radiation that exists around us all the time
There are two types of background radiation:
Natural sources from radioactive elements that have always existed on Earth and in outer space
Man-made sources from human activity that adds to the amount of radiation humans are exposed
to on Earth
The count rate of detected levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place
Sources of background radiation

The sources that make a significant contribution to background radiation include:
radon gas (in the air)
rocks and buildings
food and drink
cosmic rays
Sources of background radiation
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Your notes
Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment. Radon gas is given
off from some types of rock
Natural sources
Rocks and buildings
Natural radioactivity can be found in building materials, including decorative rocks, stone and brick
Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally in rocks in the ground
Uranium decays into radon gas
Radon gas (in the air)
Radon gas is an alpha emitter
Radon gas is particularly dangerous if it is inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
The gas is tasteless, colourless and odourless, but it is not generally a health issue unless levels are
significantly high
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Radioactive material in food and drink

Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since they are in contact with Your notes
rocks and soil containing these elements
Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a cause for concern
Cosmic rays from space
The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of gamma radiation
Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high-energy cosmic events
Carbon-14 in biological material
All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their systems hence the
amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant
Man-made sources
Medical sources
In medicine, radiation is used frequently
Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
Nuclear waste
While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation, it can be dangerous
for the people handling it
Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons
Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a nuclear explosion, such
as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it increases significantly in
areas where nuclear weapons are tested
Nuclear accidents
Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation into the environment
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While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and render areas
devastated for centuries
Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks

The sources that make the most significant contribution are the natural sources:
Radon gas
Rocks and buildings
Food and drink
Cosmic rays
Make sure you remember these for your exam!
Detecting radiation
Ionising nuclear radiation can be measured using a detector connected to a counter
Count rate
The detector uses count rate measured in counts/s or counts/minute
The count rate is the number of decays per second
The count rate decreases the further the detector is from the source
This is because the radiation becomes more spread out the further away it is from the source
Geiger–Müller tube detects count rate

The Geiger-Müller tube is the most common device used to measure and detect the count rate of
radiation
Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to a counting machine
This makes a clicking sound and it displays the count rate on a screen
The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more radiation the Geiger-Müller
tube is absorbing
Therefore, it matters how close the tube is to the radiation source
The further away from the source, the lower the count rate detected
Geiger–Müller tube detects count rate
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Your notes
A Geiger-Müller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector detecting count rate
Examples of other radiation detectors include:
Photographic film (often used in badges)
Ionisation chambers
Scintillation counters
Spark counters
Worked Example
A Geiger-Müller tube is used to detect radiation in a particular location. What is the count rate if it
counts 16,000 decays in 1 hour?
Answer:
Step 1: Identify the different variables
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The number of decays is 16 000

The time is 1 hour
Step 2: Determine the time period in seconds Your notes
1 hour is equal to 60 minutes, and 1 minute is equal to 60 seconds
time period = 1 × 60 × 60 = 3600 s
Step 3: Divide the total counts by the time period in seconds
counts
decays =
time period
16 000
decays =
3600
decays = 4 . 5
Therefore, there are 4.5 decays per second

If asked to name a device for detecting radiation, the Geiger-Müller tube is a good example to give.
You can also refer to it as a GM tube, a GM detector, GM counter, Geiger counter etc. (The examiners
will allow some level of misspelling, providing it is readable). Don’t, however, refer to it as a ‘radiation
detector’ as this is too vague and may simply restate what was asked for in the question.
It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation. The amount of radiation received by
a person is called the dose.
Accounting for background radiation

Extended tier only
Measurements of background radiation are used to determine a corrected count rate
This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then subtracting this from
readings with the source present
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Worked Example
A student is using a Geiger-counter to measure the counts per minute at different distances from a Your notes
source of radiation. Their results and a graph of the results are shown here.
Determine the background radiation count.
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the point at which the source radiation stops being detected
The background radiation is the amount of radiation received all the time
When the source is moved back far enough it is all absorbed by the air before reaching the
Geiger-counter
Results after 1 metre do not change
Therefore, the amount after 1 metre is only due to background radiation
Step 2: State the background radiation count
The background radiation count is 15 counts per minute
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Types of Radiation
Your notes
Radioactive decay
The emission of radiation from a nucleus is spontaneous and random in direction
This random process of radioactive decay means:
There is an equal probability of any nucleus decaying
It cannot be known which particular nucleus will decay next
It cannot be known at what time a particular nucleus will decay
The rate of decay is unaffected by the surrounding conditions
It is only possible to estimate the probability of a nuclei decaying in a given time period
Unstable nuclei
Some atomic nuclei are unstable
This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
Instability is commonly due to:
The nucleus having too many protons or neutrons
The nucleus being very large
An example of an unstable nucleus is carbon-14
This is an isotope of carbon
It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12
Isotopes of carbon
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Your notes
Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable. This is because carbon-14 has two extra neutrons
Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable
Radiation can be in the form of a high-energy particle or wave
Unstable nuclei emit radiation
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high-energy particles or waves

As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it
This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus
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This makes the nucleus more stable
Your notes
Worked Example
Which of the following statements is not true?
A Isotopes can be unstable because they have too many or too few neutrons
B The process of emitting particles or waves of energy from an unstable nucleus is called
radioactive decay
C Scientists can predict when a nucleus will decay
D Radiation refers to the particles or waves emitted from a decaying nucleus
Answer: C
Consider what you know about the statements above:
Isotopes
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Radioactive
decay
Your notes
Nuclei decay
prediction
Radiation
Answer A is true. The number of neutrons in a nucleus determines the stability

Answer B is true. This is a suitable description of radioactive decay
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Answer D is true. Radiation is about emissions. It is different to radioactive particles

Answer C is not true
Radioactive decay is a random process Your notes
It is not possible to predict precisely when a particular nucleus will decay

The terms unstable, random and decay have very particular meanings in this topic. Remember to
use them correctly when answering questions!
Types of radioactive decay

Radioactive decay is a change in an unstable nucleus that can result in the emission of one of the
following types of radiation:
Alpha (α) particles
Beta (β-) particles
Gamma (γ) radiation
Remember that these changes are spontaneous and random
Alpha particles
The radiation symbol for alpha is α
An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus
This is because they consist of two neutrons and two protons
Alpha particles have a charge of +2
This means they can be affected by an electric field
Beta particles
The radiation symbol for beta is β-
Beta particles are fast-moving electrons
They are produced in nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
Beta particles have a charge of -1
This means they can be affected by an electric field
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Gamma rays
The radiation symbol for gamma is γ Your notes
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
They have the highest energy of the different types of electromagnetic waves
Gamma rays have no charge
Types of radioactive decay
Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves can be emitted from unstable nuclei
Alpha, beta & gamma emission

α, β and γ radiation can be identified by the emission from a nucleus by recalling their:
Nature (what type of particle or radiation they are)

Their relative ionising effects (how easily they ionise other atoms)
Their relative penetrating abilities (how far can they travel before they are stopped completely)
The properties of alpha, beta and gamma are given in the table which shows the following trends down
the table:
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The range increases

Penetrating power increases Your notes
Ionisation decreases
Summary of the properties of nuclear radiation
Particle Nature Range in Penetrating power Ionising
air ability
Alpha (α) helium nucleus (2 protons, a few cm low; stopped by a thin sheet of high
2 neutrons) paper
Beta (β) high-energy electron a few 10s moderate; stopped by a few mm of moderate
of cm aluminium foil or Perspex
Gamma electromagnetic wave infinite high; reduced by a few cm of lead low

(γ)
Penetrating power
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation have different properties
So they penetrate materials in different ways
This means they are each stopped by different materials
Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
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Your notes
Alpha, beta and gamma are different in how they penetrate materials. Alpha is the least penetrating,
and gamma is the most penetrating
Alpha is stopped by paper, whereas beta and gamma pass through it
Beta is stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium
Gamma can pass through aluminium
Gamma rays are only partially stopped by thick lead
Worked Example
A student has an unknown radioactive source and is trying to determine which type of radiation it
emits. Using a Geiger-Muller tube, they measure the count rate when the source is placed behind
different materials.
Their results are shown in the table below:
No material Paper between 5 mm aluminium 5 mm lead

between source source and between source and between source
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and detector detector detector and detector
Count 4320 4218 256 34 Your notes

rate
Which type of radiation is being given off by the source?

A Alpha particles
B Beta particles
C Gamma rays
D Neutrons
Answer: B
Consider the diagram showing penetrating power from above
The answer is not A because the radiation passed through the paper almost unchanged
This means it is not alpha
The answer is not C or D because the aluminium decreased the count rate significantly
This means it is not gamma (gamma penetrates aluminium)
This also means it is not neutrons (neutrons penetrate aluminium, however, you do not need
to know this for your exam)
Therefore, the source must be beta particles

Remembering the type of particle, penetration and ionising power for alpha, beta and gamma
radiation is very important for your exam! Often the exam question will give some clues and you will
have to choose which type of radiation it could be based on these.
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Ionising Power & Deflection

Your notes
Ionising effect of radiation
Extended tier only
The relative ionising effects of nuclear radiation depend upon their:
kinetic energy
electric charge
Ionisation
Ionisation is when an atom becomes negatively or positively charged by gaining or losing electrons
Nuclear radiation can ionise the atoms that it hits
This is mostly done by removing an electron so the atom loses a negative charge and is left with an
overall positive charge
Nuclear radiation ionising an atom
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Your notes
When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
Effects of kinetic energy and charge on ionising power

The greater the charge of the radiation, the more ionising it is
This means alpha radiation is the most ionising as it has a charge of +2
A beta particle has a charge of –1 so it is moderately ionising
This means gamma radiation is the least ionising as it has a charge of 0 (no charge)
The higher the kinetic energy of the radiation, the more ionising it is
This means the alpha particle is still the most ionising because it has the greatest mass
However, a beta particle is very light (it is an electron) but travels at high speeds, therefore, it has a
lot of kinetic energy and is still moderately ionising
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Gamma radiation has virtually no mass so it is weakly ionising
Your notes

Remembering the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation helps to deduce how much
ionising power they have. E.g. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus which contains two protons and
two neutrons. It therefore has a charge of +2 since each proton has a charge of +1 and a neutron has
no charge.
1
Kinetic energy is defined by the equation mv2 therefore it depends on the mass m of the particle
2
and its velocity v.
Deflection in electric & magnetic fields

Extended tier only
α-particles, β-particles and γ-radiation are deflected differently in electric and magnetic fields
A particle is deflected in an electric field if it has charge

A particle is deflected in a magnetic field if it has charge and is moving perpendicular to it
Therefore, since gamma (γ) particles have no charge, they are not deflected by either electric or
magnetic fields
Only alpha (α) and beta (β) particles are deflected
Electric fields
Alpha particles have a charge of +2 (the charge of a helium nucleus)
Beta particles have a charge of −1 (the charge of an electron)
Therefore, in an electric field created between negatively and positively charged plates
Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate
Beta particles are deflected towards the positive plate
Gamma radiation is not deflected and travels straight through between the plates
Deflection in electric fields
Page 20 of 53
Your notes
Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields

Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles
Therefore, beta particles are deflected more in the electric field
Magnetic fields
Similarly, alpha and beta particles are deflected by magnetic fields whilst they are moving
They are deflected in opposite directions due to their opposite charges
Deflection of a beta particle in a magnetic field
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Your notes
Alpha and beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields

It is important to note that because of their opposite charges, alpha and beta particles will deflect in
opposite directions. You do not need to know which direction alpha and beta particles are
deflected in a magnetic field (this is covered at A-level) but you should know that they are deflected,
whilst gamma is not because they are charged and they deflect in opposite directions.
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Radioactive Decay
Your notes
Effect of nuclear size on decay
Extended tier only
Isotopes of an element may be radioactive due to an excess of neutrons in the nucleus and/or the
nucleus being too heavy
Excess of neutrons
The most stable nuclei have roughly the same number of protons as neutrons
Too many protons in a nucleus means the repulsive force between them is large, causing the neutrons
to repel each other
So, a nucleus with an imbalance of protons or neutrons is more likely to decay into several smaller
nuclei until stable nuclei are obtained
With roughly the same number of nucleons in each nucleus
An example of this is the isotope of hydrogen–1
H-1 is the stable nucleus of hydrogen with 0 neutrons and 1 proton
H-2 (deuterium) has one more neutron in the nucleus
H-3 (tritium) has 2 neutrons to 1 proton. This is much more unstable than H-1 or H-2
Hydrogen isotopes
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Your notes
Heavy nucleus
If a nucleus is too heavy, this means it has too many protons and neutrons
The forces keeping the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus will be weaker
An example of this is uranium–238
It has a nucleus with 238 protons and neutrons
During nuclear decay, the mass number of the element which it decays into is gradually reduced
This is done through alpha (α) or beta (β) decay
Uranium–238 decay chain
Page 24 of 53
Your notes
The graph shows the decay chain of uranium-238 through alpha and beta emission

The notation of C-12 for example, means the element 'carbon' with the mass (or nucleon) number of
12.
Change to a new element

A nucleus changes to a different element, during α-decay or β-decay
The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
The nucleus of the new element produced is often called the daughter nucleus
The daughter nucleus is a new element because it has a different proton and/or nucleon number than
the original parent nucleus
This can be seen on a graph of N (neutron number) against Z (proton number)
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For example; when Pu-239 decays by alpha to U-235, it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons
U (uranium) is a completely different element from Pu (plutonium) Your notes
Graph of neutron number against proton number
Graph of N against Z for the decay of Pu–239
Reducing neutron number

Extended tier only
α and β-decay affect the nucleus by
increasing its stability

reducing the number of excess neutrons
Alpha decay
During alpha decay an alpha particle is emitted from an unstable nucleus
A completely new element is formed in the process
Alpha decay
Page 26 of 53
Your notes
Alpha decay usually happens in large unstable nuclei, causing the overall mass and charge of the
nucleus to decrease
An alpha particle is a helium nucleus
It is made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
When the alpha particle is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the mass number and atomic number of
the nucleus changes
The mass number decreases by 4
The atomic number decreases by 2
The charge on the nucleus also decreases by 2
This is because protons have a charge of +1 each
Beta decay
During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nucleus
A completely new element is formed because the atomic number changes
Beta decay
Page 27 of 53
Your notes
Beta decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many neutrons. The mass number stays the
same, but the atomic number increases by one
A beta particle is a high-speed electron
It has a mass number of 0
This is because the electron has a negligible mass, compared to neutrons and protons
Therefore, the mass number of the decaying nucleus remains the same
Electrons have an atomic number of -1
This means that the new nuclei will increase their atomic number by 1 so atomic number is
conserved before and after the decay
Gamma decay
During gamma decay, a gamma ray is emitted from an unstable nucleus
This process makes the nucleus less energetic but does not change its structure because gamma
radiation has no mass or charge
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Gamma decay
Your notes
Gamma decay does not affect the mass number or the atomic number of the radioactive nucleus, but it
does reduce the energy of the nucleus

There is a second form of beta decay during which a proton changes into a neutron. This is called
beta-plus decay - you might come across it while revising, but you don't need to know about it for
your exam. Only use the information here for your iGCSE.
It is easy to forget that an alpha particle is a helium nucleus, or that a beta particle is an electron.
Look out for either wording!
Decay equations
Extended tier only
Decay equations, use nuclide notation, to show the emission of α-particles, β-particles and γ-
radiation
A decay equation is similar to a chemical reaction equation
The particles present before the decay are shown before the arrow
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The particles produced in the decay are shown after the arrow
During decay equations, the sum of the mass and atomic numbers before the reaction must be the
same as the sum of the mass and atomic numbers after the reaction Your notes
Alpha decay equation
All alpha decay equations have the following form for isotopes X and Y:
AX → A − 4 Y + 4α
Z Z−2 2
The following decay equation shows polonium-212 undergoing alpha decay

It forms lead-208 and an alpha particle
An alpha particle can also be written as a helium (He) nucleus
212 Po → 208 Pb + 4α
84 82 2
Beta decay equation

All beta decay equations have the following form for isotopes X and Y:
AX → AY + 0β
Z Z+1 −1
Gamma decay equation

All gamma decay equations have the following form for isotope X
AX → AX + 0 γ
Z Z 0
Worked Example
A nucleus with 84 protons and 126 neutrons undergoes alpha decay. It forms lead, which has the
element symbol Pb.
A 206 Pb
82
B 208 Pb
82
C 210 Pb
84
D 214 Pb
86
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Which isotope of lead pictured is the correct one formed during the decay?
Your notes
Answer: A
Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
The original nucleus has 84 protons and 126 neutrons
84 + 126 = 210
The mass number of the original nucleus is 210
Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
The alpha particle emitted is made of two protons and two neutrons
Protons have an atomic number of 1, and neutrons have an atomic number of 0
Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the atomic number by 2
84 – 2 = 82
The new nucleus has an atomic number of 82
Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1
Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the mass number by 4
210 – 4 = 206
The new nucleus has a mass number of 206
Worked Example
A nucleus with 11 protons and 13 neutrons undergoes beta decay. It forms magnesium, which has the
element symbol Mg.
A 20 Mg
9
B 24 Mg
10
C 23 Mg
11
D 24 Mg
12
Which is the correct isotope of magnesium formed during the decay?
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Answer: D Your notes

Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
The original nucleus has 11 protons and 13 neutrons
11 + 13 = 24
The mass number of the original nucleus is 24
Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
During beta decay a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
The electron is emitted as a beta particle
The neutron has an atomic number of 0 and the proton has an atomic number of 1
So the atomic number increases by 1
11 + 1 = 12
The new nucleus has an atomic number of 12
Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1
Changing a neutron to a proton will not affect the mass number
The new nucleus has a mass number of 24 (the same as before)

You are not expected to know the names of the elements produced during radioactive decays, but
you do need to be able to calculate the mass and atomic numbers by making sure they are balanced
on either side of the reaction.
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Half-Life
Your notes
Half-life basics
The half-life of a particular isotope is defined as:
The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any sample to decay
The rate at which the activity of a sample decreases is measured in terms of half-life
This is the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its original level
This is the time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 %
It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity
Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a second to billions
of years in length
The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
Representing half life

Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph
A half-life graph
Page 33 of 53
The graph shows how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each time the original
activity halves, another half-life has passed
Your notes
Half-life can also be represented on a table
As the number of the half-life increases, the proportion of the isotope remaining halves
Table showing the number of half-lives to the proportion of isotope

remaining
Number of half-lives Proportion of isotope remaining
0 1
1 1
2
2 1
4
3 1
8
4 1
16
... ...
Worked Example
An isotope of protactinium-234 has a half-life of 1.17 minutes.
Calculate the amount of time it takes for a sample to decay from a mass of 10 mg to 2.5 mg.
Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the fraction of the sample remaining
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Initial mass of sample = 10 mg

Final mass of sample = 2.5 mg
2.5 1 Your notes
=
10 4
1
The fraction of the sample remaining is
4
Step 2: Calculate the number of half-lives that have passed
Using the table above we can see that two half-lives have passed
Step 3: Calculate the time for the sample to decay
Two half lives have passed
So the time for the sample to decay is twice the half-life
2 × 1 . 17 = 2 . 34 minutes
The time for the sample to decay to a mass of 2.5 mg is 2.34 minutes
Half-life graphs
Extended tier only
The half-life of an isotope should be calculated by removing the background radiation from data or
decay curves
To calculate the half-life of a sample from a graph:
Check the original activity or count rate (where the line crosses the y-axis),C0
Halve this value and look for this activity
Go across from the halved value (on the y-axis) to the best-fit curve, and then straight down to the
x-axis
The point where you reach the x-axis should be the half-life
Obtaining half-life from a half-life graph
Page 35 of 53
Your notes
To find the time for the half-life find half of the activity first
To remove background radiation from the decay curve:
Start by measuring the background radiation (with no sources present) – this is called the
background count
Then carry out the experiment
Subtract the background count from each reading, to provide a corrected count
The corrected count is your best estimate of the radiation emitted from the source and should be
used to measure its half-life
A half-life graph that removes background radiation
Page 36 of 53
Your notes
When measuring radioactive emissions, some of the detected radiation will be background
Worked Example
The radioisotope technetium is used extensively in medicine. The graph below shows how the
activity of a sample varies with time.
Page 37 of 53
Your notes
Determine the half-life of this material.

Answer:
Step 1: Draw lines on the graph to determine the time it takes for technetium to drop to half of its
original activity
Page 38 of 53
Your notes
Worked Example
A particular radioactive sample contains 2 million un-decayed atoms. After a year, there are only
500 000 atoms left un-decayed. What is the half-life of this material?
Answer:
Step 1: Calculate how many times the number of un-decayed atoms has halved
There were 2 000 000 atoms to start with
1 000 000 atoms would remain after 1 half-life
500 000 atoms would remain after 2 half-lives
Therefore, the sample has undergone 2 half-lives
Step 2: Divide the time period by the number of half-lives
The time period is a year
The number of half-lives is 2
1 half life 2 half lives
2 000 000 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1 000 000 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 500 000
6 months 1 year
So two half-lives is 1 year, and one half-life is 6 months

Page 39 of 53
Therefore, the half-life of the sample is 6 months
Your notes

When looking for the corresponding time for the activity, it is good practice to draw a line on the
graph with your ruler, as in the mark scheme of the worked example. This ensures you're reading the
most accurate value possible.
Page 40 of 53
Uses of Radiation
Your notes
Uses of radiation
Extended tier only
The type of radiation emitted and the half-life of an isotope determine which isotope is used for the
following applications:
household fire (smoke) alarms
irradiating food to kill bacteria
sterilisation of equipment using gamma rays
measuring and controlling thicknesses of materials with the choice of radiations used linked to
penetration and absorption
diagnosis and treatment of cancer using gamma rays
Household fire alarms are a use of alpha radiation

Alpha particles are used in smoke detectors
The alpha radiation ionises the air within the detector, creating a current
The alpha emitter is blocked when smoke enters the detector
The alarm is triggered by a microchip when the sensor no longer detects the alpha particles
An isotope of alpha radiation with a long half-life is used for smoke detectors so they don't need
replacing often
Uses of alpha radiation: household fire alarms
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Your notes
Page 42 of 53
In the diagram at the bottom, alpha particles are stopped by the smoke, preventing the flow of current
and triggering the alarm
Your notes
Sterilisation of equipment using gamma rays
Gamma radiation is widely used to sterilise medical equipment
Gamma is most suited to this because:
It is the most penetrating out of all the types of radiation
It is penetrating enough to irradiate all sides of the instruments
Instruments can be sterilised without removing the packaging
The source of gamma radiation used for sterilisation has a half-life of around 5 years
This means the sterilisation equipment does not need to be replaced often
Irradiating food to kill bacteria using gamma rays

Food can be irradiated to kill any microorganisms that are present on it
This makes the food last longer and reduces the risk of food-borne infections
Uses of gamma radiation: killing bacteria
Page 43 of 53
Food that has been irradiated carries this symbol, called the Radura. Different countries allow different
foods to be irradiated
Your notes
Measuring the thickness of materials using different radiation
Beta radiation is most commonly used to measure the thickness of materials because it will be partially
absorbed by most materials
Alpha particles are used for thinner materials because they have a lower penetrating power and
are absorbed by a thin sheet of aluminium
Gamma radiation can be used for very thick materials because they have a higher penetrating
power and are mostly absorbed by thick pieces of lead.
A material moves across a radiation source
The particles that penetrate it are monitored using a detector above
The thickness of the material is monitored
If the material gets thicker, more particles will be absorbed by the material, meaning that less will
get through and be detected by the detector
If the material gets thinner the opposite happens
The machine makes adjustments to keep the thickness of the material constant
Radiation used to measure the thickness of materials has a half-life of many years (10-20 years) so that
the count rate remains relatively constant each day
Uses of radiation: monitoring material thickness
Page 44 of 53
Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper, cardboard or
aluminium foil
Your notes
Diagnosis and treatment of cancer using gamma rays
Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation
Chemotherapy is treatment using chemicals
Radiation can kill living cells
Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible to radiation than others
Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour
Gamma rays are used because they can penetrate the body, reaching the tumour
The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still being aimed at the
tumour
Gamma radiation used in radiotherapy has a half-life of around 5 years
This means that it does not need to be replaced often within the machine that uses it
Uses of gamma radiation: treatment of cancer
Radiation therapy to remove a tumour
Page 45 of 53
A tracer is a radioactive isotope that can be used to track the movement of substances, like blood,
around the body
Your notes
A PET scan can detect the emissions from a tracer to diagnose cancer and determine the location
of a tumour
The half-life of a tracer is several hours
This provides time for a scan to be conducted and then the radiation to leave the body quickly
Worked Example
Use the diagram to explain why alpha radiation is used in smoke detectors, and beta or gamma
radiation is not.
Answer:
Consider the different properties of alpha, beta and gamma:
Alpha is the most weakly penetrating and strongest ioniser
Beta and gamma have stronger penetrating power and weaker ionising power
Page 46 of 53
If beta or gamma radiation were used in this situation then they would pass straight through the
smoke and the alarm would not go off
Therefore, since alpha is absorbed by smoke, and beta and gamma are not, this makes it most Your notes
suitable for use in a smoke detector

If you are presented with an unfamiliar situation in your exam don’t panic! Just apply your
understanding of the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Mainly think about the range
(how far it can travel) and ionising power of the radiation to help understand which radiation is used in
which situation.
Page 47 of 53
Dangers of Radiation
Your notes
Dangers of radioactivity
Ionising nuclear radiation can damage living things such as human cells and tissues at high doses:
This can include:
Cell death
Mutations
Cancer
If the atoms that make up a DNA strand are ionised, then the DNA strand can be damaged
If the DNA is damaged, then the cell may die, or the DNA may be mutated when it is replicated
If a mutated cell replicates itself then a tumour may develop
This is an example of cancer, which is a significant danger of radiation exposure
Ionising DNA is a danger of radioactivity
Page 48 of 53
Your notes
Diagram showing the damage caused to DNA by ionising radiation. Sometimes the cell is able to repair
the DNA during replication successfully, but incorrect repairs can cause a mutation
Acute radiation exposure can have other serious symptoms:
It can cause skin burns, similar to severe sunburn
Radiation can reduce the amount of white blood cells in the body, making a person more
susceptible to infections by lowering their immune system
Because of this, it is very important to handle radioactive sources carefully
Safe storage
Radioactive materials are moved, used and stored in a safe way
Safe handling to minimise the dangers of radioactivity

The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be minimised by following a few simple
procedures:
Page 49 of 53
Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep them at a distance from people
Minimise the amount of time you handle sources and return them to their boxes as soon as you Your notes
have finished using them
During use, keep yourself (and others) as far from the sources as possible.
When handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of tongs
A sign indicating the dangers of radioactivity
Radioactivity warning sign
Safe transportation to minimise the dangers of radioactivity

Radioactive materials such as used nuclear fuel are transported in special containers called casks
These casks can withstand extreme conditions such as fire, cold and being submerged in water
Page 50 of 53
Disposing of radioactive waste to minimise the dangers of

radioactivity Your notes
If an isotope has a long half-life then a sample of it will decay slowly
Although it may not emit a lot of radiation, it will remain radioactive for a very long time
Sources with long half-life values present a risk of contamination for a much longer time
Radioactive waste with a long half-life is buried underground to prevent it from being released into the
environment
Correct disposal of radioactive waste reduces the dangers of

radioactivity
Radioactive waste with long half-lives is buried deep underground
Worked Example
A student plans to use a gamma source to conduct an experiment. List four things that the student
should do in order to minimise the risk to themselves when using the source.
Answer:
Any four from:
Page 51 of 53
Keep the source in a lead-lined container until the time it is needed

Use tongs to move the source, rather than handling it directly
The source should be kept at as far a distance from the student as possible during the Your notes
experiment
The time that the source is being used should be minimised
After the experiment, the student should wash their hands
The date and the time that the radiation has been used should be recorded
Safety precautions
Extended tier only
Safety precautions for all ionising radiation include:
reducing exposure time
increasing the distance between the source and living tissue
using shielding to absorb radiation
Reducing exposure time reduces the dangers of radioactivity

Limiting the amount of time spent near a radioactive source reduces the amount of radiation dose
received
The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured in sieverts (Sv)
One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
It would cause acute radiation poisoning
Increasing the distance reduces the dangers of radioactivity

Increasing the distance the radiation is away greatly reduces the size of the dose received
Using tongs instead of your hand when handling a radioactive source can help with this
Constructing nuclear power plants in remote areas increases their distance from people if there is a
problem
Burying nuclear waste far from places where people live also increases the distance to people
Shielding reduces the dangers of radioactivity

Radiation shielding is a barrier placed between a radiation source and a person or area to protect them
The purpose of shielding is to limit exposure to radiation at a certain location or time
Barriers absorb the energy from radioactive sources
Page 52 of 53
Barriers are normally made of lead, water or concrete

People handling radioactive sources should wear a lead apron to reduce their exposure Your notes
When X-rays are taken:
the area around where the image is needed is shielded
the radiologist stands behind a barrier or leaves the room
Reducing the dangers of radiation for a radiologist
A radiologist can stand behind a lead barrier to reduce the amount of radiation they are exposed to
Page 53 of 53

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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Physics Your notes

Sources of background radiation

Sources of background radiation

Radioactive material in food and drink

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Geiger–Müller tube detects count rate

Geiger–Müller tube detects count rate

The number of decays is 16 000

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Accounting for background radiation

Determine the background radiation count.

Unstable nuclei emit radiation

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high-energy particles or waves

This makes the nucleus more stable

Answer A is true. The number of neutrons in a nucleus determines the stability

Answer D is true. Radiation is about emissions. It is different to radioactive particles

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Types of radioactive decay

Types of radioactive decay

Alpha, beta & gamma emission

Nature (what type of particle or radiation they are)

The range increases

Gamma electromagnetic wave infinite high; reduced by a few cm of lead low

Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

No material Paper between 5 mm aluminium 5 mm lead

and detector detector detector and detector

Count 4320 4218 256 34 Your notes

Which type of radiation is being given off by the source?

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Ionising Power & Deflection

Nuclear radiation ionising an atom

Effects of kinetic energy and charge on ionising power

Gamma radiation has virtually no mass so it is weakly ionising

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Deflection in electric & magnetic fields

A particle is deflected in an electric field if it has charge

Deflection in electric fields

Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields

Deflection of a beta particle in a magnetic field

Alpha and beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Uranium–238 decay chain

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Change to a new element

Graph of N against Z for the decay of Pu–239

Reducing neutron number

increasing its stability

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The following decay equation shows polonium-212 undergoing alpha decay

Beta decay equation

Gamma decay equation

Which is the correct isotope of magnesium formed during the decay?

Answer: D Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Representing half life

Table showing the number of half-lives to the proportion of isotope

Initial mass of sample = 10 mg

Obtaining half-life from a half-life graph