Covalent Bonding

Spherical water droplet

BIG Idea Covalent bonds

form when atoms share electrons.

8.1 The Covalent Bond

MAIN Idea Atoms gain stability
when they share electrons and form
covalent bonds.

8.2 Naming Molecules

MAIN Idea Specific rules are used
when naming binary molecular
compounds, binary acids, and
oxyacids.

8.3 Molecular Structures

Space-filling model
MAIN Idea Structural formulas
show the relative positions of atoms
within a molecule.

8.4 Molecular Shapes

MAIN Idea The VSEPR model is
used to determine molecular shape.

8.5 Electronegativity
and Polarity
Ball-and-stick model
MAIN Idea A chemical bond’s
character is related to each atom’s
attraction for the electrons in
the bond.

ChemFacts
• The spherical shape of a water drop is
due to surface tension, a phenomenon
caused by forces between molecules.
• Surface tension makes water act
somewhat like an elastic film. Insects
called water striders are able to walk
on the filmlike surface of water. H—O Lewis structure
—

• The chemical and physical properties H

of water make it a unique liquid.

238
©BIOS Gilson FranÁois/Peter Arnold, Inc.
 Start-Up Activities

LAUNCH Lab Bond Character Make the

following Foldable to help you
What type of compound is used organize your study of the three
major types of bonding.
to make a Super Ball?
Super Balls are often made of a silicon compound called STEP 1 Collect two
organosilicon oxide (Si(OCH 2CH 3) 2O). sheets of paper, and layer
them about 2 cm apart
vertically.

STEP 2 Fold up the

bottom edges of the sheets
to form three equal tabs.
Crease the fold to hold
the tabs in place.

Procedure
1. Read and complete the lab safety form. STEP 3 Staple along
2. Spread several paper towels across your desk or lab the fold. Label the tabs as
Ionic
Polar Covalent
work area. Put on lab gloves. Place a paper cup follows: Bond Character, Nonpolar Covalent
Bond Character
on the paper towels. Nonpolar Covalent,
3. Using a graduated cylinder, measure 20.0 mL of Polar Covalent, and Ionic.
sodium silicate solution, and pour it into the cup.
Add one drop of food coloring and 10.0 mL of
ethanol to the cup. Stir the mixture clockwise with &/,$!",%3 Use this Foldable with Section 8.1. As
a wooden splint for 3 s. you read this section, summarize what you learn about
WARNING: Keep ethanol away from flame and bond character and how it affects the properties of
spark sources, as its vapors can be explosive. compounds.
4. Working over paper towels, pour the mixture onto one
of your glove-covered palms. Gently squeeze out
excess liquid as the mixture solidifies.
5. Roll the solid between glove-covered hands and form
a ball. Drop it on the floor and observe what happens.
Visit glencoe.com to:
6. Store the ball in an airtight container. You will need to ▶ study the entire chapter online
reshape the ball before using it again.
▶ explore
Analysis ▶ take Self-Check Quizzes
1. Describe the properties of the ball that you observed. ▶ use the Personal Tutor to work
Example Problems step-by-step
2. Compare the properties you observed with those of
▶ access Web Links for more information,
an ionic compound.
projects, and activities
Inquiry How many electrons do silicon and oxygen ▶ find the Try at Home Lab, Breaking
atoms need to form octets? If both atoms must gain elec- Covalent Bonds
trons, how can they form a bond with each other?

Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding 239

Matt Meadows
Section 8.1
Objectives
◗ Apply the octet rule to atoms that
The Covalent Bond
form covalent bonds. -!). )DEA Atoms gain stability when they share electrons
◗ Describe the formation of single, and form covalent bonds.
double, and triple covalent bonds.
Real-World Reading Link Have you ever run in a three-legged race?
◗ Contrast sigma and pi bonds.
Each person in the race shares one of their legs with a teammate to form a
◗ Relate the strength of a covalent
single three-legged team. In some ways, a three-legged race mirrors how atoms
bond to its bond length and bond
share electrons and join together as a unit.
dissociation energy.

Review Vocabulary Why do atoms bond?

chemical bond: the force Understanding the bonding in compounds is essential to developing
that holds two atoms together new chemicals and technologies. To understand why new compounds
form, recall what you know about elements that do not tend to form
New Vocabulary new compounds—the noble gases. You read in Chapter 6 that all noble
covalent bond gases have stable electron arrangements. This stable arrangement con-
molecule sists of a full outer energy level and has lower potential energy than
Lewis structure other electron arrangements. Because of their stable configurations,
sigma bond noble gases seldom form compounds.
pi bond
endothermic reaction Gaining stability The stability of an atom, ion, or compound is
exothermic reaction related to its energy; that is, lower energy states are more stable. In
Chapter 7, you read that metals and nonmetals gain stability by trans-
ferring (gaining or losing) electrons to form ions. The resulting ions
have stable noble-gas electron configurations. From the octet rule in
Chapter 6, you know that atoms with a complete octet, a configuration
of eight valence electrons, are stable. In this chapter, you will learn that
the sharing of valence electrons is another way atoms can acquire the
stable electron configuration of noble gases. The water droplets shown
in Figure 8.1 consist of water molecules formed when hydrogen and
oxygen atoms share electrons.

■ Figure 8.1 Each water droplet is

made up of water molecules. Each water
molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom that have bonded by
sharing electrons. The shapes of the drops
are due to intermolecular forces acting on
the water molecules.

240 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

©Charles Krebs/Getty Images
 Force of repulsion
Force of attraction

The atoms are too Each nucleus attracts the other The distance is right for the attrac- If the atoms are forced
far apart to have atom’s electron cloud. Repulsion tion between one atom’s protons closer together, the
noticeable attraction occurs between nuclei and and the other atom’s electrons to nuclei and electrons
or repulsion. between electron clouds. make the bond stable. repel each other.

■ Figure 8.2 The arrows in this diagram

What is a covalent bond? show the net forces of attraction and repulsion
acting on two fluorine atoms as they move
You just read that atoms can share electrons to form stable electron con- toward each other. The overall force between
figurations. How does this occur? Are there different ways in which two atoms is the result of electron-electron
electrons can be shared? How are the properties of these compounds repulsion, nucleus-nucleus repulsion, and
different from those formed by ions? Read on to answer these questions. nucleus-electron attraction. At the position of
maximum net attraction, a covalent bond forms.
Shared electrons Atoms in nonionic compounds share electrons. Relate How is the stability of the bond
The chemical bond that results from sharing valence electrons is a related to the forces acting on the atoms?
covalent bond. A molecule is formed when two or more atoms bond
covalently. In a covalent bond, the shared electrons are considered to be
part of the outer energy levels of both atoms involved. Covalent bond-
ing generally can occur between elements that are near each other on
the periodic table. The majority of covalent bonds form between atoms
of nonmetallic elements.
Covalent bond formation Diatomic molecules, such as hydrogen
(H 2), nitrogen (N 2), oxygen (O 2), fluorine (F 2), chlorine (Cl 2), bromine
(Br 2), and iodine (I 2), form when two atoms of each element share elec-
trons. They exist this way because the two-atom molecules are more sta-
ble than the individual atoms.
Consider fluorine, which has an electron configuration of 1s 22s 22p 5.
Each fluorine atom has seven valence electrons and needs another elec-
tron to form an octet. As two fluorine atoms approach each other, sever-
al forces act, as shown in Figure 8.2. Two repulsive forces act on the
atoms, one from each atom’s like-charged electrons and one from each ■ Figure 8.3 Two fluorine atoms share
atom’s like-charged protons. A force of attraction also acts, as one atom’s a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond.
Note that the shared electron pair gives
protons attract the other atom’s electrons. As the fluorine atoms move
each atom a complete octet.
closer, the attraction of the protons in each nucleus for the other atom’s
electrons increases until a point of maximum net attraction is achieved. F + F
At that point, the two atoms bond covalently and a molecule forms. If
Fluorine Fluorine
the two nuclei move closer, the repulsion forces increase and exceed the atom atom
attractive forces.
The most stable arrangement of atoms in a covalent bond exists at
some optimal distance between nuclei. At this point, the net attraction
is greater than the net repulsion. Fluorine exists as a diatomic molecule Bonding pair
Complete of electrons
because the sharing of one pair of electrons gives each fluorine atom a octets
stable noble-gas configuration. As shown in Figure 8.3, each fluorine F F Lone
atom in the fluorine molecule has one pair of electrons that are cova- pairs
Fluorine
lently bonded (shared) and three pairs of electrons that are unbonded molecule
(not shared). Unbonded pairs are also known as lone pairs.

Section 8.1 • The Covalent Bond 241

 Compare Melting Points 7. Turn the temperature knob on the hot plate
to the highest setting. You will heat the
How can you determine the relationship compounds for 5 min. Assign someone to time
between bond type and melting point? The the heating of the compounds.
properties of a compound depend on whether the
8. Observe the compounds during the 5-min
bonds in the compound are ionic or covalent.
period. Record which compounds melt and the
order in which they melt.
Procedure
9. After 5 min, turn off the hot plate and remove
1. Read and complete the lab safety form.
the pie pan using a hot mitt or tongs.
2. Create a data table for the experiment.
10. Allow the pie pan to cool,and then place it in
3. Using a permanent marker, draw three lines the proper waste container.
on the inside bottom of a disposable, 9-inch
aluminum pie pan to create three, equal Analysis
wedges. Label the wedges, A, B, and C. 1. State Which solid melted first? Which solid
4. Set the pie pan on a hot plate. did not melt?
WARNING: Hot plate and metal pie pan will burn 2. Apply Based on your observations and data,
skin—handle with care. describe the melting point of each solid as low,
5. Obtain samples of the following from your medium, high, or very high.
teacher and deposit them onto the labeled 3. Infer Which compounds are bonded with ionic
wedges as follows: sugar crystals (C 12H 22O 11), bonds? Which are bonded with covalent bonds?
A; salt crystals (NaCl) B; paraffin (C 23H 48), C. 4. Summarize how the type of bonding affects
6. Predict the order in which the compounds the melting points of compounds.
will melt.

Single Covalent Bonds

When only one pair of electrons is shared, such as in a hydrogen
molecule, it is a single covalent bond. The shared electron pair is
often referred to as the bonding pair. For a hydrogen molecule,
shown in Figure 8.4, each covalently bonded atom equally
attracts the pair of shared electrons. Thus, the two shared elec-
trons belong to each atom simultaneously, which gives each
hydrogen atom the noble-gas configuration of helium (1s 2) and
lower energy. The hydrogen molecule is more stable than either
hydrogen atom is by itself.
Recall from chapter 5 that electron-dot diagrams can be
used to show valence electrons of atoms. In a Lewis structure,
they can represent the arrangement of electrons a molecule. A
line or a pair of vertical dots between the symbols of elements
represents a single covalent bond in a Lewis structure. For
example, a hydrogen molecule is written as H—H or H:H.

■ Figure 8.4 When two hydrogen atoms

share a pair of electrons, each hydrogen atom is
stable because it has a full outer-energy level. + →

H + H → HH
Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule

242 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

Group 17 and single bonds The halogens—the
Water
group 17 elements—such as fluorine have seven
valence electrons. To form an octet, one more electron a
is needed. Therefore, atoms of group 17 elements form
single covalent bonds with atoms of other nonmetals,
such as carbon. You have already read that the atoms
of some group 17 elements form covalent bonds with
identical atoms. For example, fluorine exists as F 2 and 2H + O → H—O

—
chlorine exists as Cl 2. H
Group 16 and single bonds An atom of a group Two Single Covalent Bonds
16 element can share two electrons and can form two
covalent bonds. Oxygen is a group 16 element with an Ammonia
electron configuration of 1s 22s 22p 4. Water is com- b
posed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Each hydrogen atom has the noble-gas configuration
of helium when it shares one electron with oxygen.
Oxygen, in turn, has the noble-gas configuration of
H
neon when it shares one electron with each hydrogen

—
atom. Figure 8.5a shows the Lewis structure for a 3H + N → H—N

—
molecule of water. Notice that the oxygen atom has
two single covalent bonds and two unshared pairs H
of electrons. Three Single Covalent Bonds

Group 15 and single bonds Group 15 elements Methane

form three covalent bonds with atoms of nonmetals.
c
Nitrogen is a group 15 element with the electron con-
figuration of 1s 22s 22p 3. Ammonia (NH 3) has three
single covalent bonds. Three nitrogen electrons bond
with the three hydrogen atoms leaving one pair of
unshared electrons on the nitrogen atom. Figure 8.5b H
shows the Lewis structure for an ammonia molecule.

—
Nitrogen also forms similar compounds with atoms of 4H + C → H—C—H

—
group 17 elements, such as nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3),
H
nitrogen trichloride (NCl 3), and nitrogen tribromide
(NBr 3). Each atom of these group 17 elements and the Four Single Covalent Bonds
nitrogen atom share an electron pair.
■ Figure 8.5 These chemical equations show how atoms
Group 14 and single bonds Atoms of group share electrons and become stable. As shown by the Lewis
14 elements form four covalent bonds. A methane structure for each molecule, all atoms in each molecule achieve a
molecule (CH 4) forms when one carbon atom bonds full outer energy level.
with four hydrogen atoms. Carbon, a group 14 ele- Describe For the central atom in each molecule,
describe how the octet rule is met.
ment, has an electron configuration of 1s 22s 22p 2. With
four valence electrons, carbon needs four more elec-
trons for a noble gas configuration. Therefore, when
carbon bonds with other atoms, it forms four bonds.
Because a hydrogen atom, a group 1 element, has one
valence electron, it takes four hydrogen atoms to pro-
vide the four electrons needed by a carbon atom. The
Lewis structure for methane is shown in Figure 8.5c.
Carbon also formts single covalent bonds with other
nonmetal atoms, including those in group 17.
Reading Check Describe how a Lewis structure
shows a covalent bond.

Section 8.1 • The Covalent Bond 243

 EXAMPLE Problem 8.1
Lewis Structure of a Molecule The pattern on the glass
shown in Figure 8.6 was made by chemically etching its surface
with hydrogen fluoride (HF). Draw the Lewis structure for a
molecule of hydrogen fluoride.

1 Analyze the Problem

You are given the information that hydrogen and fluorine form
the molecule hydrogen fluoride. An atom of hydrogen, a group
1 element, has only one valence electron. It can bond with any
nonmetal atom when they share one pair of electrons. An atom
of fluorine, a group 17 element, needs one electron to complete
its octet. Therefore, a single covalent bond forms when atoms of
■ Figure 8.6 The frosted-looking hydrogen and fluorine bond.
portions of this glass were chemically
etched using hydrogen fluoride (HF), a
weak acid. Hydrogen fluoride reacts with
2 Solve for the Unknown
silica, the major component of glass, and To draw a Lewis structure, first draw the electron-dot diagram for
forms gaseous silicon tetrafluoride (SiF 4) each of the atoms. Then, rewrite the chemical symbols and draw a
and water. line between them to show the shared pair of electrons. Finally,
add dots to show the unshared electron pairs.

H + F → H—F
Hydrogen Fluorine Hydrogen fluoride
atom atom molecule

3 Evaluate the Answer

Each atom in the new molecule now has a noble-gas
configuration and is stable.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 979 and glencoe.com

Draw the Lewis structure for each molecule.

1. PH 3 4. CCl 4
2. H 2S 5. SiH 4
3. HCl
6. Challenge Draw a generic Lewis structure for a molecule formed
between atoms of Group 1 and Group 16 elements.

The sigma bond Single covalent bonds are also called sigma bonds,
represented by the Greek letter sigma (σ). A sigma bond occurs when
the pair of shared electrons is in an area centered between the two
atoms. When two atoms share electrons, their valence atomic orbitals
VOCABULARY overlap end to end, concentrating the electrons in a bonding orbital
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY between the two atoms. A bonding orbital is a localized region where
Overlap bonding electrons will most likely be found. Sigma bonds can form
to occupy the same area in part when an s orbital overlaps with another s orbital or a p orbital, or two
The two driveways overlap at the street p orbitals overlap. Water (H 2O), ammonia (NH 3), and methane (CH 4)
forming a common entrance. have sigma bonds, as shown in Figure 8.7.
Reading Check List the orbitals that can form sigma bonds in a
covalent compound.

244 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

©Visual Arts Library (London)/Alamy
 H

O N H C H

H H H
H H H

Water (H2O) Ammonia (NH3) Methane (CH4)

■ Figure 8.7 Sigma bonds formed in each

Multiple Covalent Bonds of these molecules when the atomic orbital of
each hydrogen atom overlapped end to end
In some molecules, atoms have noble-gas configurations when they with the orbital of the central atom.
share more than one pair of electrons with one or more atoms. Sharing Interpret Identify the types of orbitals
multiple pairs of electrons forms multiple covalent bonds. A double that overlap to form the sigma bonds in
covalent bond and a triple covalent bond are examples of multiple methane.
bonds. Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur atoms often form multiple
bonds with other nonmetals. How do you know if two atoms will form a
multiple bond? In general, the number of valence electrons needed to
form an octet equals the number of covalent bonds that can form.
Double bonds A double covalent bond forms when two pairs of
electrons are shared between two atoms. For example, atoms of the ele-
ment oxygen only exist as diatomic molecules. Each oxygen atom has six
valence electrons and must obtain two additional electrons for a noble-
gas configuration, as shown in Figure 8.8a. A double covalent bond
forms when each oxygen atom shares two electrons; a total of two pairs &/,$!",%3
of electrons are shared between the two atoms. Incorporate information
from this section into
Triple bonds A triple covalent bond forms when three pairs of elec- your Foldable.
trons are shared between two atoms. Diatomic nitrogen (N 2) molecules
contain a triple covalent bond. Each nitrogen atom shares three electron
pairs, forming a triple bond with the other nitrogen atom as shown in
Figure 8.8b.

The pi bond A multiple covalent bond consists of one sigma bond

and at least one pi bond. A pi bond, represented by the Greek letter
pi (π), forms when parallel orbitals overlap and share electrons. The
shared electron pair of a pi bond occupies the space above and below
the line that represents where the two atoms are joined together.

■ Figure 8.8 Multiple covalent bonds

Two shared pairs form when two atoms share more than one
of electrons pair of electrons. a. Two oxygen atoms form
a O + O → O—O a double bond. b. A triple bond forms
between two nitrogen atoms.

b N + N → N—
—N
Three shared pairs
of electrons
Personal Tutor For an online tutorial on
multiple covalent bonds, visit glencoe.com.

Section 8.1 • The Covalent Bond 245

 ■ Figure 8.9 Notice how the multiple
bond between the two carbon atoms in
p overlap
ethene (C 2H 4) consists of a sigma bond and a
σ bond
pi bond. The carbon atoms are close enough
that the side-by-side p orbitals overlap and H H
forms the pi bond. This results in a doughnut-
σ bond H H
shaped cloud around the sigma bond. σ bond C σ bond C C—C
σ bond
H H
H H

p overlap π bond
Interactive Figure To see an animation of
sigma and pi bonding, visit glencoe.com. Ethene

It is important to note that molecules having multiple covalent

bonds contain both sigma and pi bonds. A double covalent bond, as
shown in Figure 8.9, consists of one pi bond and one sigma bond. A
triple covalent bond consists of two pi bonds and one sigma bond.

The Strength of Covalent Bonds

Recall that a covalent bond involves attractive and repulsive forces. In a
molecule, nuclei and electrons attract each other, but nuclei repel other
nuclei, and electrons repel other electrons. When this balance of forces
is upset, a covalent bond can be broken. Because covalent bonds differ
in strength, some bonds break more easily than others. Several factors
influence the strength of covalent bonds.
Bond length The strength of a covalent bond depends on the dis-
tance between the bonded nuclei. The distance between the two bonded
nuclei at the position of maximum attraction is called bond length, as
shown in Figure 8.10. It is determined by the sizes of the two bonding
atoms and how many electron pairs they share. Bond lengths for mole-
cules of fluorine (F 2), oxygen (O 2), and nitrogen (N 2) are listed in
Table 8.1. Notice that as the number of shared electron pairs increases,
the bond length decreases.
Bond length and bond strength are also related: the shorter the
bond length, the stronger the bond. Therefore, a single bond, such as
that in F 2, is weaker than a double bond, such as that in O 2. Likewise,
the double bond in O 2 is weaker than the triple bond in N 2.
Reading Check Relate covalent bond type to bond length.
■ Figure 8.10 Bond length is the
distance from the center of one nucleus
to the center of the other nucleus of two
bonded atoms. Covalent Bond Type and
Table 8.1
Nuclei Bond Length
Molecule Bond Type Bond Length

F2 single covalent 1.43 × 10 -10 m

O2 double covalent 1.21 × 10 -10 m
Bond length
N2 triple covalent 1.10 × 10 -10 m

246 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

 Table 8.2 Bond-Dissociation Energy
Molecule Bond-Dissociation Energy

F2 159 kJ/mol
O2 498 kJ/mol
N2 945 kJ/mol

Bonds and energy An energy change occurs when a bond between

atoms in a molecule forms or breaks. Energy is released when a bond
forms, but energy must be added to break a bond. The amount of energy
required to break a specific covalent bond is called bond-dissociation
energy and is always a positive value. The bond-dissociation energies
for the covalent bonds in molecules of fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen
are listed in Table 8.2.
Bond-dissociation energy also indicates the strength of a chemical ■ Figure 8.11 Breaking the C–C
bonds in charcoal and the O–O bonds in
bond because of the inverse relationship between bond energy and
the oxygen in air requires an input of
bond length. As indicated in Table 8.1 and Table 8.2, the smaller bond energy. Energy is released as heat and
length, the greater the bond-dissociation energy. The sum of the bond- light when bonds form producing CO 2.
dissociation energy values for all of the bonds in a molecule is the Thus, the burning of charcoal is an
amount of chemical potential energy in a molecule of that compound. exothermic reaction.
The total energy change of a chemical reaction is determined from
the energy of the bonds broken and formed. An endothermic reaction
occurs when a greater amount of energy is required to break the exist-
ing bonds in the reactants than is released when the new bonds form in
the products. An exothermic reaction occurs when more energy is
released during product bond formation than is required to break bonds
in the reactants. See Figure 8.11.

Section 8.1 Assessment

Section Summary 7. -!). )DEA Identify the type of atom that generally forms covalent bonds.
◗ Covalent bonds form when atoms 8. Describe how the octet rule applies to covalent bonds.
share one or more pairs of electrons. 9. Illustrate the formation of single, double, and triple covalent bonds using
◗ Sharing one pair, two pairs, and three Lewis structures.
pairs of electrons forms single, double, 10. Compare and contrast ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
and triple covalent bonds, respectively.
11. Contrast sigma bonds and pi bonds.
◗ Orbitals overlap directly in sigma
12. Apply Create a graph using the bond-dissociation energy data in Table 8.2
bonds. Parallel orbitals overlap in pi
and the bond-length data in Table 8.1. Describe the relationship between bond
bonds. A single covalent bond is a
length and bond-dissociation energy.
sigma bond but multiple covalent
bonds are made of both sigma and 13. Predict the relative bond-dissociation energies needed to break the bonds in the
pi bonds. structures below.
◗ Bond length is measured nucleus-to- a. H — C —
— C—H b. H H
— —

— —

nucleus. Bond-dissociation energy is

needed to break a covalent bond.
C —C
H H

Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Section 8.1 • The Covalent Bond 247

©Charles O’Rear/CORBIS
Section 8.2
Objectives
◗ Translate molecular formulas into
Naming Molecules
binary molecular compound names. MAIN Idea Specific rules are used when naming binary molecular
◗ Name acidic solutions. compounds, binary acids, and oxyacids.

Review Vocabulary Real-World Reading Link You probably know that your mother’s mother
is your grandmother, and that your grandmother’s sister is your great-aunt.
oxyanion: a polyatomic ion in which
an element (usually a nonmetal) is But what do you call your grandmother’s brother’s daughter? Naming molecules
bonded to one or more oxygen atoms requires a set of rules, just as naming family relationships requires rules.

New Vocabulary Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

oxyacid Many molecular compounds have common names, but they also have
scientific names that reveal their composition. To write the formulas
and names of molecules, you will use processes similar to those
described in Chapter 7 for ionic compounds.
Start with a binary molecular compound. Note that a binary molecu-
lar compound is composed only of two nonmetal atoms—not metal
atoms or ions. An example is dinitrogen monoxide (N 2O), a gaseous
anesthetic that is more commonly known as nitrous oxide or laughing
gas. The naming of nitrous oxide is explained in the following rules.
1. The first element in the formula is always named first, using the
entire element name. N is the symbol for nitrogen.
2. The second element in the formula is named using its root and
adding the suffix -ide. O is the symbol for oxygen so the second word is oxide.
3. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element
that are present in the compound. Table 8.3 lists the most common
prefixes used. There are two atoms of nitrogen and one atom of oxygen, so the
first word is dinitrogen and second word is monoxide.

There are exceptions to using the prefixes shown in Table 8.3. The
first element in the compound name never uses the mono- prefix. For
example, CO is carbon monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide. Also, if
using a prefix results in two consecutive vowels, one of the vowels is
usually dropped to avoid an awkward pronunciation. For example,
notice that the oxygen atom in CO is called monoxide, not monooxide.

Interactive Table Explore

Table 8.3 Prefixes in Covalent Compounds naming covalent compounds
at glencoe.com.

Number of Atoms Prefix Number of Atoms Prefix

1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-

248 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

EXAMPLE Problem 8.2
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds Name the compound P 2O 5, which is
used as a drying and dehydrating agent.
1 Analyze the Problem
You are given the formula for a compound. The formula contains the elements and the
number of atoms of each element in one molecule of the compound. Because only two
different elements are present and both are nonmetals, the compound can be named
using the rules for naming binary molecular compounds.

2 Solve for the Unknown

First, name the elements involved in the compound.
phosphorus The first element, represented by P, is phosphorus.

oxide The second element, represented by O, is oxygen.

Add the suffix –ide to the root of oxygen, ox-.

phosphorus oxide Combine the names.

Now modify the names to indicate the number of atoms present in a molecule.

diphosphorus pentoxide From the formula P 2O 5, you know that two phosphorus atoms
and five oxygen atoms make up a molecule of the compound.
From Table 8.3, you know that di- is the prefix for two and
penta- is the prefix for five. The a in penta- is not used because
oxide begins with a vowel.

3 Evaluate the Answer

The name diphosphorus pentoxide shows that a molecule of the compound contains
two phosphorus atoms and five oxygen atoms, which agrees with the compound’s
chemical formula, P 2O 5.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 979 and glencoe.com

Name each of the binary covalent compounds listed below.

14. CO 2
15. SO 2
16. NF 3
17. CCl 4
18. Challenge What is the formula for diarsenic trioxide?

Common names for some molecular compounds Have you

ever enjoyed an icy, cold glass of dihydrogen monoxide on a hot day? You
probably have but you most likely called it by its common name, water.
Recall from Chapter 7 that many ionic compounds have common names
in addition to their scientific ones. For example, baking soda is sodium
hydrogen carbonate and common table salt is sodium chloride.
Many binary molecular compounds, such as nitrous oxide and water,
were discovered and given common names long before the present-day
naming system was developed. Other binary covalent compounds that
are generally known by their common names rather than their scientific
names are ammonia (NH 3), hydrazine (N 4H 4), and nitric oxide (NO).
Reading Check Apply What are the scientific names for ammonia,
hydrazine, and nitric oxide?

Section 8.2 • Naming Molecules 249

 Naming Acids
Water solutions of some molecules are acidic and are named as acids.
Acids are important compounds with specific properties and will be
discussed at length in Chapter 18. If a compound produces hydrogen
ions (H +) in solution, it is an acid. For example, HCl produces H + in
solution and is an acid. Two common types of acids exist—binary acids
and oxyacids.
Naming binary acids A binary acid contains hydrogen and
one other element. The naming of the common binary acid known as
hydrochloric acid is explained in the following rules.
1. The first word has the prefix hydro- to name the hydrogen part of
the compound. The rest of the first word consists of a form of the
root of the second element plus the suffix -ic. HCl (hydrogen and
chlorine) becomes hydrochloric.

2. The second word is always acid. Thus, HCl in a water solution is

called hydrochloric acid.

Although the term binary indicates exactly two elements, a few acids
that contain more than two elements are named according to the rules
for naming binary acids. If no oxygen is present in the formula for the
acidic compound, the acid is named in the same way as a binary acid,
except that the root of the second part of the name is the root of the
polyatomic ion that the acid contains. For example, HCN, which is
composed of hydrogen and the cyanide ion, is called hydrocyanic acid
in solution.
Naming oxyacids An acid that contains both a hydrogen atom and
an oxyanion is referred to as an oxyacid. Recall from Chapter 7 that an
oxyanion is a polyatomic ion containing one or more oxygen atoms.
The following rules explain the naming of nitric acid (HNO 3), an
oxyacid.
1. First, identify the oxyanion present. The first word of an oxyacid’s
name consists of the root of the oxyanion and the prefix per- or
hypo- if it is part of the name, and a suffix. If the oxyanion’s name
ends with the suffix -ate, replace it with the suffix -ic. If the name of
the oxyanion ends with the suffix -ite, replace it with the suffix -ous.
NO 3, the nitrate ion, becomes nitric.

2. The second word of the name is always acid. HNO 3 (hydrogen and
the nitrate ion) becomes nitric acid.

Table 8.4 shows how the names of several oxyacids follow these
rules. Notice that the hydrogen in an oxyacid is not part of the name.

Table 8.4 Naming Oxyacids

Compound Oxyanion Acid Suffix Acid Name

HClO 3 chlorate -ic chloric acid

HClO 2 chlorite -ous chlorous acid
HNO 3 nitrate -ic nitric acid
HNO 2 nitrite -ous nitrous acid

250 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

 Interactive Table Explore
Formulas and Names of
Table 8.5 naming covalent compounds
Some Covalent Compounds glencoe.com.

Formula Common Name Molecular Compound Name

H 2O water dihydrogen monoxide

NH 3 ammonia nitrogen trihydride
N 2H 4 hydrazine dinitrogen tetrahydride
HCl muriatic acid hydrochloric acid
C 9H 8O 4 aspirin 2-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid

You have learned that naming covalent compounds follows different

sets of rules depending on the composition of the compound. Table 8.5
summarizes the formulas and names of several covalent compounds.
Note that an acid, whether a binary acid or an oxyacid, can have a com-
mon name in addition to its compound name.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 979 and glencoe.com

Name the following acids. Assume each compound is dissolved in water.

19. HI 20. HClO 3 21. HClO 2 22. H 2SO 4 23. H 2S
24. Challenge What is the formula for periodic acid?

Writing Formulas from Names

The name of a molecular compound reveals its composition and is
important in communicating the nature of the compound. Given the
name of any binary molecule, you should be able to write the correct
chemical formula. The prefixes used in a name indicate the exact num-
ber of each atom present in the molecule and determine the subscripts
used in the formula. If you are having trouble writing formulas from the
names for binary compounds, you might want to review the naming
rules listed on pages at the beginning of this section.
The formula for an acid can also be derived from the name. It is
helpful to remember that all binary acids contain hydrogen and one
other element. For oxyacids—acids containing oxyanions—you will
need to know the names of the common oxyanions. If you need to
review oxyanion names, see Table 7.9 in the previous chapter.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 979 and glencoe.com

Give the formula for each compound.

25. silver chloride
26. dihydrogen oxide
27. chlorine trifluoride
28. diphosphorus trioxide
29. strontium acetate
30. Challenge What is the formula for carbonic acid?

Section 8.2 • Naming Molecules 251

 Look at the Examples:
formula of HBr, H2SO3,
the molecule. and N02

Does the compound

form an acidic
aqueous solution?

Yes No
(H2SO3 and HBr) (NO2)

Name the first element in the

molecule. Use a prefix if the number
Name as an acid. of atoms is greater than one. To
Is there an oxygen name the second element, indicate the
present in the number present by using a prefix +
compound? root of second element + -ide.

NO2 is nitrogen dioxide.

No Yes
(HBr) (H2SO3)

Hydro + root of second Root of oxyanion present + -ic

element + -ic, then acid. if the anion ends in -ate, or + -ous
if the anion ends in -ite, then acid.
HBr (aq) is hydrobromic acid.
H2SO3 is sulfurous acid.
■ Figure 8.12 Use this flowchart to name molecular compounds when their
formulas are known.
Apply Which compound above is an oxyacid? Which is a binary acid?

The flowchart in Figure 8.12 can help you determine the name of
a molecular covalent compound. To use the chart, start at the top and
work downward by reading the text contained in the colored boxes and
applying it to the formula of the compound you wish to name.

Section 8.2 Assessment

Section Summary 31. MAIN Idea Summarize the rules for naming binary molecular compounds.
◗ Names of covalent molecular 32. Define a binary molecular compound.
compounds include prefixes for the 33. Describe the difference between a binary acid and an oxyacid.
number of each atom present. The
final letter of the prefix is dropped if 34. Apply Using the system of rules for naming binary molecular compounds,
the element name begins with a describe how you would name the molecule N 2O 4.
vowel. 35. Apply Write the molecular formula for each of these compounds: iodic acid,
◗ Molecules that produce H+ in solu- disulfur trioxide, dinitrogen monoxide, and hydrofluoric acid.
tion are acids. Binary acids contain 36. State the molecular formula for each compound listed below.
hydrogen and one other element. a. dinitrogen trioxide d. chloric acid
Oxyacids contain hydrogen and an b. nitrogen monoxide e. sulfuric acid
oxyanion. c. hydrochloric acid f. sulfurous acid

252 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

Section 8.3
Objectives
◗ List the basic steps used to draw
Molecular Structures
Lewis structures. MAIN Idea Structural formulas show the relative positions of
◗ Explain why resonance occurs, and atoms within a molecule.
identify resonance structures.
Real-World Reading Link As a child, you might have played with plastic
◗ Identify three exceptions to the
building blocks that connected only in certain ways. If so, you probably noticed
octet rule, and name molecules in
which these exceptions occur. that the shape of the object you built depended on the limited ways the blocks
interconnected. Building molecules out of atoms works in a similar way.
Review Vocabulary
ionic bond: the electrostatic force Structural Formulas
that holds oppositely charged particles In Chapter 7, you learned about the structure of ionic compounds—
together in an ionic compound substances formed from ionic bonds. The covalent molecules you have
read about in this chapter have structures that are different from those
New Vocabulary of ionic compounds. In studying the molecular structures of covalent
structural formula compounds, models are used as representations of the molecule.
resonance The molecular formula, which shows the element symbols and
coordinate covalent bond
numerical subscripts, tells you the type and number of each atom in a
molecule. As shown in Figure 8.13, there are several different models
that can be used to represent a molecule. Note that in the ball-and-stick
and space-filling molecular models, atoms of each specific element are
represented by spheres of a representative color, as shown in Table R-1
on page 968. These colors are used for identifying the atoms if the
chemical symbol of the element is not present.
One of the most useful molecular models is the structural formula,
which uses letter symbols and bonds to show relative positions of atoms.
You can predict the structural formula for many molecules by drawing
the Lewis structure. You have already seen some simple examples of
Lewis structures, but more involved structures are needed to help you
determine the shapes of molecules.

■ Figure 8.13 All of these models can be used to show the relative locations of
atoms and electrons in the phosphorus trihydride (phosphine) molecule.
Compare and contrast the types of information contained in each model.

PH3 H—P—H
Molecular formula H
Lewis structure

Space-filling
molecular model
H—P—H
H
Structural formula
Ball-and-stick
molecular model

Section 8.3 • Molecular Structures 253

 Lewis structures Although it is fairly easy to draw Lewis structures
for most compounds formed by nonmetals, it is a good idea to follow
a regular procedure. Whenever you need to draw a Lewis structure,
follow the steps outlined in this Problem-Solving Strategy.

Problem-Solving Strategy
Drawing Lewis Structures

1. Predict the location of certain atoms.

The atom that has the least attraction for shared electrons will
be the central atom in the molecule. This element is usually the
one closer to the left side of the periodic table. The central atom
is located in the center of the molecule; all other atoms become
terminal atoms.
Hydrogen is always a terminal, or end, atom. Because it can share
only one pair of electrons, hydrogen can be connected to only one
other atom.

2. Determine the number of electrons available for bonding.

This number is equal to the total number of valence electrons in the
atoms that make up the molecule.

3. Determine the number of bonding pairs.

To do this, divide the number of electrons available for bonding by
two.

4. Place the bonding pairs.

Place one bonding pair (single bond) between the central atom and
each of the terminal atoms.

5. Determine the number of bonding pairs remaining.

To do this, subtract the number of pairs used in Step 4 from the total
number of bonding pairs determined in Step 3. These remaining
pairs include lone pairs as well as pairs used in double and triple
bonds. Place lone pairs around each terminal atom (except H atoms)
bonded to the central atom to satisfy the octet rule. Any remaining
pairs will be assigned to the central atom.

6. Determine whether the central atom satisfies the octet rule.

Is the central atom surrounded by four electron pairs? If not, it does
not satisfy the octet rule. To satisfy the octet rule, convert one or two
of the lone pairs on the terminal atoms into a double bond or a triple
bond between the terminal atom and the central atom. These pairs
are still associated with the terminal atom as well as with the central
atom. Remember that carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur often
form double and triple bonds.

Apply the Strategy

Study Example Problems 8.3 through 8.5 to see how the steps in
the Problem-Solving Strategy are applied.

254 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

EXAMPLE Problem 8.3
Lewis Structure for a Covalent Compound with
Single Bonds Ammonia is a raw material used in the
manufacture of many materials, including fertilizers,
cleaning products, and explosives. Draw the Lewis
structure for ammonia (NH 3).

1 Analyze the Problem Math Handbook

Ammonia molecules consist of one nitrogen Dimensional Analysis
atom and three hydrogen atoms. Because page 956
hydrogen must be a terminal atom, nitrogen
is the central atom.

2 Solve for the Unknown

Find the total number of valence electrons available for bonding.

1 N atom × __ + 3 H atoms × __
5 valence electrons 1 valence electron
1 N atom 1 H atom
= 8 valence electrons

There are 8 valence electrons available for bonding.

__8 electrons
= 4 pairs
Determine the total number of
2 electrons/pair bonding pairs. To do this, divide the
number of available electrons by two.

Four pairs of electrons are available for bonding.

H—N—H Place a bonding pair (a single bond)

—

between the central nitrogen atom

H and each terminal hydrogen atom.

Determine the number of bonding pairs remaining.

4 pairs total - 3 pairs used Subtract the number of pairs used in

= 1 pair available these bonds from the total number of
pairs of electrons available.

The remaining pair—a lone pair—must be added to either the terminal

atoms or the central atom. Because hydrogen atoms can have only one
bond, they have no lone pairs.

H—N—H Place the remaining lone pair on the

—

central nitrogen atom.

H

3 Evaluate the Answer

Each hydrogen atom shares one pair of electrons, as required, and the
central nitrogen atom shares three pairs of electrons and has one lone
pair, providing a stable octet.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 980 and glencoe.com

37. Draw the Lewis structure for BH 3.

38. Challenge A nitrogen trifluoride molecule contains numerous lone
pairs. Draw its Lewis structure.

Section 8.3 • Molecular Structures 255

 EXAMPLE Problem 8.4
Lewis Structure for a Covalent Compound with Multiple
Bonds Carbon dioxide is a product of all cellular respiration.
Draw the Lewis structure for carbon dioxide (CO 2).
1 Analyze the Problem
The carbon dioxide molecule consists of one carbon atom and two
oxygen atoms. Because carbon has less attraction for shared electrons,
carbon is the central atom, and the two oxygen atoms are terminal.

2 Solve for the Unknown

Find the total number of valence electrons available for bonding.

1 C atom × __ + 2 O atoms × __
4 valence electrons 6 valence electrons
1C atom 1O atom
= 16 valence electrons

There are 16 valence electrons available for bonding.

__16 electrons
= 8 pairs
Determine the total number of
Personal Tutor For an online tutorial on 2 electrons/pair bonding pairs by dividing the number
greatest common factors, visit glencoe.com. of available electrons by two.

Eight pairs of electrons are available for bonding.

Place a bonding pair (a single bond)
O—C—O between the central carbon atom and
each terminal oxygen atom.

Determine the number of bonding pairs remaining. Subtract the

number of pairs used in these bonds from the total number of
pairs of electrons available.

8 pairs total - 2 pairs used Subtract the number of pairs used in

these bonds from the total number of
= 6 pairs available
pairs of electrons available.

O—C—O Add three lone pairs to each terminal

oxygen atom.

Determine the number of bonding pairs remaining.

6 pairs available - 6 pairs used Subtract the lone pairs from the
= 0 pairs available pairs available.

Examine the incomplete structure above (showing the placement of the

lone pairs). Note that the carbon atom does not have an octet and that
there are no more electron pairs available. To give the carbon atom an
octet, the molecule must form double bonds.

O—
—C —
—O Use a lone pair from each O atom to
form a double bond with the C atom.

3 Evaluate the Answer

Both carbon and oxygen now have an octet, which satisfies the
octet rule.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 980 and glencoe.com

39. Draw the Lewis structure for ethylene, C 2H 4.

40. Challenge A molecule of carbon disulfide contains both lone pairs
and multiple-covalent bonds. Draw its Lewis structure.

256 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

Lewis structures for polyatomic ions Although the unit acts
as an ion, the atoms within a polyatomic ion are covalently bonded. The
procedure for drawing Lewis structures for polyatomic ions is similar to
drawing them for covalent compounds. The main difference is in find-
ing the total number of electrons available for bonding. Compared to
the number of valence electrons present in the atoms that make up the
ion, more electrons are present if the ion is negatively charged and fewer
are present if the ion is positive. To find the total number of electrons
available for bonding, first find the number available in the atoms pres-
ent in the ion. Then, subtract the ion charge if the ion is positive, and
add the ion charge if the ion is negative.

EXAMPLE Problem 8.5

Lewis Structure for a Polyatomic Ion Draw the correct Lewis
structure for the polyatomic ion phosphate (PO 4 3-).
1 Analyze the Problem
You are given that the phosphate ion consists of one phosphorus atom
and four oxygen atoms and has a charge of 3-. Because phosphorus
has less attraction for shared electrons than oxygen, phosphorus is the
central atom and the four oxygen atoms are terminal atoms.

2 Solve for the Unknown

Find the total number of valence electrons available for bonding.
Real-World Chemistry
Phosphorus and Nitrogen
1 P atom × __ + 4 O atoms × __
5 valence electrons 6 valence electrons
P atom O atom
+ 3 electrons from the negative charge = 32 valence electrons
__
32 electrons
= 16 pair
Determine the total number of
2 electrons/pair bonding pairs.

O
—

Draw single bonds from each

O—P—O terminal oxygen atom to the
central phosphorus atom.
—

O
16 pairs total - 4 pairs used Subtract the number of pairs
= 12 pairs available used from the total number of
pairs of electrons available.

Add three lone pairs to each terminal oxygen atom.

12 pairs available - 12 lone pairs used = 0
Algal blooms Phosphorus and
3- Subtracting the lone pairs used from nitrogen are nutrients required for
O the pairs available verifies that there algae growth. Both can enter lakes
—

O—P—O are no electron pairs available for the and streams from discharges of
phosphorus atom. The Lewis structure
—

sewage and industrial waste, and in

O for the phosphate ion is shown.
fertilizer runoff. If these substances
build up in a body of water, a rapid
3 Evaluate the Answer growth of algae, known as an algal
All of the atoms have an octet, and the group has a net charge of 3-. bloom, can occur, forming a thick
layer of green slime over the water’s
surface. When the algae use up the
PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 980 and glencoe.com supply of nutrients, they die and
decompose. This process reduces the
41. Draw the Lewis structure for the NH 4 + ion. amount of dissolved oxygen in the
water that is available to other
42. Challenge The ClO 4 - ion contains numerous lone pairs. aquatic organisms.
Draw its Lewis structure.

Section 8.3 • Molecular Structures 257

©Suzanne Long/Alamy
■ Figure 8.14 The nitrate ion (NO 3 -)
exhibits resonance. a. These resonance a O - b
structures differ only in the location of the dou-
ble bond. The locations of the nitrogen and oxy- N
gen atoms stay the same. b. The actual nitrate -
ion is like an average of the three resonance O O O
structures in a. The dotted lines indicate possi-
N
ble locations of the double bond.
O - O - O O

N N
O O O O

Resonance Structures
Using the same sequence of atoms, it is possible to have more than one
correct Lewis structure when a molecule or polyatomic ion has both a
double bond and a single bond. Consider the polyatomic ion nitrate
(NO 3 -), shown in Figure 8.14a. Three equivalent structures can be
used to represent the nitrate ion.
Resonance is a condition that occurs when more than one valid
VOCABULARY Lewis structure can be written for a molecule or ion. The two or more
SCIENCE USAGE V. COMMON USAGE correct Lewis structures that represent a single molecule or ion are
Resonance referred to as resonance structures. Resonance structures differ only in
Science usage: a phenomenon related the position of the electron pairs, never the atom positions. The location
to the stability of a molecule; a large of the lone pairs and bonding pairs differs in resonance structures. The
vibration in a mechanical system
molecule O 3 and the polyatomic ions NO 3 -, NO 2 -, SO 3 2-, and CO 3 2-
caused by a small periodic stimulus
commonly form resonance structures.
The new molecule had several
resonance structures. It is important to note that each molecule or ion that undergoes
resonance behaves as if it has only one structure. Refer to Figure 8.14b.
Common usage: a quality of Experimentally measured bond lengths show that the bonds are identi-
richness or variety cal to each other. They are shorter than single bonds but longer than
The sound of the orchestra had double bonds. The actual bond length is an average of the bonds in the
resonance. resonance structures.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 980 and glencoe.com

Draw the Lewis resonance structures for the following molecules.

43. NO 2 - 44. SO 2 45. O 3
46. Challenge Draw the Lewis resonance structure for the ion SO 3 2-.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Generally, atoms attain an octet when they bond with other atoms.
■ Figure 8.15 The central nitrogen
Some molecules and ions, however, do not obey the octet rule. There
atom in this NO 2 molecule does not satisfy
the octet rule; the nitrogen atom has only are several reasons for these exceptions.
seven electrons in its outer energy level. Odd number of valence electrons First, a small group of mole-
Incomplete octet cules might have an odd number of valence electrons and be unable to
form an octet around each atom. For example, NO 2 has five valence
N electrons from nitrogen and 12 from oxygen, totaling 17, which cannot
O O form an exact number of electron pairs. See Figure 8.15. ClO 2 and NO
are other examples of molecules with odd numbers of valence electrons.

258 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

 H H H H ■ Figure 8.16 In this reaction between
boron trihydride (BH 3) and ammonia (NH 3),

—
H—B + N—H → H—B—N—H the nitrogen atom donates both electrons

—
that are shared by boron and ammonia,
H H H H forming a coordinate covalent bond.
Interpret Does the coordinate
The boron atom has no electrons The nitrogen atom shares covalent bond in the product molecule
to share, whereas the nitrogen both electrons to form the satisfy the octet rule?
atom has two electrons to share. coordinate covalent bond.

Suboctets and coordinate covalent bonds Another

exception to the octet rule is due to a few compounds that form
suboctets—stable configurations with fewer than eight electrons present
around an atom. This group is relatively rare, and BH 3 is an example.
Boron, a group 3 nonmetal, forms three covalent bonds with other
nonmetallic atoms.
H—B—H
—

H
The boron atom shares only six electrons, to few to form an octet. Such
compounds tend to be reactive and can share an entire pair of electrons
donated by another atom.
A coordinate covalent bond forms when one atom donates both of
the electrons to be shared with an atom or ion that needs two electrons
to form a stable electron arrangement with lower potential energy. Refer
to Figure 8.16. Atoms or ions with lone pairs often form coordinate
covalent bonds with atoms or ions that need two more electrons.
Expanded octets The third group of compounds that does not fol-
low the octet rule has central atoms that contain more than eight valence
electrons. This electron arrangement is referred to as an expanded octet.
An expanded octet can be explained by considering the d orbital that
occurs in the energy levels of elements in period three or higher. An
example of an expanded octet, shown in Figure 8.17, is the bond forma-
tion in the molecule PCl 5. Five bonds are formed with ten electrons
shared in one s orbital, three p orbitals, and one d orbital. Another exam-
ple is the molecule SF 6, which has six bonds sharing 12 electrons in an
s orbital, three p orbitals, and two d orbitals. When you draw the Lewis
structure for these compounds, extra lone pairs are added to the central
atom or more than four bonding atoms are present in the molecule.
Reading Check Summarize three reasons why some molecules do
not conform to the octet rule.

■ Figure 8.17 Prior to the reaction of PCl 3 and Cl 2, every reactant atom follows
the octet rule. After the reaction, the product, PCl 5, has an expanded octet containing
ten electrons.

Cl Cl
Cl Cl
P + Cl Cl P
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Expanded octet

Section 8.3 • Molecular Structures 259

 EXAMPLE Problem 8.6
Lewis Structure: Exception to the Octet Rule Xenon is a noble gas that will
form a few compounds with nonmetals that strongly attract electrons. Draw the
correct Lewis structure for xenon tetrafluoride (XeF 4).
1 Analyze the Problem
You are given that a molecule of xenon tetrafluoride consists of one xenon atom and four
fluorine atoms. Xenon has less attraction for electrons, so it is the central atom.

2 Solve for the Unknown

First, find the total number of valence electrons.

1 Xe atom × __ + 4 F atoms × __ = 36 valence electrons

8 valence electrons 7 valence electrons
1Xe atom 1F atom
__36 electrons
= 18 pairs Determine the total number of bonding pairs.
2 electrons/pair
F F
Use four bonding pairs to bond the four F atoms to
Xe the central Xe atom.
F F
18 pairs available - 4 pairs used = 14 pairs available Determine the number of remaining pairs.
3 pairs
14 pairs - 4 F atoms × _ = 2 pairs unused Add three pairs to each F atom to obtain an octet.
1F atom Determine how many pairs remain.
F F
Xe Place the two remaining pairs on the central Xe atom.
F F

3 Evaluate the Answer

This structure gives xenon 12 total electrons—an expanded octet—for a total of six bond positions.
Xenon compounds, such as the XeF 4 shown here, are toxic because they are highly reactive.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 980 and glencoe.com

Draw the expanded octet Lewis structure for each molecule.

47. ClF 3 48. PCl 5
49. Challenge Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule formed when six fluorine atoms
and one sulfur atom bond covalently.

Section 8.3 Assessment

Section Summary 50. MAIN Idea Describe the information contained in a structural formula.
◗ Different models can be used to 51. State the steps used to draw Lewis structures.
represent molecules. 52. Summarize exceptions to the octet rule by correctly pairing these molecules
◗ Resonance occurs when more than and phrases: odd number of valence electrons, PCl 5, ClO 2, BH 3, expanded octet,
one valid Lewis structure exists for less than an octet.
the same molecule. 53. Evaluate A classmate states that a binary compound having only sigma bonds
◗ Exceptions to the octet rule occur in displays resonance. Could the classmate’s statement be true?
some molecules. 54. Draw the resonance structures for the dinitrogen oxide (N 2O) molecule.
55. Draw the Lewis structures for CN -, SiF 4, HCO 3 -, and, AsF 6 -.

260 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

Section 8.4
Objectives
◗ Summarize the VSEPR
Molecular Shapes
bonding theory. MAIN Idea The VSEPR model is used to determine molecular
◗ Predict the shape of, and the bond shape.
angles in, a molecule.
Real-World Reading Link Have you ever rubbed two balloons in your hair
◗ Define hybridization.
to create a static electric charge on them? If you brought the balloons together,
Review Vocabulary their like charges would cause them to repel each other. Molecular shapes are
also affected by the forces of electric repulsion.
atomic orbital: the region around
an atom’s nucleus that defines an
electron’s probable location VSEPR Model
The shape of a molecule determines many of its physical and chemical
New Vocabulary properties. Often, shapes of reactant molecules determine whether or
VSEPR model not they can get close enough to react. Electron densities created by the
hybridization overlap of the orbitals of shared electrons determine molecular shape.
Theories have been developed to explain the overlap of bonding orbitals
and can be used to predict the shape of the molecule.
The molecular geometry, or shape, of a molecule can be determined
once a Lewis structure is drawn. The model used to determine the
molecular shape is referred to as the Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion model, or VSEPR model. This model is based on an arrange-
ment that minimizes the repulsion of shared and unshared electron
pairs around the central atom.
Bond angle To understand the VSEPR model better, imagine bal-
loons that are inflated to similar sizes and tied together, as shown in
Figure 8.18. Each balloon represents an electron-dense region. The
repulsive force of this electron-dense region keeps other electrons from
entering this space. When a set of balloons is connected at a central
point, which represents a central atom, the balloons naturally form a
shape that minimizes interactions between the balloons.
The electron pairs in a molecule repel one another in a similar way.
These forces cause the atoms in a molecule to be positioned at fixed
angles relative to one another. The angle formed by two terminal atoms
and the central atom is a bond angle. Bond angles predicted by VSEPR
are supported by experimental evidence.
Unshared pairs of electrons are also important in determining the
shape of the molecule. These electrons occupy a slightly larger orbital
than shared electrons. Therefore, shared bonding orbitals are pushed
together by unshared pairs.

■ Figure 8.18 Electron pairs in a mole-

cule are located as far apart as they can be,
just as these balloons are arranged. Two
pairs form a linear shape. Three pairs form
a trigonal planar shape. Four pairs form a
tetrahedral shape.

Linear Trigonal planar Tetrahedral

Section 8.4 • Molecular Shapes 261

Matt Meadows
 Connection Biology The shape of food molecules is important to
our sense of taste. The surface of your tongue is covered with taste buds,
each of which contains from 50 to 100 taste receptor cells. Taste receptor
cells can detect five distinct tastes—sweet, bitter, salty, sour, and umami
(the taste of MSG, monosodium glutamate)—but each receptor cell
responds best to only one taste.
VOCABULARY The shapes of food molecules are determined by their chemical
WORD ORIGIN structures. When a molecule enters a taste bud, it must have the correct
Trigonal planar shape for the nerve in each receptor cell to respond and send a message
comes from the Latin words to the brain. The brain then interprets the message as a certain taste.
trigonum, which means triangular, When such molecules bind to sweet receptors, they are sensed as sweet.
and plan-, which means flat The greater the number of food molecules that fit a sweet receptor cell,
the sweeter the food tastes. Sugars and artificial sweeteners are not the
only sweet molecules. Some proteins found in fruits are also sweet mol-
ecules. Some common molecular shapes are illustrated in Table 8.5.

Hybridization
A hybrid occurs when two things are combined and the result has char-
acteristics of both. For example, a hybrid automobile uses both gas and
electricity as energy sources. During chemical bonding, different atomic
■ Figure 8.19 A carbon atom’s 2s
and 2p electrons occupy the hybrid sp 3 orbitals undergo hybridization. To understand this, consider the bond-
orbitals. Notice that the hybrid orbitals ing involved in the methane molecule (CH 4). The carbon atom has four
have an intermediate amount of potential valence electrons with the electron configuration[He]2s 22p 2. You might
energy when compared with the energy of expect the two unpaired p electrons to bond with other atoms and the
the original s and p orbitals. According to 2s electrons to remain an unshared pair. However, carbon atoms under-
VSEPR theory, a tetrahedral shape mini-
mizes repulsion between the hybrid orbit-
go hybridization, a process in which atomic orbitals mix and form new,
als in a CH 4 molecule. identical hybrid orbitals.
Identify How many faces does the The hybrid orbitals in a carbon atom are shown in Figure 8.19.
tetrahedral shape formed by the sp 3 Note that each hybrid orbital contains one electron that it can share
orbitals have? with another atom. The hydrid orbital is called an sp 3 orbital because
the four hybrid orbitals form from one s orbital and three p orbitals.
H Carbon is the most common element that undergoes hybridization.
sp3 The number of atomic orbitals that mix and form the hybrid orbital
equals the total number of pairs of electrons, as shown in Table 8.5. In
addition, the number of hybrid orbitals formed equals the number of
C sp3 H
sp3
atomic orbitals mixed. For example, AlCl 3 has a total of three pairs of
sp3 electrons and VSEPR predicts a trigonal planar molecular shape. This
H
H
shape results when one s and two p orbitals on the central atom, Al,
CH4 mix and form three identical sp 2 hybrid orbitals.
Lone pairs also occupy hybrid orbitals. Compare the hybrid orbitals
of BeCl 2 and H 2O in Table 8.6. Both compounds contain three atoms.
→
→

Why does an H 2O molecule contain sp 3 orbitals? There are two lone

→

→
→
→

pairs on the central oxygen atom in H 2O. Therefore, there must be four
p2 hybrid orbitals—two for bonding and two for the lone pairs.
Energy

sp3
→

Recall from Section 8.1 that multiple covalent bonds consist of one
→

s2 sigma bond and one or more pi bonds. Only the two electrons in the
Carbon sigma bond occupy hybrid orbitals such as sp and sp 2. The remaining
unhybridized p orbitals overlap to form pi bonds. It is important to note
that single, double, and triple covalent bonds contain only one hybrid
orbital. Thus, CO 2, with two double bonds, forms sp hybrid orbitals.
Interactive Figure To see an animation
of molecular shapes, visit glencoe.com. Reading Check State the number of electrons that are available for
bonding in a hybrid sp 3 orbital.

262 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

 Interactive Table Explore mol-
Table 8.6 Molecular Shapes ecular shapes at glencoe.com.

Total Shared Lone Hybrid

Molecule Molecular Shape*
Pairs Pairs Pairs Orbitals
The BeCl 2 molecule contains only
180° two pairs of electrons shared with
the central Be atom. These bonding
BeCI 2 2 2 0 sp
electrons have the maximum
Linear separation, a bond angle of 180°,
and the molecular shape is linear.

120° The three bonding electron pairs in

AICI 3 3 3 0 sp 2 AlCl 3 have maximum separation in a
trigonal planar shape with 120° bond
angles.
Trigonal planar
When the central atom in a molecule
has four pairs of bonding electrons,
109.5° as CH 4 does, the shape is tetrahedral.
CH 4 4 4 0 sp 3 The bond angles are 109.5°.

Tetrahedral
PH 3 has three single covalent bonds
and one lone pair. The lone pair takes
up a greater amount of space than
the shared pairs. There is stronger
PH 3 4 3 1 sp 3 repulsion between the lone pair and
the bonding pairs than between two
bonding pairs. The resulting geometry
107.3°
is trigonal pyramidal, with 107.3°
Trigonal pyramidal
bond angles.

Water has two covalent bonds and

H 2O 4 2 2 sp 3 two lone pairs. Repulsion between
the lone pairs causes the angle to be
104.5° 104.5°, less than both tetrahedral
Bent and trigonal pyramid. As a result,
water molecules have a bent shape.

90°
The NbBr 5 molecule has five pairs
NbBr 5 5 5 0 sp 3d of bonding electrons. The trigonal
120° bipyramidal shape minimizes the
repulsion of these shared electron
pairs.
Trigonal bipyramidal

As with NbBr 5, SF 6 has no unshared

electron pairs on the central atom.
However, six shared pairs arranged
6 6 0 sp 3d 2 90°
SF 6 about the central atom result in an
90° octahedral shape.

Octahedral

*Balls represent atoms, sticks represent bonds, and lobes represent lone pairs of electrons.
Section 8.4 • Molecular Shapes 263
 EXAMPLE Problem 8.7
Find the Shape of a Molecule Phosphorus trihydride, a colorless gas, is produced
when organic materials, such as fish flesh, rot. What is the shape of a phosphorus
trihydride molecule? Identify the bond angle size and hybrid orbitals.
1 Analyze the Problem
You are given the information that a phosphorus trihydride molecule has three, terminal
hydrogen atoms bonded to a central phosphorus atom.

2 Solve for the Unknown

Find the total number of valence electrons and the number of electron pairs.

1 P atom × __ + 3 H atoms × __ = 8 valence electrons

5 valence electrons 1 valence electron
1P atom 1F atom

__
8 electrons
= 4 pairs Determine the total number of bonding pairs.
2 electrons/pair

H—P—H P
H H Draw the Lewis structure, using one pair of electrons

H
→ to bond each H atom to the central P atom and
H assigning the lone pair to the P atom.
Lewis structure Molecular shape

The molecular shape is trigonal pyramidal with a 107° bond angle and sp 3 hybrid orbitals.

3 Evaluate the Answer

All electron pairs are used and each atom has a stable electron configuration.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 980 and glencoe.com

Determine the molecular shape, bond angle, and hybrid orbitals for each molecule.
56. BF 3 58. BeF 2
57. OCl 2 59. CF 4
60. Challenge For a NH 4 + ion, identify its molecular shape, bond angle, and hybrid orbitals.

Section 8.4 Assessment

Section Summary 61. MAIN Idea Summarize the VSEPR bonding theory.
◗ VSEPR model theory states that elec- 62. Define the term bond angle.
tron pairs repel each other and deter- 63. Describe how the presence of a lone electron pair affects the spacing of shared
mine both the shape of and bond bonding orbitals.
angles in a molecule.
64. Compare the size of an orbital that has a shared electron pair with one that has
◗ Hybridization explains the observed a lone pair.
shapes of molecules by the presence
of equivalent hybrid orbitals. 65. Identify the type of hybrid orbitals present and bond angles for a molecule with
a tetrahedral shape.
66. Compare the molecular shapes and hybrid orbitals of PF 3 and PF 5 molecules.
Explain why their shapes differ.
67. List in a table, the Lewis structure, molecular shape, bond angle, and hybrid
orbitals for molecules of CS 2, CH 2O, H 20Se, CCl 2F 2, and NCl 3.

264 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

Section 8.5
Objectives
◗ Describe how electronegativity
Electronegativity
is used to determine bond type.
◗ Compare and contrast polar
and Polarity
and nonpolar covalent bonds and MAIN Idea A chemical bond’s character is related to each atom’s
polar and nonpolar molecules. attraction for the electrons in the bond.
◗ Generalize about the
Real-World Reading Link The stronger you are, the more easily you can do
characteristics of covalently bonded
pull-ups. Just as people have different abilities for doing pull-ups, atoms in
compounds.
chemical bonds have different abilities to attract (pull) electrons.
Review Vocabulary
electronegativity: the relative Electron Affinity, Electronegativity,
ability of an atom to attract electrons and Bond Character
in a chemical bond
The type of bond formed during a reaction is related to each atom’s
New Vocabulary attraction for electrons. Electron affinity is a measure of the tendency of
an atom to accept an electron. Excluding noble gases, electron affinity
polar covalent bond
increases with increasing atomic number within a period and decreases
with increasing atomic number within a group. The scale of electroneg-
ativities—shown in Figure 8.20—allows chemists to evaluate the elec-
tron affinity of specific atoms in a compound. Recall from Chapter 6
that electronegativity indicates the relative ability of an atom to attract
electrons in a chemical bond. Note that electronegativity values were
assigned, whereas electron affinity values were measured.
Electronegativity The version of the periodic table of the elements
Figure 8.20 Electronegativity values shown in Figure 8.20 lists electronegativity values. Note that fluorine
are derived by comparing an atom’s attrac- has the greatest electronegativity value (3.98), while francium has the
tion for shared electrons to that of a fluo- least (0.7). Because noble gases do not generally form compounds, indi-
rine’s atom attraction for shared electrons. vidual electronegativity values for helium, neon, and argon are not list-
Note that the electronegativity values for ed. However, larger noble gases, such as xenon, sometimes bond with
the lanthanide and actinide series, which are
not shown, range from 1.12 to 1.7.
highly electronegative atoms, such as fluorine.

Electronegativity Values for Selected Elements

1
H
2.20
Metal
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Li Be
Metalloid B C N O F
0.98 1.57 Nonmetal 2.04 2.55 3.04 3.44 3.98
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.93 1.31 1.61 1.90 2.19 2.58 3.16
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
0.82 1.00 1.36 1.54 1.63 1.66 1.55 1.83 1.88 1.91 1.90 1.65 1.81 2.01 2.18 2.55 2.96
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
0.82 0.95 1.22 1.33 1.6 2.16 2.10 2.2 2.28 2.20 1.93 1.69 1.78 1.96 2.05 2.1 2.66
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
0.79 0.89 1.10 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
0.7 0.9 1.1

Section 8.5 • Electronegativity and Polarity 265

 EN Difference
Table 8.7
and Bond Character
Electronegativity Difference Bond Character
> 1.7 mostly ionic
0.4 - 1.7 polar covalent
< 0.4 mostly covalent
0 nonpolar covalent

Bond character A chemical bond between atoms of different ele-

ments is never completely ionic or covalent. The character of a bond
depends on how strongly each of the bonded atoms attracts electrons.
As shown in Table 8.7, the character and type of a chemical bond can
be predicted using the electronegativity difference of the elements that
bond. Electrons in bonds between identical atoms have an electronega-
tivity difference of zero—meaning that the electrons are equally shared
between the two atoms. This type of bond is considered nonpolar cova-
lent, or a pure covalent bond. On the other hand, because different ele-
ments have different electronegativities, the electron pairs in a covalent
bond between different atoms are not shared equally. Unequal sharing
results in a polar covalent bond. When there is a large difference in the
electronegativity between bonded atoms, an electron is transferred from
one atom to the other, which results in bonding that is primarily ionic.
Bonding is not often clearly ionic or covalent. An electronegativity
difference of 1.70 is considered 50 percent covalent and 50 percent
ionic. As the difference in electronegativity increases, the bond becomes
more ionic in character. Generally, ionic bonds form when the electro-
negativity difference is greater than 1.70. However, this cutoff is some-
times inconsistent with experimental observations of two nonmetals
bonding together. Figure 8.21 summarizes the range of chemical bond-
ing between two atoms. What percent ionic character is a bond between
two atoms that have an electronegativity difference of 2.00? Where
would LiBr be plotted on the graph?
Reading Check Analyze What is the percent ionic character of a pure
covalent bond?

■ Figure 8.21 This graph shows that

the difference in electronegativity between Electronegativity and Bond Character
bonding atoms determines the percent ionic
Percent ionic character

character of the bond. Above 50% ionic Ionic CaO

character, bonds are mostly ionic. 75
NaBr
Graph Check MgO
50
Determine the percent ionic HF
charcter of calcium oxide.
25
AlP HCl Covalent
N2
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Electronegativity difference

266 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

 Electronegativity Cl = 3.16 δ⁺ δ⁻
Interactive Figure To see an animation
Electronegativity H = 2.20 of bond types, visit glencoe.com.
Difference = 0.96
H — Cl
■ Figure 8.22 Chlorine’s electronegativity is higher than that of hydrogen. Therefore,
in a molecule containing hydrogen and chlorine, the shared pair of electrons is with the
chlorine atom more often than it is with the hydrogen atom. Symbols are used to indicate
the partial charge at each end of the molecule from this unequal sharing of electrons.

Polar Covalent Bonds

As you just learned, polar covalent bonds form because not all atoms
that share electrons attract them equally. A polar covalent bond is simi-
lar to a tug-of-war in which the two teams are not of equal strength.
Although both sides share the rope, the stronger team pulls more of the
rope toward its side. When a polar bond forms, the shared electron pair
or pairs are pulled toward one of the atoms. Thus, the electrons spend
more time around that atom than the other atom. This results in partial
charges at the ends of the bond.
The Greek letter delta (δ) is used to represent a partial charge. In a Careers In chemistry
-
polar covalent bond, δ represent a partial negative charge and δ + rep-
-
resents a partial positive charge. As shown in Figure 8.22, δ and δ + Flavor Chemist A flavor chemist,
can be added to a molecular model to indicate the polarity of the cova- or flavorist, must know how chemi-
lent bond. The more-electronegative atom is at the partially negative cals react and change in different
end, while the less-electronegative atom is at the partially positive end. conditions. A degree in chemistry is
an asset, but is not required. Most
The resulting polar bond often is referred to as a dipole (two poles).
flavorists work for companies that
Molecular polarity Covalently bonded molecules are either polar supply flavors to the food and bever-
or nonpolar; which type depends on the location and nature of the age industries. A certified flavorist
covalent bonds in the molecule. A distinguishing feature of nonpolar trains for five years in a flavor labo-
molecules is that they are not attracted by an electric field. Polar mole- ratory, passes an oral examination,
cules, however, are attracted by an electric field. Because polar mole- and then works under supervision
for another two years. For more
cules are dipoles with partially charged ends, they have an uneven
information on chemistry careers,
electron density. This results in the tendency of polar molecules to align
visit glencoe.com.
with an electric field.
Polarity and molecular shape You can learn why some mole-
cules are polar and some are not by comparing water (H 2O) and carbon
tetrachloride (CCl 4) molecules. Both molecules have polar covalent
bonds. According to the data in Figure 8.20, the electronegativity
difference between a hydrogen atom and a oxygen atom is 1.24. The
electronegativity difference between a chlorine atom and a carbon atom
is 0.61. Although these electronegativity differences vary, a H—O bond
and a C—Cl bond are considered to be polar covalent.
δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
H—O C—Cl
According to their molecular formulas, both molecules have more than
one polar covalent bond. However, only the water molecule is polar.
Reading Check Apply Why does a statically charged balloon cause a
slow stream of water from a faucet to bend when placed next to it?

Section 8.5 • Electronegativity and Polarity 267

■ Figure 8.23 A molecule’s shape deter-
mines its polarity. a b Cl δ⁻ c
⁻
Nδ
δ⁺ δ⁻
H O δ⁺
C δ⁺ H Hδ
⁺
Cl Cl
δ⁻ δ⁻ H δ⁺
H δ⁺
H2O CCl4 Cl δ⁻ NH3

The bent shape of The symmetry of a CCl 4 The asymmetric shape of an

a water molecule molecule results in an equal ammonia molecule results in an
makes it polar. distribution of charge, and unequal charge distribution and
the molecule is nonpolar. the molecule is polar.

The shape of a H 2O molecule, as determined by VSEPR, is bent

because the central oxygen atom has lone pairs of electrons, as shown in
Figure 8.23a. Because the polar H—O bonds are asymmetric in a water
molecule, the molecule has a definite positive end and a definite nega-
tive end. Thus, it is polar.
A CCl 4 molecule is tetrahedral, and therefore, symmetrical, as
shown in Figure 8.23b. The electric charge measured at any distance
from its center is identical to the charge measured at the same distance
to the opposite side. The average center of the negative charge is located
on the chlorine atom. The positive center is also located on the carbon
atom. Because the partial charges are balanced, CCl 4 is a nonpolar mol-
ecule. Note that symmetric molecules are usually nonpolar, and mole-
cules that are asymmetric are polar as long as the bond type is polar.
Is the molecule of ammonia (NH 3), shown in Figure 8.23c, polar?
It has a central nitrogen atom and three terminal hydrogen atoms. Its
shape is a trigonal pyramidal because of the lone pair of electrons
present on the nitrogen atom. Using Figure 8.20, you can find that the
electronegativity difference of hydrogen and nitrogen is 0.84 making
each N—H bond polar covalent. The charge distribution is unequal
because the molecule is asymmetric. Thus, the molecule is polar.
Solubility of polar molecules The physical property known as
solubility is the ability of a substance to dissolve in another substance.
The bond type and the shape of the molecules present determine solu-
bility. Polar molecules and ionic compounds are usually soluble in polar
substances, but nonpolar molecules dissolve only in nonpolar substances,
as shown in Figure 8.24. Solubility is discussed in detail in Chapter 14.

■ Figure 8.24 Symmetric

covalent molecules, such as oil
and most petroleum products,
are nonpolar. Asymmetric
molecules, such as water, are
usually polar. As shown in this
photo, polar and nonpolar sub-
stances usually do not mix.
Infer Will water alone
clean oil from a fabric?

268 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

©Tony Craddock/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Properties of Covalent Compounds
Table salt, an ionic solid, and table sugar, a covalent solid, are similar in
appearance. However, these compounds behave differently when heated.
Salt does not melt, but sugar melts at a relatively low temperature. Does
the type of bonding in a compound affect its properties?
Intermolecular forces Differences in properties are a result of
differences in attractive forces. In a covalent compound, the covalent
bonds between atoms in molecules are strong, but the attraction forces
between molecules are relatively weak. These weak attraction forces are
known as intermolecular forces, or van der Waals forces, which are dis-
cussed in Chapter 12. Intermolecular forces vary in strength but are
weaker than the bonds that join atoms in a molecule or ions in an ionic
compound.
There are different types of intermolecular forces. Between nonpolar
molecules, the force is weak and is called a dispersion force, or induced
dipole. The force between oppositely charged ends of two polar mole-
cules is called a dipole-dipole force. The more polar the molecule, the
stronger the dipole-dipole force. The third force, a hydrogen bond, is
especially strong. It forms between the hydrogen end of one dipole and
a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom on another dipole.

Data Analysis lab

Based on Real Data*
Interpret Data
Data and Observations
How does the polarity of the mobile phase
affect chromatograms? Chromatography is a
technique in which a moving phase transports Chromatograms of Phenol and Benzoic Acid in
Different Compositions of Mobile Phase Solvent
and separates the components of a mixture. A
chromatograph is created by recording the Phenol 75% methanol/
intensity of each component carried in the mov- Phenol 25% water mobile phase
60
ing phase versus time. The peak intensities on 50% methanol/
the chromatograph indicate the amount of Benzoic Phenol 50% water mobile
40
Intensity

each component present in the mixture. acid phase

High-performance liquid chromatography, or Benzoic 25% methanol/
20 Benzoic
HPLC, is used by analytical chemists to separate acid
75% water acid
mixtures of solutes. During HPLC, components mobile phase
that are strongly attracted to the extracting sol- 0
vent are retained longer by the moving phase
and tend to appear early on a chromatograph. –20
240 480 720 960 1200 1440
Several scientists performed HPLC using a meth-
anol-water mixture as the extracting solvent to Time (s)
separate a phenol-benzoic acid mixture. Their *Data obtained from: Joseph, Seema M. and Palasota, John A. 2001. The combined
results are shown in the graph to the right. effects of pH and percent methanol on the HPLC separation of benzoic acid and
phenol. Journal of Chemical Education 78:1381.
Think Critically
1. Explain the different retention times shown 3. Infer which component of the mixture has
on the chromatograms. more polar molecules.
2. Infer from the graph the component, phenol 4. Determine the most effective composition of
or benzoic acid, that is in excess. Explain your the mobile phase (of those tested) for sepa-
answer. rating phenol from benzoic acid. Explain.

Section 8.5 • Electronegativity and Polarity 269

 Forces and properties The properties of covalent molecular com-
pounds are related to the relatively weak intermolecular forces holding
the molecules together. These weak forces result in the relatively low
melting and boiling points of molecular substances compared with
those of ionic substances. That is why, when heated moderately, sugar
melts but salt does not. Weak intermolecular forces also explain why
many molecular substances exist as gases or vaporize readily at room
temperature. Oxygen (O 2), carbon dioxide (CO 2), and hydrogen sulfide
(H 2S) are examples of covalent gases. Because the hardness of a sub-
stance depends on the intermolecular forces between individual mole-
cules, many covalent molecules are relatively soft solids. Paraffin, found
in candles and other products, is a common example of a covalent solid.
In the solid phase, molecules align to form a crystal lattice. This
molecular lattice is similar to that of an ionic solid, but with less attrac-
tion between particles. The structure of the lattice is affected by molecu-
lar shape and the type of intermolecular force. Most molecular
information has been determined by studying molecular solids.
■ Figure 8.25 Network solids are
often used in cutting tools because of their
extreme hardness. Here, a diamond-tipped Covalent Network Solids
saw blade cuts through stone. There are some solids, often called covalent network solids, that are
composed only of atoms interconnected by a network of covalent bonds.
Quartz and diamond are two common examples of network solids. In
contrast to molecular solids, network solids are typically brittle, non-
conductors of heat or electricity, and extremely hard. Analyzing the
structure of a diamond explains some of its properties. In a diamond,
each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms. This tetrahe-
dral arrangement, which is shown in Figure 8.25, forms a strongly
bonded crystal system that is extremely hard and has a very high melt-
ing point.

Section 8.5 Assessment

Section Summary 68. MAIN Idea Summarize how electronegativity difference is related to

◗ The electronegativity difference deter- bond character.

mines the character of a bond 69. Describe a polar covalent bond.
between atoms. 70. Describe a polar molecule.
◗ Polar bonds occur when electrons are 71. List three properties of a covalent compound in the solid phase.
not shared equally forming a dipole.
72. Categorize bond types using electronegativity difference.
◗ The spatial arrangement of polar
73. Generalize Describe the general characteristics of covalent network solids.
bonds in a molecule determines the
overall polarity of a molecule. 74. Predict the type of bond that will form between the following pair of atoms:
◗ Molecules attract each other by weak a. H and S
intermolecular forces. In a covalent b. C and H
network solid, each atom is covalently c. Na and S.
bonded to many other atoms. 75. Identify each molecule as polar or nonpolar: SCl 2, CS 2, and CF 4.
76. Determine whether a compound made of hydrogen and sulfur atoms is polar
or nonpolar.
77. Draw the Lewis structures for the molecules SF 4 and SF 6. Analyze each structure
to determine whether the molecule is polar or nonpolar.

270 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

©Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited
 Sticky Feet: How Geckos Grip
For a gecko, hanging from a wall or a ceiling is
no great feat. The key to a gecko’s amazing grip
is found on each of its toes. Researchers have
determined that a gecko’s grip depends on the
sticking power of atoms themselves.

2 Spatulae Setae are

complex structures. The end
of each seta has microscopic
branches called spatulae

1 Gecko toe The bottom

of a gecko’s toe is covered
with millions of tiny hairs,
called setae, arranged in
rows.

3 Surface area Each seta

has a relatively enormous surface
area because of its vast number
of spatulae.

Surface Spatula 4 Sticking Van der Waals forces form

between a surface and a gecko’s spatulae.
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ When multiplied by the spatulae‘s vast
Attraction
surface areas, the sum of the weak van der
Temporary dipole Temporary dipole Waals forces is more than enough to balance
the pull of gravity and hold a gecko in place.

5 Letting go A gecko simply

curls its toes when it wants to Chemistry
move. This reduces the amount
of surface contact and the van Invent Using their knowledge of how geckos stick
der Waals forces, and a gecko to surfaces, scientists are developing applications for
loses its grip. geckolike materials. Some possible applications
include mini-robots that climb walls and tape that
sticks even under water. What uses for a new sticky
geckolike material can you think of? For more on
gecko-tech, visit glencoe.com.

How It Works 271

(t)©Peter Weber/Getty Images, (tcl)©Perennou Nuridsany/Photo Researchers, Inc, (cr)©Susumu Nishinaga/Photo Researchers, Inc, (b)(bcl)©Prof. Kellar Autumn, Lewis & Clark College
MODEL MOLECULAR SHAPES

Background: Covalent bonding occurs when atoms

share valence electrons. In the Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory, the way in which
valence electrons of bonding atoms are positioned
is the basis for predicting a molecule’s shape. This
method of visualizing shape is also based on the
molecule’s Lewis structure.
Question: How do the Lewis structure and the positions
of valence electrons affect the shape of the covalent
compound?

Materials
molecular model kit

Safety Precautions
10. Classify the shape of the H 2O molecule using infor-
Procedure mation in Table 8.6.
1. Read and complete the lab safety form. 11. Repeat Steps 9 and 10 for the PH 3, CF 4, CO 2, SO 3,
HCN, and CO molecules.
2. Create a table to record your data.
3. Note and record the color used to represent each of Analyze and Conclude
the following atoms in the molecular model kit: 1. Think Critically Based on the molecular models
hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), carbon you built and observed in this lab, rank single, dou-
(C), fluorine (F), sulfur (S), and nitrogen (N). ble, and triple bonds in order of increasing flexibility
4. Draw the Lewis structures of the H 2, O 2, and N 2 and increasing strength.
molecules. 2. Observe and Infer Explain why H 2O and CO 2
5. Obtain two hydrogen atoms and one connector from molecules have different shapes.
the molecular model kit, and assemble a hydrogen 3. Analyze and Conclude One of the molecules from
(H 2) molecule. Observe that your model represents this lab undergoes resonance. Identify the molecule
a single-bonded diatomic hydrogen molecule. that has three resonance structures, draw the struc-
6. Obtain two oxygen atoms and two connectors from tures, and explain why resonance occurs.
the molecular model kit, and assemble an oxygen 4. Recognize Cause and Effect Use the electronega-
(O 2) molecule. Observe that your model represents tivity difference to determine the polarity of the
a double-bonded diatomic oxygen molecule. molecules in Steps 9–11. Based on their calculated
7. Obtain two nitrogen atoms and three connectors bond polarities and the models constructed in this
from the molecular model kit, and assemble one lab, determine the molecular polarity of each
nitrogen (N 2) molecule. Observe that your model structure.
represents a triple-bonded diatomic nitrogen
molecule.
8. Recognize that diatomic molecules such as those
INQUIRY EXTENSION
formed in this lab are always linear. Diatomic mole- Model Use a molecular model kit to build the two
cules are made up of only two atoms and two points resonance structures of ozone (O 3). Then, use Lewis
(atoms) can only be connected by a straight line. structures to explain how you can convert between
the two resonance structures by interchanging a
9. Draw the Lewis structure of water (H 2O), and lone pair for a covalent bond.
construct its molecule.

272 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding

Matt Meadows
 Download quizzes, key
terms, and flash cards
from glencoe.com.

BIG Idea Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons.

Section 8.1 The Covalent Bond

MAIN Idea Atoms gain stability Key Concepts
when they share electrons and form • Covalent bonds form when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
covalent bonds.
• Sharing one pair, two pairs, and three pairs of electrons forms single, double, and
Vocabulary triple covalent bonds, respectively.
• covalent bond (p. 241) • Orbitals overlap directly in sigma bonds. Parallel orbitals overlap in pi bonds. A
• endothermic reaction (p. 247) single covalent bond is a sigma bond but multiple covalent bonds are made of both
• exothermic reaction (p. 247) sigma and pi bonds.
• Lewis structure (p. 242) • Bond length is measured nucleus-to-nucleus. Bond dissociation energy is needed
• molecule (p. 241) to break a covalent bond.
• pi bond (p. 245)
• sigma bond (p. 244)

Section 8.2 Naming Molecules

MAIN Idea Specific rules are used Key Concepts
when naming binary molecular • Names of covalent molecular compounds include prefixes for the number of each
compounds, binary acids, and atom present. The final letter of the prefix is dropped if the element name begins
oxyacids. with a vowel.
Vocabulary • Molecules that produce H + in solution are acids. Binary acids contain hydrogen
• oxyacid (p. 250) and one other element. Oxyacids contain hydrogen and an oxyanion.

Section 8.3 Molecular Structures

MAIN Idea Structural formulas Key Concepts
show the relative positions of atoms • Different models can be used to represent molecules.
within a molecule.
• Resonance occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure exists for the same
Vocabulary molecule.
• coordinate covalent bond (p. 259) • Exceptions to the octet rule occur in some molecules.
• resonance (p. 258)
• structural formula (p. 253)

Section 8.4 Molecular Shapes

MAIN Idea The VSEPR model is Key Concepts
used to determine molecular shape. • VSEPR model theory states that electron pairs repel each other and determine both
the shape of and bond angles in a molecule.
Vocabulary
• hybridization (p. 262) • Hybridization explains the observed shapes of molecules by the presence of
• VSEPR model (p. 261) equivalent hybrid orbitals.

Section 8.5 Electronegativity and Polarity

MAIN Idea A chemical bond’s Key Concepts
character is related to each atom’s • The electronegativity difference determines the character of a bond between atoms.
attraction for the electrons in the
• Polar bonds occur when electrons are not shared equally forming a dipole.
bond.
• The spatial arrangement of polar bonds in a molecule determines the overall
Vocabulary polarity of a molecule.
• polar covalent bond (p. 266) • Molecules attract each other by weak intermolecular forces. In a covalent network
solid, each atom is covalently bonded to many other atoms.

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker glencoe.com Chapter 8 • Study Guide 273

 Section 8.1 Mastering Problems
92. Complete Table 8.8.
Mastering Concepts
78. What is the octet rule, and how is it used in covalent Table 8.8 Acid Names
bonding?
Formula Name
79. Describe the formation of a covalent bond.
HCIO 2
80. Describe the bonding in molecules.
81. Describe the forces, both attractive and repulsive, that H 3PO 4
occur as two atoms move closer together. H 2Se
82. How could you predict the presence of a sigma or pi HCIO 3
bond in a molecule?
93. Name each molecule.
Mastering Problems
a. NF 3 c. SO 3
83. Give the number of valence electrons in N, As, Br, and b. NO d. SiF 4
Se. Predict the number of covalent bonds needed for
94. Name each molecule.
each of these elements to satisfy the octet rule.
a. SeO 2 c. N 2F 4
84. Locate the sigma and pi bonds in each of the molecules b. SeO 3 d. S 4N 4
shown below.
95. Write the formula for each molecule.
a. O a. sulfur difluoride c. carbon tetrafluoride
—

b. silicon tetrachloride d. sulfurous acid

H—C—H 96. Write the formula for each molecule.
a. silicon dioxide c. chlorine trifluoride
b. H — C — C — H b. bromous acid d. hydrobromic acid
85. In the molecules CO, CO 2, and CH 2O, which C—O
bond is the shortest? Which C—O bond is the strongest?
86. Consider the carbon-nitrogen bonds shown below:
Section 8.3
Mastering Concepts
C ≡N- and H H
97. What must you know in order to draw the Lewis struc-
—
—

H —C — N ture for a molecule?

—
—

98. Doping Agent Material scientists are studying the prop-

H H
erties of polymer plastics doped with AsF 5. Explain why
Which bond is shorter? Which is stronger? the compound AsF 5 is an exception to the octet rule.
99. Reducing Agent Boron trihydride (BH 3) is used as
87. Rank each of the molecules below in order of the short- reducing agent in organic chemistry. Explain why BH 3
est to the longest sulfur-oxygen bond length. often forms coordinate covalent bonds with other
a. SO 2 b. SO 3 2— c. SO 4 2— molecules.
100. Antimony and chlorine can form antimony trichloride
or antimony pentachloride. Explain how these two ele-
Section 8.2 ments can form two different compounds.
Mastering Concepts Mastering Problems
88. Explain how molecular compounds are named.
101. Draw three resonance structures for the polyatomic
89. When is a molecular compound named as an acid? ion CO 3 2-.
90. Explain the difference between sulfur hexafluoride and 102. Draw the Lewis structures for these molecules, each
disulfur tetrafluoride. of which has a central atom that does not obey the
91. Watches The quartz crystals used in watches are made octet rule.
of silicon dioxide. Explain how you use the name to a. PCl 5 c. ClF 5
determine the formula for silicon dioxide. b. BF 3 d. BeH 2

274 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding Chapter Test glencoe.com

103. Draw two resonance structures for the polyatomic 111. Predict the molecular shape of each molecule.
ion HCO 2 —. a. COS b. CF 2Cl 2
104. Draw the Lewis structure for a molecule of each of these 112. For each molecule listed below, predict its molecular
compounds and ions. shape and bond angle, and identify the hybrid orbitals.
a. H 2S c. SO 2 Drawing the Lewis structure might help you.
b. BF 4 — d. SeCl 2 a. SCl 2 c. HOF
105. Which elements in the list below are capable of forming b. NH 2Cl d. BF 3
molecules in which one of its atoms has an expanded
octet? Explain your answer.
a. B d. O Section 8.5
b. C e. Se Mastering Concepts
c. P
113. Describe electronegativity trends in the periodic table.
114. Explain the difference between nonpolar molecules and
Section 8.4 polar molecules.
115. Compare the location of bonding electrons in a polar
Mastering Concepts covalent bond with those in a nonpolar covalent bond.
106. What is the basis of the VSEPR model? Explain your answer.
107. What is the maximum number of hybrid orbitals a 116. What is the difference between a covalent molecular
carbon atom can form? solid and a covalent network solid? Do their physical
108. What is the molecular shape of each molecule? Estimate properties differ? Explain your answer.
the bond angle for each molecule, assuming that there
is not a lone pair. Mastering Problems
a. A— B 117. For each pair, indicate the more polar bond by circling
the negative end of its dipole.
b. A— B—A
a. C—S, C—O
c. A— B—A b. C—F, C—N
—

c. P—H, P—Cl
A
d. A 118. For each of the bonds listed, tell which atom is more
negatively charged.
— —

A—B—A a. C—H c. C—S

A b. C—N d. C—O
119. Predict which bond is the most polar.
109. Parent Compound PCl 5 is used as a parent compound
a. C—O c. C—Cl
to form many other compounds. Explain the theory of
b. Si—O d. C—Br
hybridization and determine the number of hybrid
orbitals present in a molecule of PCl 5. 120. Rank the bonds according to increasing polarity.
a. C—H d. O—H
Mastering Problems b. N—H e. Cl—H
110. Complete Table 8.9 by identifying the expected hybrid c. Si—H
on the central atom. You might find drawing the mole- 121. Refrigerant The refrigerant known as freon-14 is an
cule’s Lewis structure helpful. ozone-damaging compound with the formula CF 4. Why
is the CF 4 molecule nonpolar even though it contains
Table 8.9 Structures polar bonds?
Formula Hybrid Orbital Lewis Structure 122. Determine if these molecules and ion are polar. Explain
your answers.
XeF 4
a. H 3O + c. H 2S
TeF 4 b. PCl 5 d. CF 4
KrF 2 123. Use Lewis structures to predict the molecular polarities
for sulfur difluoride, sulfur tetrafluoride, and sulfur
OF 2
hexafluoride.

Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 8 • Assessment 275

 Mixed Review Think Critically
124. Write the formula for each molecule. 131. Organize Design a concept map that explains how
a. chlorine monoxide VSEPR model theory, hybridization theory, and molecu-
b. arsenic acid lar shape are related.
c. phosphorus pentachloride
132. Compare and contrast the two covalent compounds
d. hydrosulfuric acid
identified by the names arsenic(III) oxide and diarsenic
125. Name each molecule. trioxide.
a. PCl 3
133. Make and Use Tables Complete Table 8.11, using what
b. Cl 2O 7
you learned in Chapters 7 and 8.
c. P 4O 6
d. NO
Table 8.11 Properties and Bonding
126. Draw the Lewis structure for each molecule or ion.
a. SeF 2 Bond Characteristic
Solid Example
b. ClO 2 - Description of Solid
c. PO 3 3— Ionic
d. POCl 3
e. GeF 4 Covalent
molecular
127. Determine which of the molecules are polar. Explain
your answers. Metallic
a. CH 3Cl Covalent
b. ClF
network
c. NCl 3
d. BF 3
e. CS 2 134. Apply Urea, whose structure is shown below, is a com-
128. Arrange the bonds in order of least to greatest polar pound used in manufacturing plastics and fertilizers.
character. Identify the sigma bond, pi bonds, and lone pairs pres-
a. C—O ent in a molecule of urea.
b. Si—O
O
c. Ge—O H H
—

d. C—Cl N C N
e. C—Br
H H
129. Rocket Fuel In the 1950s, the reaction of hydrazine
with chlorine trifluoride (ClF 3) was used as a rocket 135. Analyze For each of the characteristics listed below,
fuel. Draw the Lewis structure for ClF 3 and identify the identify the polarity of a molecule with that
hybrid orbitals. characteristic.
130. Complete Table 8.10, which shows the number of elec- a. solid at room temperature
trons shared in a single covalent bond, a double covalent b. gas at room temperature
bond, and a triple covalent bond. Identify the group of c. attracted to an electric current
atoms that will form each of these bonds. 136. Apply The structural formula for acetonitrile, CH 3CN,
is shown below.
Table 8.10 Shared Pairs
H
C—
Number of Shared Atoms that Form
Bond Type H C —N
Electrons the Bond
H
Single covalent
Examine the structure of the acetonitrile molecule.
Double
Determine the number of carbon atoms in the molecule,
covalent identify the hybrid present in each carbon atom, and
Triple explain your reasoning.
covalent

276 Chapter 8 • Covalent Bonding Chapter Test glencoe.com

Challenge Problem
137. Examine the bond-dissociation energies for the various Additional Assessment
bonds listed in Table 8.12.
Chemistry
Table 8.12 Bond-Dissociation Energies
141. Antifreeze Research ethylene glycol, an antifreeze-
Bond-Dissociation Bond-Dissociation coolant, to learn its chemical formula. Draw its Lewis
Bond Bond structure and identify the sigma and pi bonds.
Energy (kJ/mol) Energy (kJ/mol)
142. Detergents Choose a laundry detergent to research
C—C 348 O—H 467
and write an essay about its chemical composition.
C=C 614 C—N 305 Explain how it removes oil and grease from fabrics.
C≡C 839 O=O 498
Document-Based Questions
N—N 163 C—H 416
Luminol Crime-scene investigators often use the covalent
N=N 418 C—O 358 compound luminol to find blood evidence. The reaction
between luminol, certain chemicals, and hemoglobin, a pro-
N≡N 945 C=O 745
tein in blood, produces light. Figure 8.26 shows a ball-and-
a. Draw the correct Lewis structures for C 2H 2 and stick model of luminol.
HCOOH. Data obtained from: Fleming, Declan., 2002. The Chemiluminescence of Luminol,
b. Determine the amount of energy needed to break Exemplarchem, Royal Society of Chemistry.

apart each of these molecules.

a

Cumulative Review
b
138. Table 8.13 lists a liquid’s mass and volume data. Create a
line graph of this data with the volume on the x-axis and
the mass on the y-axis. Calculate the slope of the line.
What information does the slope give you? (Chapter 2)
c
Table 8.13 Mass v. Volume
■ Figure 8.26
Volume Mass
4.1 mL 9.36 g 143. Determine the molecular formula for luminol and
draw its Lewis structure.
6.0 mL 14.04 g
144. Indicate the hybrid present on the atoms labeled A, B,
8.0 mL 18.72 g and C in Figure 8.26.
10.0 mL 23.40 g NH2 O

139. Write the correct chemical formula for each compound. H C C -

C C O
(Chapter 7)
-
a. calcium carbonate C C O
b. potassium chlorate H C C
c. silver acetate
H O
d. copper(II) sulfate
e. ammonium phosphate
APA ion
140. Write the correct chemical name for each compound.
■ Figure 8.27
(Chapter 7)
a. NaI 145. When luminol comes in contact with the iron ion in
b. Fe(NO 3) 3 hemoglobin, it reacts to produce Na 2APA, water,
c. Sr(OH) 2 nitrogen, and light energy. Given the structural for-
d. CoCl 2 mula of the APA ion in Figure 8.27, write the chemi-
e. Mg(BrO 3) 2 cal formula for the polyatomic APA ion.

Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 8 • Assessment 277

Cumulative

Standardized Test Practice

Multiple Choice
1. The common name of SiI 4 is tetraiodosilane. What is 6. The central selenium atom in selenium hexafluo-
its molecular compound name? ride forms an expanded octet. How many electron
A. silane tetraiodide pairs surround the central Se atom?
B. silane tetraiodine A. 4 C. 6
C. silicon iodide B. 5 D. 7
D. silicon tetraiodide
Use the table below to answer Questions 7 and 8.
2. Which compound contains at least one pi bond?
Bond Dissociation Energies at 298 K
A. CO 2
B. CHCl 3 Bond kJ/mol Bond kJ/mol
C. AsI 3 Cl–Cl 242 N≡N 945
D. BeF 2 C–C 345 O–H 467

Use the graph below to answer Questions 3 and 4. C–H 416 C–O 358

5
C–N 305 C=O 745
H–I 299 O=O 498
4
Electronegativity

H–N 391
3

2 7. Which diatomic gas has the shortest bond between

its two atoms?
1 A. HI C. Cl 2
0
B. O 2 D. N 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Atomic number 8. Approximately how much energy will it take to
break all the bonds present in the molecule below?
3. What is the electronegativity of the element with H H
atomic number 14?
N
A. 1.5
—

B. 1.9 H C O
—

C. 2.0 —
H C H C H
—

D. 2.2
H O
4. An ionic bond would form between which pairs of A. 3024 kJ/mol
elements? B. 4318 kJ/mol
A. atomic number 3 and atomic number 4 C. 4621 kJ/mol
B. atomic number 7 and atomic number 8 D. 5011 kJ/mol
C. atomic number 4 and atomic number 18
D. atomic number 8 and atomic number 12 9. Which compound does NOT have a bent molecular
shape?
5. Which is the Lewis structure for silicon disulfide? A. BeH 2 C. H 2O
A. S Si S B. H 2S D. SeH 2
B. S Si S 10. Which compound is nonpolar?
C. S Si S A. H 2S C. SiH 3Cl
B. CCl 4 D. AsH 3
D. S Si S

278 Chapter 8 • Assessment Standardized Test Practice glencoe.com

 Short Answer SAT Subject Test: Chemistry
11. Oxyacids contain hydrogen and an oxyanion. There Use the list of separation techniques below to answer
are two different oxyacids that contain hydrogen, Questions 15 to 17.
nitrogen, and oxygen. Identify these two oxyacids.
A. filtration D. chromatography
How can they be distinguished on the basis of their
B. distillation E. sublimation
names and formulas?
C. crystallization
Use the atomic emission spectrum below to answer
15. Which technique separates components of a
Questions 12 and 13.
mixture with different boiling points?

16. Which technique separates components of a

400 500 600 700 mixture based on the size of its particles?
Nanometers
17. Which technique is based on the stronger attraction
12. Estimate the wavelength of the photons being some components have for the stationary phase
emitted by this element. compared to the mobile phase?

13. Find the frequency of the photons being emitted by Use the table below to answer Questions 18 to 19.
this element.
Electron-Dot Structures
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Extended Response Group
Diagram Li Be B C N O F Ne
Use the table below to answer Question 14.
Percent Abundance of Silicon Isotopes
18. Based on the Lewis structures shown, which
Isotope Mass Percent Abundance elements will combine in a 2:3 ratio?
28Si 27.98 amu 92.21 % A. lithium and carbon
29Si 28.98 amu 4.70 % B. beryllium and fluorine
30Si
C. beryllium and nitrogen
29.97 amu 3.09 %
D. boron and oxygen
E. boron and carbon
14. Your lab partner calculates the average atomic
mass of these three silicon isotopes. His average 19. How many electrons will beryllium have in its outer
14.X
atomic mass value is 28.98 amu. Explain why your energy level after it forms an ion to become chemi-
lab partner is incorrect, and show how to calculate cally stable?
the correct average atomic mass. A. 0 D. 6
B. 2 E. 8
C. 4

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Standardized Test Practice glencoe.com Chapter 8 • Assessment 279