Outline

Part 1: Introduction
• Plate tectonic Concept: Inter- and Intra-plate settings/Tectonic Processes
• Precambrian vs Phanerozoic (Modern) Tectonic Processes
• Global overview: Connection between Global orogenic Belts and
Supercontinet Cycles (Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic
and Phanerozoic Global Events)

Part 2: The Tanzanian Craton

• Mesoarchean to Neoarchean Evolution (4.0 - 2.5 Ga) (TTG suits,
Greenstone- Kavirondian Supergroup)

Part 3: The Proterozoic Mobile Belts of Tanzania

• Paleoproterozoic: Ubendian-Usagaran Belt
• Mesoproterozoic: Karagwe-Ankolen Belt (Kibaran/Irumide events)
• Neoproterozoic: Mozambique Belt
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt
Gabon Belt Ruwenzori Belt

Proterozoic orogenic cycles of Africa

Usagaran Belt

Kimezia

Limpopo
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt
The Mozambique Belt, defined by Holmes
(1951), is a Neoproterozoic Orogenic Belt that
stretches from southern Mozambique through
East Africa to the Arabian Peninsula (Arabian-
Nubian Shield, ANS). Stern (1994) named this
orogen as the East African Orogen (EAO).

The East African Orogen, extends from

southern Israel, Sinai and Jordan in the north to
Mozambique and Madagascar in the south, is
the world´ s largest Neoproterozoic to
Cambrian orogenic complex. It comprises a
collage of individual oceanic domains and
continental fragments between the Archean
Sahara–Congo–Kalahari Cratons in the west
and Neoproterozoic India in the east.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

Traditionally, the EAO is subdivided into the

Arabian–Nubian Shield (ANS) in the north,
composed largely of juvenile Neoproterozoic
Crust and the Mozambique Belt (MB) in the
south comprising mostly pre Neoproterozoic
crust with a Neoproterozoic - early Cambrian
tectonothermal overprint.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

The type area of the MB Orogenic Belt is

in northern Mozambique and the major
rock types are:

Multiply deformed biotite-hornblende

gneisses and migmatities largely derived
from granitoid precursors, marbles,
amphibolites, and post-kinematic
granitoids and pegmatites.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

The Arabian-Nubian shield is dominated by low

to medium grade juvenile rocks including
remnant ophiolites and island arcs. Low grade
metamorphosed, ophiolite decorated nappes,
are surrounded by high-grade migmatic gneiss
domes and intruded by island arc related
granitoids.

WHEREAS
The Mozambique Belt towards the south in
Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique is
characterized by higher grade of metamorphism
(Amphibolite to Granulite facies), less juvenile
material and increased reworking of older
crustal components.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

Orogen consolidation in the EAO was

achieved during distinct phases of orogeny
between 890 and 500 Ma.

In the ANS the ocean closed during a

protracted period of island-arc and
microcontinent accretion between 890 and
580 Ma.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt
 30˚ 40˚ Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

0˚

8˚

12˚
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

Tectonothermal events in the south

of the ANS, in southeastern Africa
and Madagascar, occurred at two
distinct time windows:
• An event in the Central
Mozambique Belt at ca. 650 - 620
Ma referred to as the East African
Orogeny. Characterizes the largely
juvenile Eastern Granulite
(Tanzania) and Cabo Delgado
Nappe Complex (Mozambique)

• An event in Southern
Mozambique Belt at ca. 600 - 500
Ma events as the Kuunga
Orogeny. Late Neoproterozoic to
early Paleozoic nappe assembly.
 Part 3: Mozambique Belt

The Mozambique Belt in Tanzania

was divided into three domains by
Hepworth 1972, named the Western
granulite, the Central Domain and
the Eastern Granulite. However, the
tectonic map of Fritz et al. 2005
distinguished the Western Granulite
and the Eastern Granulite, the
division that we will adopt here (left
map).

The western granulite belt is

predominated by upper amphibolite
facies grade ortho-gneisses,
charnokitic gneisses, amphibolites,
quartzites, and granulites.
 Part 3: Mozambique Belt
Western Granulites are inferred
to represent Paleoproterozoic
and Archean crusts, overprinted
by Pan-African granulite-facies
metamorphism. Typical
occurrences of the western
granulites are in the Rubeho, and
Nguru Mts amd part of the
Udzungwa and Mbarike Mts.

The term Western Granulite Belt

was introduced by Fritz et al.
2005 and defined it as a
Neoproterozoic mobile belt
(640-620 Ma) reworking older
crust, with the existence of
inherited magmatic and
metamorphic ages clustering at
2.6-2.3 and 1.8 Ga.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

The “Western Granulites” records

clockwise post-isobaric cooling
conditions of 14 kbar and 850 °C.

U-Pb zircon dating of charnokitic

and garnet-biotite gneisses
indicate that the protoliths of the
gneisses were emplaced at 2.7 Ga.
The presence of zircon xenocrysts
dated at 2.8 and 3.0 Ga indicate
the presence of an older basement
in the gneisses.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt
The protolith of most of the “Eastern
Granulites, EG” consists of andesitic
to dacitic metavolcanics which were
emplaced during an event of
regional Calc-Alkaline magmatism
that were emplaced between 970
and 680 Ma.

Metamagmatic rocks at the

structural base of the Eastern
Granulite Cabo Delgado Nape
Complex (EGCD) yield emplacement
ages of:

• 740–684 Ma in Uganda
• 880–820 Ma in Tanzania
• 973–740 Ma in Mozambique
• 850–700 Ma in southwestern
Madagascar
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

The Calc-Alkaline igneous

rocks were emplaced in
extending lower crust or
represent roots of volcanic
arcs.

Metasediments at the
structural top of the EGCD,
including 800 - 600 Ma marble
suites (Melezhik et al., 2008),
were deposited on thinned
crust.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

Thus, the eastern granulites

represent juvenile additions
from the mantle during the
Neoproterozoic.

The rocks were subsequently

metamorphosed to
intermediate to high-pressure
granulite facies. Many
metamorphic ages cluster
around 620 Ma.

The typical garnet-pyroxene-

amphibole-plagiocalse
granulite are widely seen in
the Pare, Usambara,
Uluguru, and Mahenge Mts.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

Apart from granulites, other

lithologies characteritic of estern
granulite belt include marbles,
quartzites, schists, kyanite and
graphite-bearing gneisses.

Abundant gemstone-bearing
pegmatites and post-orogenic
granites also occur. The granulites
are cross-cut by minor intrusive
bodies of gabbros, serpentinite,
pyroxenite and anorthosites which
also bear the granulite facies
metamorphic overprint.
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt

Thee “Eastern Granulites” show an

anticlockwise isobaric cooling PTt
paths demonstrated by the retrograde
development of kyanite in metapelites
and garnet – cpx coronas around opx
in mafic lithologies.

In all the granulite complexes, peak

metamorphic conditions are estimated
at 9.5-11 kb and 810 ± 40 °C and peak
metamorphism occurred at ~640 Ma
ago (the range is 620 to 650 Ma for
Uluguru and Usambara granulites,
Moeller et al., 1994) and had cooled
by 480 – 540 Ma.
 The geology and mineral
map of Tanzania (Pinna
et al., 2008), newly
redefines the Western
Granulites to fall within
the Usagaran Belt.

Paleoproterozoic Usagaran Belt Neoproterozoic East African Orogen

 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt
Delamination crustal thickening by magmatic underplating: The
metaigneous suite of Tanzania contains anorthosites as a characteristic
member that yields overwhelmingly 900–700 Ma formation ages
 GEODYNAMIC MODEL OF EVOLUTION OF THE MB

The anticlockwise isobaric cooling (ACW-IBC) P-T path deduced for all the
Eastern Granulites, and the progressive slow cooling rates are consistent
with Pan –African granulite facies metamorphism in Eastern Tanzania being
caused by underplating and intrusion of magmas into the crust, causing
heating and burial. Cessation of magmatic activity initiated slow cooling
rates. Thus, the collision of East and West Gondwana has not directly
caused the granulite facies metamorphism in the Tanzania MB (Moeller et
al., 2000, Precam Res 104, 123 – 146). This would lead to the notion that
the collision did not occur until 550 Ma when the granulites had cooled
below 500 °C and is supported by the palaeomagnetic data.

This model stress that the granulite facies orthogneisses are a product of
~815 Ma old mantle derived andesitic and dacitic magmatism formed in a
convergent margin setting. The rocks were subsequently metamorphosed
into granulite facies at ~640 Ma. The 815 Ma of crust formation in the
Usambara granulites is within the range of 650 – 850 Ma phase of
convergent margin juvenile calc-alkaline magmatism in Saudi Arabia, Israel,
Jordan, Egypt and Sudan of the ANS.
 Gondwana Major Collisions
Kuungan Orogeny (600 - 500 Ma)
DB: Damara Belt
EG: Eastern Ghats
LB: Lufilian Belt
Sahara Arabia PBB: Prydz Bay Belt
Metacraton SR: Sør Rondane
ANS ZB: Zimbabwe Belt

East African Orogeny (650 - 600 Ma)

ANS: Arabian - Nubian Shield
MZB: Mozambique Belt

Congo MZB
car
India
agas

Tanzania
Craton/ EG
Mad

Bangweulu Fig 2
Block Australia
PBB Craton
LB ZB SR

Central Dronning
Maud Land
DB East Antarctic
Zimbabwe Maud Belt Craton
Kalahari
Craton

Figure 1
 Lake ANS
Victoria
n Africa
a ra
b
E Ki lt
N Be Fig. 2

Eastern
Legend
4° Granulite
nappes Geochronological data source
Western * Boniface et al. (2012)

elt
Granulite
** Boniface & Schenk (2012)

B
N

bique
&

Indian Ocean
Boniface & Appel (2017)

59
Lake Ta n

Th 550
Tanzania

6-
*** Boniface & Appel (2018)

rus Ma

Mozam
590 Ma*
Craton a 400 km

t
ga Hauzenberger et al (2014)
ny §
Mtabazi et al (submitted)
i
ka

590-520 Ma** &&

Mandawa Ring et al (2002)
Ub 600-560 Ma §

us
8° en elt Dated lithology/metamorphic grade

Selo
B

a
di 570-550 Ma*** n

Ruvum
an
g ara Granulite facies metamorphism
Be a
lt Us Eclogite
Bangweulu Geologic units
565 Ma &
Block

ue Belt
530-500 Ma && Neoproterozoic to Phanerozoic sediments

Mozambiq
Mbamba Bay Neoproterozoic- Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS)
610 - 560 Ma a
Marrupa Neoproterozoic nappe complex
Archean/Paleoproterozoic: Western Granulite
12° elt
Lake Nyasa

B with Neoproterozoic Imprint

ide Unango Cabo-Delgado
m
Iru nappes
Mesoproterozoic with 600 - 500 Ma imprint

rn Mesoproterozoic
the Belt
Sou ide
Irum Nampula Block Paleoproterozoic with 590 - 500 Ma imprint

Archean
30° 35° 40°
 Arabia

Sahara
Metacraton Arabian Nubian Shield

Mozambique Belt
rift

580 -
Tanzania
iled
Craton

550 t
a

car
Ga F
Congo India

agas
590

rust
Craton -50
1.34

Mad
Uf Ma su
ipa bd
uct
oc ion
Bangweulu an e
Block Unangu
Marrupa

Lufilian Zambezi
Belt Belt

Damara
Belt
East Antarctic
Craton

Zimbabwe-Kalahari
Craton

Legend
Ufipa Orogeny (570 - 550)/reworked Ubendian-Usagaran
Kuungan Orogeny (600 - 500 Ma)
East African Orogeny (650 - 600 Ma)

Figure 3
 Introduction
Part 3: Mozambique Belt
Condensed timetable of major geologic events in the East African Orogen. EGCD: Eastern
Granulite–Cabo Delgado Nappe Complex; Mad: Madagascar; Ub–Us: Usagaran/Ubendian
Belts; WG: Western Granulite Belt; IB (Z–M): Irumide Belt of Zambia and Malawi; IB (M):
Irumide Belt of Mozambique.
 GEODYNAMIC MODEL OF EVOLUTION OF THE MB
Cartoon showing the formation of the MB due to collision between East and West Gondwana
according to the Meert and Van der Voo model (1997) which integrates peak metamorphic ages
and paleomagnetic data
GEODYNAMIC MODEL OF EVOLUTION OF THE MB
 MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT

The Mozambique belt in Tanzania has traditionally been termed “a

gemstone belt” because of the abundance of a variety of
gemstones found in this belt. Recent exploration efforts by the
companies, however, shows that the MB is also prospective for
gold mineralization. Two possible explanations for the presence of
gold mineralization in the MB:
The MB consists of portions of reworked Archean crust
The E-W structure that characterize the Archean Tanzania
craton and greenstone belts extends into the Mozambique Belt.
GOLD MINERALIZATION
1. Merela, Morogoro
2. Kilindi Handeni (in Mkulumu, Lundamila, Kwandege and
Magambazi prospects)

At Merela, gold mineralization is localized in sheared ferrugnious

quartzites interbedded with biotite-gneisses.
 MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT
At Mkulumu, gold mineralization is associated with pervasive
sulphidation where sulphides replaces ferrous and mafic minerals
in amphibolitic gneisses.

At Lundamila, gold mineralization is associated with sulphides and

is localized in a very coarse grained tremolite-actinolite-rich
amphibole unit
Gold mineralization at Kwandege prospect is found as free nuggets
in quartz veins. The reefs are not associated with sulphide
mineralization and were found in lateritic soils and weathered
bedrock
At Magambazi, gold mineralization is found in quartz reefs that are
associated with abundant arsenopyrite. The ore show various
degrees of oxidation, leaching and box-work textures. The
mineralization is also found as free gold nuggets in garnetiferrous
gneiss.
 MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT

Auriferous garnet-rich Auriferous garnetiferous Gold-bearing tremolite-

amphibolite from Merela gneiss from Magambazi actinolite rock from
Lundamila

Gold nuggets in quartz

vein from Kwandege
prospect
MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT

GEMSTONE MINERALIZATION
A gemstone or gem (also called a precious or semi-precious
stone, a fine gem, or jewel) is a piece of mineral, which, in cut and
polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments.

A variety of gemstone mineralization is known to occur the

Mozambique Belt of Tanzania. These include Tanzanite, rubby,
sapphire, corundum, emerald, aquamarine, garnet (almandine,
tsavorite, rhodolite), amethyst quartz, rose quartz, green and
yellow tourmaline, chalcedony (chrysoprase), opal etc.
 MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT

TANZANITE (Blue/Puple zoesite)

Tanzanite is found at Merelani in Simanjiro district. It is found in
boudinaged pegmatitic veins/structures typically located in the
hinges of isoclinal folds, the host rocks being hydrothermally altered
graphite bearing diopside gneisses. For details, consult Malisa and
Muhongo (1990), Precambrian Research, 46, 167 – 176.
 MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT
RUBY (CORUNDUM)
Ruby is red chromiferous gemstone variety of corundum (Al2O3) in
which some of the Al3+ have been substituted by Cr3+. Rubby
mineralization occurs within a vein of zoisite amphibolites (locally
known as anyolite) associated with hydrothermally altered ultramafic
rocks at Longido (Mundara mine). The anyolite veins intrude
ultramafic bodies and runs parallel to foliation trends. The ultramafic
bodies at Longido are overlain by banded garnet rich amphibolites,
and orthogneisses.

Apart from Longido, ruby is also known to occur at Mahenge and

Matombo in Morogoro (ruby and saphire in marbles), Usambara
mts (ruby and sapphire), Umba river in Tanga (ultramafic rocks or
marbles), Tunduru district in Songea (alluvial ruby in placers).
MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT
EMERALD (Berly)
Emerald is known to occur in Mayoka village at the southern
tip of Lake Manyara in Manyara region. It also ocurs at Ponda
near Sumbawanga town in Rukwa region. In Manyara, the
mineralization occurs in pegmatites at the contact between
biotite-actinolite schists and gneisses.
MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT

TSAVORITE AND RHODOLITE (GARNET)

Tsavorite and Rhodolite garnet occur in a variety of
metamorphic rocks in Simanjiro district. Almandine and pyrope
garnet occur in Muhwesi river (Tunduru), Umba river valley in
Tanga, Morogoro, Handeni and Korogwe. They are hosted in
various metamorphic rocks and also occur as alluvial in river beds

Tsavorite garnet Rhodolite garnet

Almandine garnet
 MINERALIZATION IN THE MOZAMBIQUE BELT

Other minerals in the Pan African Mozambique Belt include:

Magnesite (at Chambongo near Same) in the ultramafic roks

surrounded by high-grade rocks.

Bauxite (at Lushoto) as products of weathering of high-grade rocks

of the MB

Graphite (at Merelani and Chiliogali Hills southeast of Nachingwea)

in the high- grade graphite-bearing schists and gneisses.