MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS 1

BPHY 1101

COURSE OUTLINE:
1. VECTOR ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS IN PHYSICS.
2. DERIVATIVES OF A FUNCTION AND INTEGRATION.
3. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATIONS.
4. CURL AND DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FUNCTION OF
POSITION.
5. SERIES

Course work/ assignment

 Choose and answer any two of the following questions.
 Submit by the set deadline.

Qn.1a) What is meant by;

(i) Non-collinearity of points A, B, and C.
(ii) A unit vector parallel to a given vector, p.
b) Investigate the collinearity of:
(i) A (-1, 4) B (0, 2) and C (2, -2)
(ii) P (3, 1, -1) Q(4, -1, 5) and R(2, 3, -7)
c) At a position vector of ( -2i +3j – k) m, a particle in space is at rest. A
force then accelerates it uniformly at (2i –j) ms-2 for 2 seconds. Given
that the particle weighs 0.25 milligrams,
(i) find the force that accelerates the particle.
(ii) how far from the origin is the particle after 2 seconds?

Qn.2a) What is meant by a:

(i) Directional derivative of a function f(x,y,z)?
(ii) Curl of a vector function of position?

b) A multi-variable function h(x,y,z)= 4xz3-3x2y2 is at a point P(1, -2, 1) in

the direction of a vector m= 3i -2j +6k. Find the:
(i) directional derivative of h(x,y,z).
(ii) unit vector normal to the surface containing h(x,y,z).
(iii) curl of h(x,y,z).

Qn.3 a(i) Define integral of a trigonometric function y= f(x).

(ii) A particle moves along a straight line with its acceleration at any
instant given by a = (ƛ +βv2); where v is the instantaneous velocity of the
particle, while ƛ and β are constants. Initially the particle is at rest at a point
O, on the line. If the displacement of the particle from O during the motion
is, s, show that:
V2 = ƛ/β(e2βs -1).

b) From first principles, show that, d(tanθ) = sec2θ.

dθ

Qn.4 a) Define:
(i) an arithmetic series
(ii) a geometric series
b) Triangular numbers are defined as the sum of consecutive natural
numbers. Given a set of natural numbers N = {1,2,3,4,…..}. Prove that the
nth triangular number is given by,
n(n+1)
2

c) A geometric series is given by,

S = (√2-1) +(3 -2√2) +………
rd
Find the 3 term of the series.
Qn.5a) What is meant by:
(i) a geometric mean?
(ii) a harmonic mean?
b) A progression is given by,
Sn = Σ {n(n+2)}.
Find the value of Sn from 1 to 10 inclusive.
c) Two numbers p=1/2 and q=1/8 are in a series. Determine the;
(i) arithmetic mean of p and q.
(ii) geometric mean of the series.
(iii)harmonic mean of the numbers.

Qn.6a) Given two vectors A and B are such that; (A + B) = 11i – j + 5k and
(A – B) = -5i + 11j +9k. Find:
i) A
ii) │B│
iii) Angle between A X B and B.
b) Show that A . (B X C) = -A . (C X B)
Qn.7a) Given that A = xi + yj +zk.
Prove that the length of A =√(x2 +y2 + z2)
b) A force F = (4i + 6j – 2k)N is applied to a point P which is a distance
r = 2i + 3j + 2k from point O. Find the moment of the force about the point
O.
Qn.8a) If A = 5t2i + tj – t3k and B = sint i – costj. Find:
i) d (A . B)
dt

ii) d (A X B)
dt
b) A force, F = 3x2yi – 10yzj + 6x2k acts on a particle. Find the work
done in moving the particle along a curve given by,
x = (t +1)
y = t2
z = (t2 – 1); from t = 2 to t = 3.
Qn.9a) State Gauss’s theorem/ divergence theorem:
i) in words
ii) in rectangular form.
b) Obtain ∫∫ F . n ds; Where;
F = 2xzi – y2j - yk
x = 0, x = 2
y = 1, y = 2
z = 2, z = 4
Qn.10a) Given that, A = x2yi – 2xzj + 2yzk. Find the:
i) CurlA
ii) CurlA at (1, -1, 2)
iii) Divergence of A.
b) Evaluate;
∫∫∫F . dV, where;
F = 6xyzi + xzj – 6zx2k
x = 0, x = 2
y = 0, y = 4
z = 0, z = 4
Qn.11a) A particle moves along the curves:
x = tet
y = t2 – 4t3
z = 3t2 - 1
Where, t is the time taken. Find the component of acceleration at t = 1 in the
direction i – 2j + 2k.
b) Show that;
i) ▼X (▼ф) = 0
ii) ▼. (▼X A) = 0
Qn.12a) The vectors A = ai + bj and B =ci + dj form two sides of a
parallelogram. Show that the area of the parallelogram is given by the
absolute value of the determinant a b
 c d
b) Find the directional derivative of ф = exy + xyez at P (1, 0, -1) in the
direction of A = i -2j + 2k.
Qn.13a) P = 2i – j + 4k and q = 5i + 2j – 2k.
i) Show that P and q are orthogonal.
ii) Find a third vector, r which is perpendicular to both P and q.
b) Determine the distance between the lines:
r1 = i – 2j + (i -k) t
r2 = 2j – k + (j – i) t
Qn.14a) Given that Z = Cosθ + iSinθ, show that;
i) Z + 1 = 2Cosθ
Z

ii) Z – 1 = 2iSinθ
Z

b) If Z = 12 (Cos 3000 + i Sin3000); Obtain Z⅕

Qn.15a)

SOURCES OF INFORMATION:
1. Your Head
2. Neighbors
 3. Elders; such as your lecturer, parent, etc.
4. Library
5. Internet

1. VECTOR ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS

1.1: Definitions & illustrations.

A vector is a quantity defined in magnitude and direction.
Examples include; velocity, acceleration, momentum, impulse, etc.
A vector is illustrated, mathematically, by use of a bold letter, such as
a, or by use of symbols, ā, or, â, or, a. This is then read as vector a.
A vector can be represented in column form, a = x ; or in the i, j, k
notation as a =(xi +yj)
y

Or,
a = ( xi + yj + zk ); for the three dimensional vectors.

1.2: Position vectors & Displacement vectors.

A position vector is one that describes the position of a particle in a
plane or in space. It describes the location of a particle on a plane or in space
from a fixed point known as the origin.
Example:
OA = a, is a position vector of a point A with co-ordinates (x, y);
such that a =(xi +yj).
y-axis
.A(x, y)

x-axis

For a particle in space, it is described by three values x, y, and z.

The co-ordinates of a point A in space are given by A (x, y, z). So the
position vector of A is given by, OA = a = (xi + yj + zk).
 x
Or, y
z

Displacement vectors are those that describe the movement of a particle

from one position/location to another. That is,

∆y

A ………………… ∆x

So the displacement AB = ( ∆xi + ∆yj ).

A displacement vector, AB, can be written in terms of position vectors of
points A and B. That is,
AB = AO + OB; Where O is the Origin.
But,
AO = -OA = -a.
So,
AB = -OA + OB
= -a + b
= ( b - a ).
Therefore we can generally deduce that any given displacement vector;
PQ = ( q - p ) in terms of its position vectors.

1.3: Magnitude of a vector

Also known as the size, length, or modulus of a vector, such as;

a =( xi +yj ) or p = ( xi + yj + zk ) is given by,

│a│= √ ( x2 + y2 ). Or,

│p│= √ ( x2 + y2 + z2 ).
Proof:
Consider a point A (x, y) on a plane. The position vector of A is OA,
given as = -a.

y A (x,y)

O x
N

From Pythagoras’ theorem,

OA2 = ON2 + NA2

│OA│2 = │ON│2 +│ NA│2

│a│2 = (∆x)2 + (∆y)2

│a│2 = x2 + y2
Therefore,
│a│ = √ ( x2 + y2); hence proved.

Consider a point, P (x, y, z) in space. The position vector of P will be OP.

Z- axis
Y- axis
R
From triangle OPQ,

│ OQ│2 = │ OP│2 +│ PQ│2

Q = x2 + y2
X-axis
O
And,
│OR│2 = │OQ│2 +│QR│2

= ( x2 + y 2 ) + z2

│r│ = √ (x2 + y2 + z2); hence proved.

Unit vectors.
A unit vector u is one with a magnitude equal to one. That is,
│u│ = 1.
Examples of unit vectors include:
 Vector, i = 1
0
 Vector, j = 0
1
 Vector, i = 1
0
0
 Vector, j= 0
1
0

 Vector, k= 0
0
1

A unit vector parallel to a given vector, a is given by,

U=a
│a│

Example:
Determine the unit vector parallel to the vector, p = 3i + 4j.
Solution:
Magnitude of p is given by,
│p│ = √(x2 + y2)

│p│ = √(32 +42)

│p│ = √(25)

│p│ = 5
And by definition,
Unit vector, U = p
│p│
So,
U = (3i + 4j)
5
Therefore, U = 3 i + 4 j
 5 5
Question:
Determine the unit vector parallel to the vector;
a) P = (6i – 8j)
b) Q = (-4i + 3j)
c) R = (2i + 3j - √3k)
d) S = (i – j + k)
e) T = (-20i + 15j)
1.4: Algebra of vectors.
Given 2 or 3- dimensional vectors p, q, and r; then
i) (p + q) – r = p + (q – r)
ii) (p – q) + r ≠ p – (q + r)
iii)(p + q) = (q + p); Commutativity of vector addition.
iv)(p – q) ≠ (q – p); Vector subtraction is NOT Commutative.
v)(p + q) + r = p + (q + r); Associativity of vector addition.
vi)(p – q) – r ≠ p – (q – r); Non- associativity of vector subtraction.

1.5: Parallel Vectors.

Vectors a and b are said to be parallel, if and only if;
 a = kb
 a and b do not meet on the same Cartesian plane or space.
 a and b lie on the same straight line.
That is, a

a
b
Or,
b

1.6: Collinear Points.

The joining of any two points forms a line. However, for a straight
line, there must exist at least three points, A, B, and C.
Collinear points are any three or more points that lie on the same
straight line. That is,

│C
B│
A│
So for the points A, B, and C to be collinear, then vector AB must be
parallel to vector BC. Therefore,
AB = k BC
Question1:
Determine which of the given set of points are collinear.
a) A (2, -1) B (1, 0) C (0, 1)
b) P (3, 1, -1) Q (4, -1, 5) R (2, 3, -7)
c) S (-1, 1, 3) T (5, -1, 4) U (-7, 3, 2)
d) L (3, -1) M (0, -3) N (5, 1/3)
Question 2:
Given that points A (λ, (λ-2), β) B ( (λ+1), β, (β+6) ) and
C ( (β+3), λ, -7) are collinear, find the possible values of λ and β.
1.7: Vector multiplication
Vector multiplication, exists in the following ways;
i) Scalar multiplication
ii) Dot product of vectors
iii) Cross/ vector product of vectors
Scalar multiplication;
Given a scalar k and a vector a, the scalar product of k and a is
defined as,
Ka = K (xi + yj)
= ( Kxi + Kyj)
Example:
Given vectors a = (2i + j – k); b = (-i – 2j); c = (1/3i – j +2k),
find the values of :
i) 2b
ii) -1/2b
iii) (1/2a + 3c)
iv) (a + b – c)
Solutions:
i) 2a = 2(2i +j – k)
= (4i + 2j - 2k)
ii) -1/2b = -1/2 (-i – 2j)
= (1/2i +j)
iii) (1/2a +3c) = ½ (2i + j – k) +3 (1/3i – j + k)
= (i + 1/2j – 1/2k) + (i – 3j + 3k)
= (2i - 5/2j +5/2k)
iv) (a +b – c) = (2i + j – k) + (-i – 2j) – (1/3i – j + k)
= (2/3i – 2k)
Dot product of vectors:
 The dot product/ scalar product of vectors a and b is defined as,
a . b = │a││b│cos θ; Where θ is the angle between
the vectors, a and b.

a
θ0
b

Since the angle between unit vectors parallel to the axes is 900, then
i . j = i . k = j . i = j . k = 0, because the cosine of 900 is zero.
Also,
Since the angle between any two parallel vectors is 00, then
i . i = j . j = k. k = 1, because the cosine of 00 is equal to one.

So, given a = (a1i + a2j + a3k) and b = (b1i + b2j + b3k); then

a . b = a1 b1

a2 . b2 = a1b1 +a2b2 + a3b3

a3 b3

NOTE:

All orthogonal vectors a and b, that is vectors perpendicular to each

other,

a . b = 0.

900

Question1:

If vectors p, q, and r, are given by,

P = (3i – j + 2k); q = (i + 2j – k); r = (2i + j – 2.5k) .

Determine:

i) p . q

ii) │p││q│

iii) angle between p and q.

iv) which of the vectors are orthogonal.

Question 2:

A particle of mass ½ kg, takes off from a point P (3, 1, -1)m with a
velocity of (2i –j) ms-1. It then accelerates uniformly at (i + j – k) ms-2 for 2
seconds. Determine the:

a) Speed of the particle at 2 seconds.

b) Displacement from the origin after 2 seconds.

c) Change in the kinetic energy of the particle.

d) Deviation of the particle from the original direction

Cross product of vectors

Also called the vector product of vectors p and q, is defined as,

i) P x q = │P││q│ṉ sinα; Where

α: is the angle between the vectors.

ṉ: is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing both P

and q.

ii) Pxq= i j k

P1 P2 P3

q1 q2 q3

Where P =( P1i + P2j + P3k); and q = (q1i + q2j + q3k)

= (-1)2i (Co- factors of i) + (-1)3j( Co- factors of j)+ (-1)4k (Co- factors of k)
So,

P x q = i P2 P3 - j P1 P3 + k P1 P2

q2 q3 q1 q3 q1 q2

= i (P2q3 – P3q2) – j (P1q3 – P3q1) + k (P1q2 – P2q1)

NOTE:

Given that, P x q = r; then

ṉ= r

│r│

Question 1:

Given vectors P = (i + 2j – 3k); q = (-2i + j + k); r = (i – j + 2k).

a) Determine the followings:

i) P x q ii) P x r iii) q x r

b) Find the unit vector perpendicular to both:

i) P and q ii) P and r iii) q and r

Question 2:

Three vectors a, b, and c, are given by

a = (βi + (β+4)j + (β – 4)k)

b = (3i – j + 2k)

c = ((β – 5)i + j + (β – 2)k)

If vectors, a and c normal to each other, determine the:

i) Possible values of β.

ii)Angle between a and b for which βmax

iii) Unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing both b and c, for βmin.
iv) Angle between a and c, for βmin.

Question 3:

a) Explain the following statements:

i) P // q ii) PQ ≠ QR iii) a // b

b) Prove that the magnitude of a three dimensional vector OP is given

by,

│OP│ = √(x2 + y2 + z2); Where P = (xi + yj + zk).

Question 4:

a)(i) Define ‘equal vectors’

(ii) Show that a . b = 1, if a = b.

b) A particle initially at a point A has its position vector at any time, t is

defined by,

r = {2t3i – t2j + (4t – 5)k}metres.

The particle takes off from A and reaches B after 2 seconds.

i) How far is A from B?

ii) Find the co-ordinates of B.

iii) What is the initial velocity of the particle?

Question 5:

a)(i) Define collinearity of points P, Q, and R.

ii) Prove that,

│a . b│2 + │a x b│2 = │a│2│b│2

b) A body of mass 0.1kg takes off with a velocity of (i + j – k) ms-1 and

accelerates uniformly at (j – 2k) ms-2 for 1.0 second. Calculate the change in
the kinetic energy of the body.

2.0: DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS IN PHYSICS

2.1: Definitions

The derivative of a function f (x) with respect to x, written as d f(x)

dx

or, f′(x) is defined as,

f′(x) = Lim {f(x+δx) – f(x)}; for any values of x for

δx→0 δx

which the limit exists.

The expression, d , is the differential operator that commands one to take

dx

a derivative or differentiate.

A derivative may also be called the gradient function of a function y = f(x).

Therefore,

f′(x) = dy

dx

Proof of derivative definition:

Consider a function y = f(x). A straight line AB cuts the curve at points

A(x, f(x)) and B ((x+δx), f (x+δx)).

f(x+δx) B

f(x) ………A…… x

x (x+δx)

The gradient function or derivative of the function is = gradient of AB

 Change in y values

Change in x values

= f(x+δx) – f(x); as δx tends to zero.

(x+δx) – x

=Lim {f(x+δx) – f(x)}

δx→0 δx

Hence proved.

Example:

Find the derivative of f(x) = x2.

Solution:

f(x+δx) = (x+δx)2

= x2+2xδx+(δx)2

From the definition,

f′(x) = Lim {f(x+δx) – f(x)}

δx→0 δx

So,

f′(x) =Lim {(x2+2xδx+(δx)2) – (x2)}

δx→0 δx

f′(x) = Lim {2xδx+(δx)2}

δx→0 δx

f′(x) = Lim {2x+δx}

δx→0

= 2x, as δx→0
Rule for differentiation:

Given a function f(x) = y, the rule for differentiation follows that;

‘multiply the function by the original power, then reduce the original
power by one’.

Example:

Differentiate with respect to x:

a) y =2x3

b) y = x4- 5x

c) y = 2 – x2

x4

Solution:

a) y = 2x3

From the rule,

y = axn

dy = n(axn-1)

dx

So,

dy = 3(2x3-1)

dx

= 6x2

b) y = x4 – 5x

= f1(x) + f2(x)

= f′1(x) + f′2(x)

= 4(x4-1) + 1(5x1-1)
 = 4x3 + 5x0; but any number to power zero is equal to
one.

So,

dy = 4x3 +5 ; is the derivative of the function.

dx

c) y = 2 – x2

x4

= 2 - x2

x4 x4

= 2x-4 – x-2

= -4(2x-4-1) - { -2(x-2-1)}

= -8x-5 + 2x-3

= 2x2 – 8

x5

NOTE:

For polynomials f(x) = axn + bxn-1 + cxn-2 + ……..+ k, it is cheaper to

differentiate it by applying the rule for differentiation rather than pursuing
first principles or the definition.

2.2: Derivatives of trigonometric functions

Functions f(x) containing trigonometric ratios are called trigonometric

functions. That is,

f(x) =sinx

h(x) = 2cosx - sinx

Determining the derivative of a trigonometric function is done by following

the definition of a derivative of any function as discussed earlier.

Example:
Find the derivative of each of the followings:

a) f(x) = sinx

b) h(x) = cosx

c) g(x) = tanx

Solution:

a)By definition,

d f(x) = Lim {f(x+δx) – f(x)}

dx δx→0 δx

So,

d(sinx) = Lim {sin(x+δx) - sinx}

dx δx→0 δx

= Lim {sinxcosδx + sinδxcosx} - sinx}

δx→0 δx

But for small angles, δx,

sinδx→δx; as δx→0

cosδx→1; as δx→0

Therefore,

d(sinx) = Lim {sinx (1) + δxcosx - sinx}

dx δx→0 δx

= Lim {δxcosx}

δx→0 δx

= cosx ………..1

b) h(x) = cosx;
h′(x) = d(cosx) = Lim {h(x+δx) – h(x)}

dx δx→0 δx

= Lim {cos(x+δx) - cosx}

δx→0 δx

= Lim {(cosxcosδx - sinxsinδx) - cosx}

δx→0 δx

But for small angles, δx,

cosδx→1; as δx→0

sinδx→δx; as δx→0

So,

d(cosx) = Lim {cosx(1) – sinx(δx) - cosx}

dx δx→0 δx

= Lim {- sinx(δx)}

δx→0 δx

= - sinx . .…2

c)g(x) = tanx

g′(x) = d(tanx) = Lim {g(x+δx) – g(x)}

dx δx→0 δx

= Lim {tan(x+δx) - tanx}

δx→0 δx

= Lim tanx+tanδx - tanx

(1- tanxtanδx) 1
δx→0 δx
= Lim tanx+tanδx – tanx(1- tanxtanδx)
δx(1- tanxtanδx)
 δx→0

= Lim tanx+ tanδx – tanx + tan2xtanδx

δx→0 δx(1- tanxtanδx)

= Lim tanδx (1 + tan2x)

δx→0 δx(1- tanxtanδx)

But for small angles, δx,

tanδx→δx; as δx→0
So,
d(tanx) = Lim { δx(1 + tan2x}
dx δx→0 δx{1- tanx(δx)}

= Lim (1 + tan2x)
δx→0 (1 – 0)

= (1 + tan2x)
And (1 + tan2x) = sec2x
Therefore,
d(tanx) = sec2x …….3
dx

Question:
Determine the derivative of the following functions from first principles.
a) y = secx b) y = sin2x c) y = cotx d) y = cos2x e) y = cosecx

2.3: Defining and illustrating integration

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. We recall that for
differentiation, given y = axn ; then,
y′ = n(axn-1), is the rule for differentiation.
So, for integration, the rule is:
‘Increase the original power on the variable by one, and then divide
the new power by the term containing the variable’.
Therefore, for y = axn, then y′ = (axn+1) is the rule for integration.
(n+1)
Example:
Integrate with respect to x, given
a) y = 2x b) y = 3x2 – 2 c) y = 1 d) y = x-1
xn
Solution:
a) y =2x,
So,
Integrating y with respect to x is symbolized as,
∫ y dx = ∫ 2x dx
= 2x(1+1) ; using the rule for integration.
(1+1)
= 2x2
2

= x2 + c; Where, c, is an arbitrary constant of integration.

b) y = 3x2 – 2
∫
= (3x2 – 2) dx
= 3x(2+1) – 2x(0+1) +c
(2+1) (0+1)
=3x3 - 2x1 + c
3 1

= x3 - 2x + c

c) y = 1
xn

= x -n ; For │n│˃ 1
So,
∫ ydx = ∫ x -n
dx
(-n+1)
= {x } + c
(-n+1)

= x(1-n) + c
(1-n)

d)y = x-n
For n = 1;
∫ ydx = ∫ x -n
dx;
 = ∫ {1/x} dx
= lnx + c ; Where lnx is the natural logarithm of x.

2.4: Integrating trigonometric functions

Since integration is the reverse process of differentiation, then

d (sinx) = cosx, so taking integral on both sides would mean,

dx

∫ d (sinx) dx = ∫ cosx dx ;
dx

∫ cosx dx = sinx + c …………………….. 1

Also from,

d (cosx) = - sinx, so taking integral on both sides,

dx

∫ d (cosx) dx = - ∫ sinx dx
dx
Multiplying through by a negative,

∫ sinx dx = - cosx + c ……………………... 2

And from,

d (tanx) = sec2x, then

dx

∫ d (tanx) dx = ∫ sec x dx
2

dx
 ∫ sec x dx
2
= tanx + c ……………………… 3

NOTE:
These equations above govern the process of integrating other
trigonometric functions.
The processes of solving Physics/ Mathematics problems using
differentiation and integration is known as Calculus.

2.5: Applications of calculus

a) Calculus of motion:
By definition, velocity is the rate of change of displacement. That is
Velocity, v = change in displacement, δs
change in time, δt

D A Displacement – time sketch graph

δs

Time, t
δt

Instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of displacement at a

particular instant of time.
Therefore, instantaneous velocity, V = velocity at a point on the graph.
= gradient of line AB as δt→0
= δs
δt
So as δt→0, the instantaneous velocity, V, is given by V = ds …… (i)
dt
Also by definition,
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. That is acceleration, a
= change in velocity, δv
change in time, δt
 A velocity – time sketch graph
V

δV

Time, t
δt
So the instantaneous acceleration at a point, P is equal to

a = gradient of line PQ as δt→0

= δV
δt
= dV ; as δt→0
dt
a = d V ……… (ii)
dt
Reversing equation (i) and (ii),
Displacement, s = ∫ V dt …… (iii)

Velocity, V = ∫ a dt …………. (iv)

From the chain rule,

dV=dV . ds
dt ds dt
Substituting in the chain rule from equations (i) and (ii), a = d V . V
ds
a = V d V …………….. (v)
ds
NOTE:
Acceleration which is independent of time is called uniform acceleration.

b) Newton’s law of cooling

 It states that,
‘In draught conditions, the rate of cooling is proportional
to the excess temperature of a body over its surroundings’
Consider a body at a temperature, θb in an enclosure at a temperature, θs.
Then,

θs

θb

Rate of cooling,

d θ is proportional to excess temperature, (θb - θs); θb ˃ θs

dt

So if θ = (θb – θs), then

d θ α (θb - θs);
dt

dθ α θ
dt

d θ = - βθ ; Where β is a cooling constant.

dt

d θ = - βt dt
θ
So integrating both sides, t
θ0 ∫ d θ = - β ∫ dt ; integrating LHS up to θ.
θ 0
 θ
ln {θ} = - βt
θ0

ln θ - ln θ0 = - βt

ln θ = - βt
θ0
θ = θ0e –βt ; Newton’s cooling equation.
c) Radio activity decay
The law of radioactive decay states that,
‘the rate of radioactive decay of a sample is proportional to the
number of radio isotopes present in the element at the time’.
So,
Rate of decay, d N is proportional to N, the radio isotopes present.
dt

dN α N
dt

d N = - λN
dt
Solving for N gives,

N = N0e-λt ; the radioactive decay equation.

Sample Questions:
1. A particle of mass 3kg moves such that its displacement, s, at a time t
seconds is given by,
S = {(3 + sin2t)i + cos2tj} metres
Determine the:
a) Value of t when the particle crosses the x- axis. (Ans.t= π/4 s)
b) Expression for the Velocity, V in terms of t. (Ans. V= 2{cos2ti- sin2tj}
c) Force acting on the particle when t= π/2 s. (Ans. Force, F = 12j N)
2. A police pathologist discovers a dead man in a room with constant room
temperature of 200 c. She immediately measures the temperature of the body
and records it as 35.40 c. After collecting and documenting the evidence at
the scene, 45 minutes later, she again measures the temperature of dead body
as 35.00 c. If the man was discovered at 3: 29 Pm, and that the temperature
of a normal living person is 37.20 c, find the time of death. (Ans. 00: 20 Pm)
3.a) Show that, λ = ln2 from the law of radioactive decay when N = N0 .
t 2
-4
b) A radioactive sample initially contains 1.28 x 10 g of radio isotopes. The
number reduces to 1.5 x 10-5 g after 48 hours. Calculate the percentage mass
of radio isotopes:
i) remaining after 5 days.
ii) lost after 4 days.
4. A body moves along a straight line with its acceleration at any time, t
given by a = ( 5 – 2V), where V is the velocity of the body at a time, t.
Initially the body is at rest.
a) Show that t = ½ ln 5
(5 – 2V)

b) Obtain an expression for V.

c) Find the maximum value of V.
5. A body moves in a straight line such that its velocity, v ={ 2t2 – 11t +14}
ms-1. Initially the displacement of the body from O on the line is 50 m. Find
the:
a) initial velocity of the body.
b) values of t when the body is at rest.
c) acceleration of the body when t = 5 s.
d) average velocity of the body in the 3rd second.
6a). The temperature of a body falls from 2000 c to 1000 c in 40 minutes.
Prove that the temperature, T of the body after a time t is
T = 10 + 190e-βt ; β = 1/40 ln (19/9).
b) The initial number of atoms in a radioactive element is 6.0 x 1020 and its
half-life is 10 hours. Calculate the:
i) number of atoms which decay in 30 hours.
ii) amount of energy liberated if the energy liberated per atom decay is
4.0 x 10 -13 J.
7. A particle moves along a straight line with its acceleration at any instant
given by a = ( α + βv2), where v is the instantaneous velocity while α and β
are constants. Initially the particle is at rest at a point O on the line. If the
displacement of the particle from O during the motion is s, show that,
V2 = α/β (e2βs – 1)
8. A particle of mass 2 kg moves such that the displacement is given by,
S = {(2- cos3t)i + 6 sin2tj} metres.

a) Show that the particle never crosses the y- axis.

 b) Find the speed of the particle when t = π/6 s.
c) What is the force acting on the particle at t = π s.
9. At a certain instant a piece of radioactive material contains 10 12 atoms.
The half- life of the material is 30 days. Calculate the:

a) Number of disintegrations in the first second.

b) Time that will elapse before 104 atoms remain.
c) Count rate at the time of 104 atoms remaining.
10. The velocity, V in metres per second of a particle of mass 2/5 kg at time, t
seconds is given by;

V = 4Sin 2ti + 3e4t j

Find the:
a) Force, F acting on the particle at a time, t.
b) Rate of working of this force at t = π/2 second

3.0: PARTIL DIFFERENTIATION

3.1: Definitions:
 A multi – variable function is a relation that connects two or more
variables. It is an equation that shows the relationship between more than
one variable.
Example:
i) f(x, y) = ex – x/y
ii) h(x, y, z) = 2x2y – 3xz
iii)g(x, y, z) = 3cos(xy) – sin(y2z)
The partial derivative of a multi- variable function f(x, y) with respect
to x, written as , ∂f is defined as,
∂x

∂ f(x, y) = Lim {f((x+h), y) – f(x, y)} ; For

∂x h→0 h
any values of x and y for which the limit exists.

Also, the partial derivative of a function f(x, y) with respect to y, written as

∂ f(x, y) is defined as,
∂y

∂ f(x, y) = Lim f(x, (y+h)) – f(x, y) ; For any

∂y h→0 h
values of x and y for which the limit exists.

The expression ∂, is a partial differential operator that commands one to

∂x
take a partial derivative of a given function with respect to x, and treating the
rest of the variables as constants.
Likewise, the expression ∂ , is a partial differential operator that commands
∂y ,
one to take a partial derivative of a given function with respect to y, and
treating the rest of the variables as constants.
NOTE:
i) ∂ f = ∂ f(x, y) = fx(x, y)
∂x ∂x

ii) ∂ f = ∂ f(x, y) = fy(x, y)

∂y ∂y

iii) We interpret partial derivatives as rates of change in the same way

as we interpret ordinary derivatives of functions of a single variable.
Sample problems:
Qn.1
Given multivariable functions below:
f(x, y) = 3x2 + x3y – 4y2
h(x, y, z) = en – 2xy2z ; Where n = x2
g(x, y, z) = 3yz2 – x3y
Evaluate the followings:
a)∂ f d) ∂ h g) fx(1,0)
∂x ∂y

b) ∂ f e) ∂ g h) gy(-1, 2, -1)
∂y ∂z

c) ∂2f f) ∂2g i) hx(1, -1, 1)

2
∂x ∂x∂z
Qn.2
The Van der Waal’s equation is given by,
P + n2a (V – nb) = nRT ; Where
V2
P, V, and T are the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of an ideal
gas.
Evaluate:
a) ∂ P
∂V

b) ∂ T
∂P

c) ∂ T
∂V

3.2: Higher order partial derivatives

These are derivatives of order two and more. For functions of two
variables, there are four different second partial derivatives. That is,
i)∂ ∂f = ∂2 f = fxx
∂x ∂x ∂x2

ii) ∂ ∂f = ∂2 f = fyy
∂y ∂y ∂y2

iii) ∂ ∂ f = ∂2 f = fxy
 ∂x ∂y ∂x∂y

iv) ∂ ∂f = ∂2 f = fyx
∂y ∂x ∂y∂x

NOTE:
While, ∂2 f may be equal to ∂2 f for some functions, it may not be
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
true for all functions.
The third and even higher order partial derivatives can be obtained
in similar fashion.
Sample Questions
Qn.1
Find all the second – order partial derivatives of the function:
a) f(x, y) = x2y – y3 + lnx

b) h(ω, t) = 2cosω2t – 3 sinωt2

c) g(x, y) = cos(xy) – x2 + y

d) f(x, y) = √(xy) + 2xy2

Qn.2

Write down the following 3rd order partial derivatives in two other
alternative ways.

a)∂3 f

∂x∂y∂z

b)fyxy

c)∂2f ∂ f

∂y2 ∂z

Qn.3

A function f(x, y, z) = cos(ω2xy) + sin(ωyz3), compute the followings:

a)fxyz

b)fyxx

c)fyxy

d)fzxz

e)fzzy

3.3: Applications of partial differentiation

i) Gradient of a scalar function of position:

The gradient of a scalar function of position is given by,

grad ø (x, y. z) = ▼ø (x, y, z).

But,

▼ = ∂ i + ∂ j + ∂ k ; Where are unit vectors along the x, y, and z- axis

∂x ∂y ∂z

of the Cartesian coordinate system.

Question:

Given ø (x, y, z) = (exy – x2yz2), evaluate:

a)▼ø (x, y, z)

b)▼ø (2, -1, 1)

c)│▼ø (1, 1, -1)│

ii) Directional derivative; DD

The quantity, u. ▼ø; where u is a unit vector, is called the directional

derivative of ø (x, y, z) in the direction of u.

The quantity, n = ▼ø is the outward unit vector normal to the surface

│▼ø│
Ø (x, y, z) = a constant.

The maximum rate of change of the function ø (x, y, z) along the normal to
the surface is given by,

n . ▼ø = ∂ (ø . n)

∂n

Sample Questions

Qn.1

Find the directional derivative of ø (x, y, z) = 4xz3 – 3x2y2 at a point

P (2, -1, 2) in the direction of u = 2i – 3j + 6k. (Ans. 544/7).

Qn.2

Determine the unit vector normal to the surface x2yi + yz2j + xz2k =5 at
a point Q (1, 1, 1). (Ans. ⅔ i + ⅓ j + ⅔ k).

Qn.3

A scalar function of position is defined by,

Ø (x, y, z) = 2xz2 – x2y.

At a point P(1, -1, 1) in the direction of vector m = 2i – 3j + 6k, Calculate

the directional derivative associated with it.(Ans. 5).

Qn.4

Given a scalar function ɸ (x, y, z) = x2 – yz, find:

a)▼ɸ

b)a unit vector normal to the surface ɸ (x, y, z) = 5.

Qn.5

A scalar function of position is given by,

ɸ (x, y, z) ={ x2 + siny - xz}.

Find the directional derivative thereof in the direction of vector r, given by

 r = i + 2j – 2k, at the point N (1, π/2, -3). (Ans. 7/ √5).

iii) Divergence of a vector function of position

In Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of a vector function of position

F (x, y, z) is a scalar is a scalar function, divF = ▼ . F. So if,

▼ = ∂ i + ∂ j + ∂ k ; and F = fxi + fyj + fzk

∂x ∂y ∂z

Then,

divF = ▼ . F

= ∂i+∂j+∂k . ( fxi + fyj + fzk)

∂x ∂y ∂z

= ∂ fx + ∂ fy + ∂ fz ; a scalar function.

∂x ∂y ∂z

The divF(x, y, z) , must be defined at all points at which all the indicated
partial derivatives exist.

Example:

The electric potential at a point in space is given by,

V (x, y, z) = A ln (x2 + y2) ; Where A is a constant.

Determine the:

a) electric field intensity.

b) corresponding charge density.

Solution:

By definition,

Electric field intensity, E = - ▼. V

=-∂Vi -∂V-∂V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z

= - 2x i - 2y j - 0k

(x2 + y2) (x2 + y2) (x2 + y2)

= - 2 (x i + y j)

(x2 + y2)

b)Also,

▼.E = - ƿ ; Where: ƿ is the charge density.

ϵ0 ϵ0 is permittivity of the medium.

But,

▼.E = ∂ Ex + ∂ Ey + ∂ Ez

∂x ∂y ∂z

=- 2 - 4x2 + 2 - 4y

(x2 + y2) (x2 + y2) 2 (x2 + y2) (x2 + y2)2

= 0

So,

-ƿ = 0

ϵ0

charge density, ƿ = 0

Sample Questions

Qn.1
 Determine the divergence of a vector function of position, for

F (x, y, z) = (x2 + yz) i + (y2 + zx) j + (z2 + xy) k ; at a point:

a) P (x, y, z)

b) Q (1, -1, 1)

c) R (2, 0, -1)

Qn.2

Compute the divF for:

a)F (x, y, z) = { x2y, (3x-yz), z3}

b)F (x, y, z) = {(x3-y), z5, ey}

Qn.3

Given a vector point function, F ={ x2y i - 2xz k}, find:

a) ▼.F (x, y, z)

b) ▼.F (1, 1, 1)

c) ▼.F (2, -1, -1)

Qn.4

A vector function of position F is given by:

a) F1 = {cos(x-z) i + y2 j + xz k}

b) F2 = {2xz, -3z2, (x2+6yz)}

Evaluate:

i) Divergence of F1 (x, y, z)

ii) Divergence of F2 (0, -2, 0)

iv) Curl of a vector function of position

 Consider a vector function of position F (x, y, z) defined over an open
surface, s, bounded by a curve. The curl of the vector function is given in
Cartesian coordinates by,

Curl F = ▼x F ; Where ▼ = ∂ i + ∂ j + ∂ k

∂x ∂y ∂z

And,

F = f x i + f y j + fz k

So,

Curl F = ▼XF

= i j k

∂ ∂ ∂

∂x ∂y ∂z

fx fy fz

=i ∂ ∂ -j ∂ ∂ +k ∂ ∂

∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y

fy fz fx fz fx fy

Sample Questions:

Qn.1

Evaluate the curl of F, given the following vector fields.

a) F (x, y, z) ={ 3y i – 4x3 k}

b) F (x, y, z) = (y2cosx + z3) i + (2ysinx – 4) j + (3xz2 +2) k.

Qn.2
 A vector function F (x, y, z), is given by:

a)F (x, y, z) = cos(x-z) i + y2 j + xz k

b)F (x, y, z) = {2xz, -3z2, (x2 + 6yz)}

Evaluate the curl of :

i)F (x, y, z)

ii)F (0, -1, 1)

v)Line integrals

For each point P on a curve c, we can associate a differential distance

dr = dr . ds

ds

= t ds ; Where t = dr

ds

So,

∫ F.dr = ∫ F.t ds ; is defined as the line integral of F along the curve

c. F and t are well behaved in continuity so that we can differentiate and
integrate.

Example:

Find the work done by the force F = 3x2 i + (2x-y) j + z k along the
curve,

x = 2t2 ; y = t ; z = (4t2 – t) ; from t = 0 to t =1.

Solution:

Work done, w = ∫ F.dr

W= ∫ {3x2
i + (2x-y) + z k}.{dx i + dy j + dz k}
 = ∫ 3x2 dx + (2x-y) dy + z dz

But,

X = 2t2 , y = t , and z = (4t2-t)

dx =4t ; dy =1 ; dz = (8t – 1)

So, 1

W= ∫ 3(2t )
2 2
(4t)+ {2(2t2) - t} +(4t2-t)(8t-1) dt

= 40/3

NOTE:

The other line integrals include:

i) ∫ F X dr
ii) ∫ ɸ dr
Question:

If F = {2y i – z j + x k}, find along the curve;

x =cost, y = sint, z = 2cost

the value of,

∫ F X dr ; from t =0 to t = π/2. ( Ans. {(2-π/4)i + (π-½)j}

3.4: Surface integrals and Stoke’s theorem

We specify surface in space as ɸ (x, y, z) = A constant.

At any point on this surface,

 ▼ɸ = ∂ øi + ∂ øj + ∂ øk ; is a vector normal to the

∂x ∂y ∂z

Surface, s.

For n = ▼ɸ , is a unit vector normal to the surface, s.

│▼ɸ│

That is, n

Surface, s

For each point, a unit vector exists and acts at each position.

Example:

Given a sphere ɸ (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 ; determine n at P (1, -1, 1).

Solution:

ɸ(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 +z2 – 1 =0

And,

▼ɸ = ∂ øi + ∂ øj + ∂ øk

∂x ∂y ∂z

= 2xi + 2yj + 2zk

Therefore a unit vector normal at a point P (1, -1, 1), follows as:

n = ▼ɸ = 2xi + 2yj + 2zk

│▼ɸ│ √{(2x)2 + (2y)2 + (2z)2}

At P (1, -1, 1),

 n = 2(1)i + 2(-1)j + 2(1)k

√{(2)2 + (2)2 + (2)2}

= 2i - 2j + 2k

√(12)

= 2 (i - j + k)

2√3

= 1 (i – j + k)

√3

Stokes theorem:

The line integral of a vector function of position a round a closed

path, c, of an open surface, s, is equal to the surface integral of the normal
component of the curl of the function, taken over the surface.

That is,

∫ F.dr = ∫ ∫ (▼x F) . n ds ; Where ds is an element of s and n is a

unit vector normal to s.

Example:

Given the vector function F(x, y, z) = x2i + 5xj, evaluate the line
integral,

∫ F. dr, using Stokes theorem on a square where c is the boundary

with vertices A (1, 0) B (0, 1) C (-1, 0) and D (0, -1).

Solution:

Curl F = ▼XF = i j k

∂ ∂ ∂

∂x ∂y ∂z

The normal to the area is n = k. Thus B

∫ F. dr = ∫ ∫ (▼x F) . n ds C A

=5 ∫ ∫ (k . k) ds D

= 5s

But from above, s is the area of the square. So,

S = (√2)(√2)

= 2

Hence,

∫ F. dr = 5(2)

= 10

Example:

Given the current density J = {3xi + (y-3)j + (2+z)k }Am-2. Find the
current flowing out of the surface of a box bounded by the plane, x=0; y=0;
z=0 and 3x+z = 3. z

Solution: 3

For x = 0; 3x+ z = 3

3(0) + z = 3

z=3

For z = 0; 3x +z = 3 y

3x + 0 = 3

x=1 x 1

surface 1:
x = 0 ; dσ = - dydz i

From;

J = 3xi + (y-3)j + (2+z)k

= 3(0)i + (y-3)j + (2+z)k

= (y-3)j + (2+z)k

So,

Current, I1 = ∫∫J. dσ
= ∫∫{(y-3)j + (2+z)k}.{dydzi}
= 0

Surface 2:

y=0 ; dσ = - dxdzj

From,

J = 3xi + (y-3)j + (2+z)k

= 3xi - 3j + (2+z)k

So,

J. dσ = {3xi – 3j + (2+z)k}.(- dxdzj)

= 3dxdz

For, 0 ≤ z ≤ (3-3x)

0≤ x ≤ 1

Current, I2 = ∫∫J. dσ

1 (3-3x)
 = ∫ ∫ 3dz
0 0 dx

= 4.5

Surface 3:

Z=0 ; dσ = dxdzj

So,

J = 3xi + (y-3)j + 2k

Current, I3 = ∫∫J. dσ
1 (3-3x)

= ∫ dx ∫ dz
0 0

= - 1.5

Surface 4:

In the negative z- direction, z=0 ; dσ = - (dxdy) k

So,

J = 3xi + (y-3)j + 2k

Thus,

J.dσ = - 2dxdy

Therefore,

Current, I4 = ∫∫J. dσ
1 2

= ∫ ∫ -2dy
0 0 dx

= -4
Surface 5:

ɸ (x,z) = 3x + ( z – 3)

So, the normal, n is given by,

n = ▼ɸ

│▼ɸ│

= 3i + k

√10

Projection in the x – y plane,

dxdy = dσ

√10

Therefore,

dσ = √10dxdy

Current, I5 = ∫∫J. dσ
1 2

= ∫ ∫ (2x + 5)dy dx
0 0

= 16

Total current, I = I1 +I2 + I3 + I4 + I5

= 15A

3.5: Volume integrals

These are defined by,

∫∫∫ F.dτ Or ∫∫∫ ɸ dτ

Example:
 Find ∫∫∫
2
F.dτ ; Where τ is the region bounded by the surfaces x=0;
y=0; y=6; z=x ; z=4 ; and where z =4, x=2 and in the Cartesian

dτ = dxdydz.

Solution:
2 6 4

∫∫∫F.dτ = ∫ 0 dx ∫ dy ∫
0 x
2
dz (2xzi –xj + y2k)
2 6 4

= ∫ 0 dx ∫ 0 { xz2i – xzj + y2zk} x2

2 6

= ∫ ∫ { x(16-x )i – x(4-x )j + y (4-x )k}

0 0
4 2 2 2

2 6

= ∫ { xy(16-x )i - xy(4-x )j + ⅓y (4-x )k}

0
4 2 3 2

0
2

= ∫ 0 {16x(16-x4)i – 6x(4-x3)j + 72(4-x2)k}dx

= 128i – 24j + 384k

Example:

Show that A = 3Q given that Q = ∫∫∫ƿ.dτ; Where ƿ = A(R-r); 0˂ r ˂ R

πR4

Also dτ = r2sinθdθdødr with 0˂ θ˂ π and 0˂ ø ˂ 2π

Solution:

Since,

Q= ∫∫∫ƿ.dτ

= ∫∫∫ A(R-r)dτ
2π π R

= ∫∫∫
0 0 0 A(R-r) r2sinθdθdødr
2π π R

=A ∫ 0 dø ∫ 0 dθ ∫ 0 (Rr2 – r3)dr sinθ

2π π

=A ∫ 0 dø ∫ 0 Rr3 - r4 R
sinθdθ
0
3 4
2π π

=A ∫ 0 dø ∫ 0 R4 sinθ dθ

2π 12 π

= AR4 ∫ 0 dø {- cosθ}

12 0

But, π
 {- cosθ} =2

So, 2π

Q = AR4 ∫ 0 dø

6 2π

Q = AR4 {ø}

6 0

Therefore,

A = 3Q ; hence shown.

πR4

4.0: SERIES
4.1: Definitions:

A sequence is a mathematical statement that shows the terms, in the

statement, in a predictable order or pattern. Given any three terms of the
sequence at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of it, it is possible to
study the pattern of the sequence and predict the previous term or the next
term.

Examples of sequences:

i) 1, 2, 3, ….., ……, …….,

ii) ½, ¼, 1/8, ………………

iii) a, (a+d), (a+2d),………

iv)……., ……., ar2, ar3, ar4, _, _, …

Series are mathematical statements which consider the terms of a

sequence as a sum. That is, given a sequence with terms n1, n2, n3,…….; then
the sum n1+n2+n3+………., is called a series.

Examples of series:

i)1 + 2 +3 + ……………

ii) ½ + ¼ + 1/8+ ……………

iii)a + (a+d) + (a +2d) +…….

iv)a + ar + ar2 + ……………

NOTE:

Series can also be called progressions.

4.2: Series in short form

Given a series n1+ n2 + n3 + …….+ nN, it can be shortened or written in

short form by taking , i =1, 2, 3, ……,N ; such that,

N
 n1+ n2 + n3 + …….+ nN = Ʃ ni ; as the shortened form of the series.

i= 1

Example:

Write the given series in short form using the summation sign sigma.

a)1 + 2+ 3 + ……………..+ 100.

b)a + ar + ar2 + …………..+ ar(n-1)

Solution:

a)1 + 2 + 3 + …………….+ 100 ; are the first hundred natural numbers.

So,

1 + 2 + 3 + ……………+ 100 = Ʃ n

i=1

100

= Ʃn
n=1

b)a + ar + ar2 + …………..+ ar(n-1) = ar0 + ar1 + ar2 + …………+ ar(n-1)

Therefore the power on r increases from 0 to (n-1).

Let the powers on r be n =0, 1, 2, ….., 100. (n-1)

Then, it means a + ar + ar2 + ……………..+ ar(n-1) = Ʃ ar n

n=0

Question:
Expand the shortened series.

a) Ʃn 2

n=1

b) Ʃ n(n+2)
2

c) Ʃm m

(n+2)

d) Ʃ m(m-1)
n

Question: n

A series Sn = Ʃ ar n

n=0

a) Determine the series rSn in short form.

b) Hence or otherwise evaluate:

i)Sn - rSn ii) rSn - Sn

Question:
 n 1

Given series Sn = Ʃ{ a + (n-1)d} ; and A = Ʃ{ a + (n-1)d}

n

n=1 n=n

a) Show that Sn = An

b) Hence prove that,

Sn = ½ (n) {2a + (n-1)d}

Question:

Given that, v = 1 Ʃ(x-μ)2 ; and v = δ2 , show that δ = √ Ʃx2 - μ

n n

4.3: Types of series:

Series are categorized into many types which have different

applications. These series include the followings:

i) Arithmetic series, A.S:

These are progressions with a common difference between successive

terms.

Given a series Sn = n1 + n2 + n3 + …………..+ n(k-1) + nk ;

If (n3-n2) = (n2-n1) = (nk – n(k-1)) = d, called the common difference, then Sn

is an arithmetic series. I f any of the successive terms of a given series, fail
to give a common difference, and then the series is not arithmetic.

If Sn is an arithmetic series with a first term as a, and a common difference,

d ; then Sn = a + (a +d) + (a +2d) + (a +3d) +………+ { a + (a-1)d}

First term

Second term nth term

The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series can be obtained by

adding the terms from the first term to the the nth term. Alternatively, it can
be got by adding from the nth term to the first term, a. So,
Sn = a + (a +d) + (a + 2d) + ………….+{a +(n-2)d }+ {a + (n-1)d}……(1)

Also, adding from the end to the first term:

Sn = {a+(n-1)d}+{a+(n-2)d}+…………+ (a + d) + a …………………..(2)

Adding equation (1) and (2);

2Sn ={ 2a + (n-1)d}+{2a +(n-1)d} +……+ {2a+(n-1)d}+{2a+(n-1)d}…(3)

= n{2a+(n-1)d}

Therefore,

Sn = n{2a+(n-1)d}

Arithmetic mean, μ:

Given that p, q, and r, are consecutive terms in an arithmetic series, then q is

the arithmetic mean of p and r. Since there is a common difference between
successive terms, then

d = (q-p) and d = (r-q). Therefore q = ½ (p+r), that is the average of p and r.

Arithmetic mean, μ = q = ½ (p+r).

Sample Questions:

Qn.1

Find the sum of the following arithmetic series:

a)2.01 + 2.02 + 2.03 + ……….+ 3.00.

b)x +3x +5x +…………+ 21x

c)1 + 11/6 + 11/3 + ………+4½

Qn.2

The second term of an arithmetic series is 15, and the fifth term is 21. Find
the:
a) common difference. (Ans. d = 2)

b) first term. (Ans. a = 13)

c) sum of the first ten terms. (Ans. 220)

Qn.3

Show that the sum of integers from 1 to n is ½n (n + 1)

Qn.4

The twenty first term of an arithmetic series is 5½, and the sum of the first
twenty one terms is 94½. Find the:

a) first term. (Ans. a = 3½)

b) common difference. (Ans. d = 1/10)

c) sum of the first thirty terms.(Ans. 148½)

ii) Geometric series, G.s:

A geometric series or progression is a mathematical statement in

sequential form such that between successive terms is a common ratio.

Given the first term of a G.S/G.P as a, and a common ratio, r; then it is

defined as,

a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ………………+ ar(n-2) + ar(n-1) + arn

First term Fourth term nth term (n+1)th term

The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series can be obtained by

considering the series as:

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ………….+ ar(n-2) + ar(n-1) ………………(1)

Multiplying equation (1) by the common ratio, r;

rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + …………+ ar(n-2) + ar(n-1) + arn …………(2)

Subtracting equation (2) from (1),

Sn - rSn = a - arn
Sn (1-r) = a (1 – rn)

Therefore,

Sn = a 1 – rn ………………………………………………….. (i)

1–r

Alternatively, subtracting equation (1) from (2);

rSn – Sn = arn – a

So,

Sn (r – 1) = a (rn – 1)

Therefore,

Sn = a rn – 1 ……………………………………………………(ii)

r–1

This second equation is more convenient if the common ratio, r is greater

than one. That is for r ˃ 1.

Geometric mean, b:

If a, b, and c are in a geometric series, then b is the geometric mean of a and

c.

By definition, the common ratio, r is given as:

r = b ; and also, r = c

a b

Therefore, b = c

a b

So, the geometric mean, b is given by

b = √ac
Harmonic mean, λ:

The reciprocal of the harmonic mean of any two numbers, a and b, is the
arithmetic mean of their reciprocals. Therefore, if the arithmetic mean is,

μ = 1/a + 1/b

μ = (a + b)

2ab

So from the definition,

Harmonic mean, λ = 1

λ = 2ab

(a + b)

Sample Questions:

Qn.1

Find the arithmetic mean, geometric mean, and harmonic mean of the
following pairs of numbers.

a)5 and 20

b)4 and 64

c)½ and 1/8

d)n and 1/n

e)10 and 20

Qn

The numbers (k-4), (k+2), (3k+1) are in a geometric series. Find the two
possible values of the common ratio.
Qn.

A geometric series is given by,

(√2 – 1) + (3- 2√2) + …………..

a)What is the common ratio of the G.S.

b)Find the third term of the progression.

Qn

A series is given by,

Logx + logx2 + logx4 + logx8 + …………….

Find the ratio of the sum of the first ten terms of the series to the first term.

Qn

A man pays a premium of 100 at the beginning of every year to an insurance

company on the understanding that at the end of 15 years, he can receive
back the premiums which he has paid with 5% compound interest. What will
he receive to 3 significant figures?

Qn

The 2nd , 4th , and 8th term of an arithmetic series are in a G.S. The sum of the
3rd and 5th terms is 20. Find the first 4 terms of the series/progression.

Qn

The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is 4/3 (4n -1). Determine
the nth term as an integral power of two.

Qn

The pth and qth terms of an arithmetic progression are in the ratio

(2p-) : (2q-1) . Show that the ratio of the sum of the first p terms to the sum
of the first q terms is p2 : q2.

iii) Taylor series

 If f(x) is any function of x, and a is a constant, then provided that f(a)
exists and that successive derivatives of f(x) all have finite values when

x =a, f(x) may be expressed as an infinite series in ascending powers of

(x-a). Given that,

F(x) = c0 + c1(x-a) + c2(x-a)2 + c3(x-a)3 + c4(x-a)4 +…………………,

Then,

First derivative, f1(x) = c1 + 2c2(x-a) + 3c3(x-a)2 + 4c4(x- a)3 + ………

Second derivative, f11(x) = 2!c2 + 3!c3(x-a) + 4x3c4(x-a)2 + ………….

Third derivative, f111(x) = 3!c3 + 4!c4(x-a) + …………………….

Fourth derivative, f1111(x) = 4!c4

So, if x = a, then

C0 =f(a)

C1 =f1(a)

C2 = f11(a)

2!

C3 = f111(a)

3!

C4 = f1111(a)

4!

Thus, F(x) =f(a) + f1(a) + f11(a) + f111(a) + f1111(a) + …………………..(a)

2! 3! 4!

If x = (a + h), then

F(x) = f(a+h) = f(a)+f1(a)h+f11(a)h2+f111(a)h3+f1111(a)h4+ ……………….(b)

2! 3! 4!
These expansions (a) or (b) are what is known as Taylor’s series or
Taylor’s theorem.

Question:

Use Taylor’s theorem to expand in ascending powers of the given variable.

a)e2x b) (2+x) c) ln(1+x) d) sinx e) sin(π/6 +h) f) cos(π/2+h)

iv) Maclaurin’s series

From the substitution x = (a +h), where a is a constant, and x or h are

variables, we see that there is a special case given by a = 0, when x = h.

Using Taylor’s series,

F(x) = f(a+h) = f(a)+f1(a)h+f11(a)h2+f111(a)h3+f1111(a)h4+………

2! 3! 4!

F(x) = f(0) + f1 (0)x + f11(0)x2 + f111(0)x3 + f1111(0)x4 + …………

2! 3! 4!

This is called Maclaurin’s series or theorem.

Question:

Use Maclaurin’s series to expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term

in x5.

a)f(x) = ln(1+x)

b)f(x) = ex

c)f(x) = cosx2

d)f(x) = ln(1+ex)

e)f(x) = sinx

5.0: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN PHYSICS

5.1: Definitions:
 A differential equation is a mathematical statement or equation,
containing a differential coefficient or a differential operator such as dy

dx

d2y , etc.

dx2

Example:

i)dy = 0

dx

ii)dy = x

dx

iii)d2y = 0

dx2

iv)y dy = - x

dx

v)F = mdv

dt

vi)dN = - λt

dt

If a differential equation contains a total derivative operator, such as dy

dx

then it is called an ordinary differential equation.

A partial differential equation is one that contains a partial differential

operator, such as ∂v .

∂x
A solution to a differential equation, such as dy = x is an equation relating

dx

x and y without differential operators/ coefficients, such that when the

solution is differentiated, you get back the original differential equation.

A general solution of a differential equation is a solution that contains one

or more arbitrary constants. For example,

i)y = Aex/2

ii)x2 – y2 + A = 0

A particular solution of a differential equation is a solution containing no

arbitrary constants, such as given conditions, the values of the arbitrary
constants can be obtained.

Example:

Solve the differential equation:

a)dy = x

dx

b)dy = 3

dx

c)d2s = a

dt2

Solution:

a) dy = x

dx

dy = xdx

∫ dy = ∫ xdx
y = ½ x2 + c ; General solution.
But, x =0 when y= 2.

So, substituting in the general solution,

2 = ½ (0)2 + c

Therefore,

c=2

So,

y = ½ x2 + 2 ; Particular solution.

b)dy = 3

dx

dy = 3dx

∫ dy = ∫ 3dx
y = 3x +c ; General solution.

But, when x = 1, then y = 5.

So,

5 = 3(1) + c

c=2

Therefore,

y = 3x + 2 ; Particular solution.

c)d2s = a

dt2

d2s = adt2

∫ ∫ ds= ∫ ∫
2
adt2
 ds = ∫ ½ (2t ) + c dt
2
1

= t2 + c 1

But, ds = v =2 when t =0

2 = (0)2 + c1

c1 = 2

ds = t2 + 2

ds = ∫ (t + 2) dt
2

∫ ds = ∫ (t + 2) dt
2

s = ⅓t3 + 2t + c2 ; General solution, or s = ⅓t3 + c1t + c2 .

when s =0, t =0
So,
c2 =0
Thus,
s = ⅓t3 + 2t ; is the particular solution.
Order of a differential equation:
This refers to the highest power on the differential coefficient present in
the equation.
Example:
i) F = mdv ; ………………………1st order
dt

ii) F = md2r ; ……………………..2nd order

dt2

iii) dy + 2y = d2y ; ……………….2nd order

dx dx2

iv)x2 dy = y(y-1) ; ………………….. 1st order

dx

5.2: Solving differential equations

 a) By separating the variables
This is possible for some differential equations, but not all.
By working backwards to integrate, we can remove the differential
coefficients; hence solving the equation.
Example:
Solve the equation:
a) dy = xy
dx

b) x dy = tany
dx

c) e-x dy = y2 – 1
dx

Solution:
a)dy = xy
dx

x dx = dy
y

∫ x dx = ∫ dy
y

½x2 = lny + c ;
But,
c = lnk
So,
½x2 = lny + lnk

½x2 = lnky
Taking anti- log of natural logarithms on both sides,
e½x2 = ky
Therefore,
y = Ae½x2 ; where A =1/k
b)x dy = tany
dx

x dy = tany dx
dy = dx
tany x

∫cosy dy = ∫ dx
siny x
Let, u =siny
du = cosy
dy

∫ cosy . du = ∫ dx
u cosy x

lnsiny = lnx + c
lnsiny = lnx + lnk

x = A siny

c)e-x dy = y2 – 1
dx

∫ e dx = ∫
x
dy
(y2 – 1)

ex = ∫ dy
(y2 – 1)

ex = ½ ∫ 1 - 1 dy
(y – 1) (y + 1)

½
x= A (y – 1)
(y + 1)

Sample Questions
Qn
Solve the differential equation:
a)dy = x (Ans. x2 – y2 + A = 0)
dx y

b)dy = y (Ans. y = Ax)

dx x

c)dy = 1 (Ans. x = A e½n) ; where n = y2

dx xy

d)x2 dy = y (y – 1) (Ans. k (y – 1) = y e-1/x)

dx

e)√(x2 + 1) dy = x (Ans. y2 = 2√(x2 + 1) + A)

dx y

Qn
The rate of radioactive decay is proportional to the amount of radioactive
substance present in an element at the time. Radium is radioactive with a
half- life of 1600 years. Calculate the percentage of radium remaining after
200 years. (Ans. = 91.7%)
Qn
Find the particular solution of a differential equation
Cosec x dy = ex cosec x + 3x ; given that :
dx

a) y = 0 when x = 0 (Ans. y = ex – 3xcos x + 3sin x – 1)

b) y = 3 when x = ½π (Ans. y = ex – 3xcos x + 3sin x - e½π)

By identifying an exact equation

Sometimes, identifying an exact equation enables you to solve a
differential equation where separation of variables is impossible, such as for
implicit functions.

Recall that,
i) d (uv) = u dv + v du …………The product formular for derivatives.
dx dx dx
ii) d (xy) = x dy + y (1)
dx dx

Example:
Solve the equation 2xy dy + y2 = e2x
dx
Solution:
Consider the LHS,
2xy dy + y2 = d (xy2)
dx dx

So,
d (xy2) = e2x
dx

∫ d (xy ) = ∫e
2 2x
dx
dx

xy2 + ½e2x + c

Sample Questions
Solve the following differential equations:
a) ey + xey dy = 2
dx

b) x2 dy + 2xy = 1
dx

c) t2 dx + 2tln x = 3cos t
x dt

d)x2 cos u du + 2xsin u = 1

dx x

Use of an integrating factor, e∫pdx

Some differential equations can be made exact by use of an integrating
factor. After obtaining the integrating factor, it is then multiplied on both the
LHS and the RHS.
Example:
Solve the equation xy dy + y2 = 3x
dx

Solution:
Consider the derivative of the implicit function,
x2y2.
So,
d(x2y2 ) = 2xy2 + 2x2ydy
dx dx

= 2x y2 + xy dy
dx
Therefore,

2x{LHS} = 2x{RHS} ; Thus 2x is the integrating factor.

2x 2xy2 + 2x2y dy = 2x (3x)

dx

d (x2y2) = 6x2
dx

∫d (x y ) = ∫6x dx
2 2 2

dx

x2y2 = 2x3 + c

Question:
Determine the integrating factor and then solve:
a)xdy + 2y = en , where n = x2
dx

b)2x2y dy + xy2 = 1
dx
c)xey dy + 2ey = x
dx

d)rsec2θ + 2tanθ dr = 2r-1

dθ

First order homogeneous equations

These are differential equations of degree one; and of the same dimensions.
A first order homogeneous equation is of the form P dy = Q ; Where P and
dx
Q are homogeneous functions of x and y of the same dimensions.
Example:
Dimensions of : i) dy = │dy│ = L1 = L0
dx dx L1

ii)d2y = │ d2y │ = d dy = L0 = L-1

dx dx dx dx L1
iii)(x2 + y2)2 = (x2 + y2)2 = L4 = L3
x x L1
iv)(x + y)2 dy = (x +y)2 dy = L 2 . L0 = L 2
dx dx

Solving first order homogeneous equations

This is done by using the substitution, y = u ; such that,
x
y = ux.
dy = u + x du
dx dx

Example:
Solve the equation xy dy = x2 + y2
dx

Solution:
Let y = ux
Dividing the original equation by x2 ; then
xy dy = x2 + y2
x2 dx x2 x2

y dy = 1 + y
 x dx x

Substituting for y = u
x

u dy = u2 + 1
dx

But,

dy = (u + x du )
dx dx

So,
u ( u + x du ) = 1 + u2
dx

∫ u du = ∫ (1/x) dx
½ u2 = ln k1x
y 2 = 2lnk1x
x

Thus,
y2 = x2 lnkx ; Where k = k12

Question:
Solve the equation x2 dy = y2 + xy
dx