DFM of FERROUS METALS

PART 1: HOT-ROLLED STEEL

THE PROCESS

Hot-rolled shapes are produced by passing a heated billet, bloom, or ingot of steel

through sets of shaped rollers. Upon repeated passes, the rollers increase the length of

the billet and change it to a cross section of specified size and shape. After rolling, the

shape is sometimes pickled (by immersion in warm, dilute sulfuric acid) to remove

scale and is then oiled.

TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

HOT-ROLLED-STEEL SHAPES

Hot-rolled steel is produced in a variety of cross sections and sizes, of which the following

are typical:

Round bars from 6 to 250 mm (1⁄4 to 10 in) in diameter

Square bars from 6 to 150 mm (1⁄4 to 6 in) per side

Round-cornered squares, 10 to 200 mm (3⁄8 to 8 in) per side

Flat bars from 5 mm (0.20 in) in thickness and up to 200 mm (8 in) in width but

not over 80 cm2 (12 in2) in cross-sectional area

Angles, channels, tees, zees, and other sections that have a largest cross-sectional

dimension of 75 mm (3 in) or less

Ovals, half-rounds, and other special cross sections

Sheets, 1.5 mm (0.060 in; 16 gauge) or thicker and plates

Figure 2.2.1 illustrates some common cross-sectional shapes in which hot-rolled

steel is available from warehouse distributors. Figure 2.2.2 illustrates typical cross

sections obtainable by special mill-run order.

Hot-rolled steel averages about 30 percent lower in price than cold-finished steel.

This makes its use attractive whenever the application permits. However, hot-rolled

steel has more dimensional variation, a rougher surface, mill scale (if not removed by

pickling), less straightness, less strength in low-carbon grades, and somewhat poorer

machinability. If these factors are not critical, the use of hot-rolled material may permit

a substantial cost savings.

of machining is required and for which a smooth surface finish is not necessary. Some

examples are tie rods, welded frames, lightly machined shafts, cover plates, riveted

and bolted racks and frames, railroad cars, ships, storage tanks, bridges, buildings, and

other applications for which heavy structural members are required.

The preponderance of steel sold in the hot-rolled form is of low-carbon content,

0.25 percent or less.

Hot-rolled steel can have good weldability, formability, and machinability.

Although its machinability and formability may be slightly less than those of equivalent

cold-finished alloys, the choice of cold-finished over hot-rolled material is usually

a matter of surface finish, accuracy, or strength rather than ease of further processing.

Hot-rolled material is generally used when surface finish is of secondary importance

As long as standard cross sections are involved, hot-rolled-steel shapes are suitable for

all levels of production. Small quantities for maintenance purposes or for low-unit

production can be purchased from steel-distribution warehouses. Large quantities for

mass-production applications can be purchased directly from mills.

For special cross sections (such as those shown in Fig. 2.2.2), however, minimum

mill quantities dictate use only for high production levels. Although some steel mills

tend to specialize in shorter mill runs, the common minimum mill quantity for special

shapes is on the order of 100 tons. A complex cross section is apt to have a larger minimum

mill quantity than a simple one.

GRADES FOR FURTHER PROCESSING

Machining

Moderately low-carbon grades are best. Usually, alloy steels of the same carbon content
and strength have poorer machinability than plain-carbon grades.

Hot-rolled steel with a carbon content of 0.15 percent or less tends to be gummy

and to adhere to the cutting tool. If it is to be machined, it should first be hardened and

tempered.

With carbon content in the range of 0.15 to 0.30 percent, machinability is good,

especially in the upper part of the range, if the steel has not been hardened.

Machinability is good with the 0.30 to 0.50 percent carbon grades. Best results are

achieved when there has been prior annealing such that the structure is partially spheroidized.

For higher-carbon grades (0.55 percent and more), annealing must provide a completely

spheroidized structure; otherwise, machining will be difficult.

If heavy machining is required, free-machining grades containing sulfur or lead

should be employed.

Forming

The low-carbon grades are best. The lower the yield strength and the more ductile the

material, the more easily it can be formed. The scale on hot-rolled steel is usually not

a significant deterrent to use of the material on press operations.

Welding

The best results are achieved with the low-carbon grades. Materials having 0.15 percent

or less carbon are invariably easily welded. As either the carbon content, the

thickness, or the alloy content increases, however, weldability decreases.

Hot-rolled steel with 0.15 to 0.30 percent carbon usually gives satisfactory results

if the section is less than 1 in thick. For higher carbon or alloy content or heavy sections,

preheating or postweld stress relieving may be necessary for best results.

DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

In deciding whether to use hot-rolled instead of cold-finished material and in choosing

the grade, the product designer should consider the concept of designing for minimum

cost per unit of strength. Often grades with higher carbon content or low alloy content

will provide lower-cost parts that can be made from plain low-carbon grades. The reason

is that lighter sections can be used.

When bending hot-finished-steel members, the bend line should be at right angles

to the grain direction from the rolling operation. The bend radius also should be as
generous as possible. Adhering to both these rules will help avoid fracturing the material

at the bend. See Fig. 2.2.3 for a conservative set of rule-of-thumb values for minimum-

bend radius.

When hot-rolled material is machined with the objective of providing a true surface,

it is necessary to remove sufficient stock to get below the surface defects and

irregularities. (These include seams, scale, deviations from straightness or flatness,

and decarburization.) The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) recommended

machining allowance per side is 1.5 mm (0.060 in) for finished diameters or thicknesses

from 40 to 75 mm (11⁄2 to 3 in) and 3 mm (0.125 in) per side for diameters or thicknesses

over 75 mm (3 in). (See Fig. 2.2.4.) However, these values are considered liberal

For moderate and high levels of production, it is worthwhile to test the actual condition

of the steel being used.

DIMENSIONAL FACTORS

Since hot-rolled steel does not have the benefit of a secondary sizing operation,

dimensional variations are considerably wider than with cold-finished material. The

factors that lead to size, flatness, straightness, and twist deviations are heat, temperature,

and cooling-rate variations, breaking off and movement of scale during rolling,

sag of less supported bar areas when the material is red-hot, and variations in rolling

equipment, tools, and reduction per pass.

Hot cutting of ends, usually by shearing, causes material at the ends to deviate dimensionally
more than the limits stated in the tolerance tables. Ends can be trimmed by cold sawing if such
deviations are objectionable.
TOLERANCES FOR HOT-ROLLED-CARBON-STEEL

BARS

Tables 2.2.1 through 2.2.4 show standard tolerances as established by major steel

mills. Mills customarily hold dimensions to closer limits than those shown, but there

is no assurance that this will be the case for every lot rolled.