chapter 14 ( 12th Physics)

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26.

S EMI CON D U C TOR A N D


CO M M U NI C ATI ON
S YS TE M

SEMICONDUCTOR

1. INTRODUCTION
Certain substances like germanium, silicon etc. are neither good conductors like copper nor insulators like glass. In
other words, the resistivity of these materials lies in between conductors and insulators. Such substances are classified
as semiconductors. These substances have crystalline structure and are formed by covalent bonds. An important
property of a semiconductor is that by adding a controlled amount of suitable impurity to it, its conductivity can
be changed appreciably. This useful property is responsible for the widespread use of semiconductors in electronic
devices. In this chapter, we shall discuss the electrical properties of semiconductors.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
On the basis of electrical conductivity ( σ ) or resistivity ( ρ= 1 / σ ) , the solids can be classified into the following
three classes:
(a) Metal conductors. These are those solids which possess high conductivity or low resistivity. This is due to the fact
that metals have a large number of free electrons. The conductivity of metal conductors lies between 102 and 108
Sm-1 while their resistivity is in between 10-2 and 10-8 Ω m. Examples of metal conductors are: Al, Cu, Ag, Au, etc.
(b) Insulators. These are those solids which possess very low conductivity or very high resistivity. This is due to the
fact that insulators have practically no free electrons. The conductivity of insulators lie between 10-11 and 10-19
Sm-1 while their resistivity is between 1011 and 1019 Ω m. Examples of insulators are: glass, rubber, plastic etc.
(c) Semiconductors. These are those solids which possess conductivity and resistivity in between metallic
conductors and insulators. This is due to the fact that semiconductors have very few free electrons at room
temperature and can be regarded as insulators for all practical purposes. The conductivity of semiconductors
lies between 10-5 and 100 Sm-1 while their resistivity in between 105 and 0.5 Ω m. Examples of semiconductors
are: germanium, silicon, carbon, etc.

3. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS


(a) Overlapping energy levels are termed as energy bands
(b) The energy band formed by the overlapping of valence electrons is known as valence energy band.
(c) The energy band formed by the overlapping of conduction electrons is known as conduction energy band.
2 6 . 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System

(d) Electrical conduction in solid can take place only when electron remains present in its conduction energy
band.
(e) The minimum energy required for exciting an electron from valence
energy band to conduction energy band is known as forbidden energy
( )
gap ∆Eg ; ∆=Eg CEBmin − VEBmax Conduction band

Band energy
We have seen that energy levels of an isolated atom are converted into
corresponding energy bands when the atom is in solid form. There is no Forbidden
appreciable modification in the energy levels of electrons in the inner energy
gap
orbits but there is a considerable modification of energy levels of valence
electrons. It is because valence electrons are shared by more than one atom
Valence band
in the crystal. Therefore, valence electrons can be considered to be in either
of the two energy bands viz lower valence band or upper or conduction
band as shown in Fig. 26.1. No electron can have energy in the forbidden
Figure 26.1
energy gap between two bands. Normally, the electrons reside in the
valence band where they are held rather tightly to the individual atoms.
(a) Valence band. The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons. In a normal atom, valence
band has the electrons of highest energy. This band may be completely or partially filled. For instance, in case
of inert gases, the valence band is full whereas for other materials, it is only partially filled. The partially filled
band can accommodate more electrons.
(b) Conduction band. In certain materials (e.g. metals), the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus.
Even at ordinary temperature, some of the valence electrons may get detached to become free electrons.
In fact, it is these free electrons which are responsible for the conduction of current in a conductor. For this
reason, they are called conduction electrons.
The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction band electrons is known as conduction band.
All electrons in the conduction band are free electrons. If a substance has empty conduction band, it means
current conduction is not possible in that substance. Generally, insulators have empty conduction band. On
the other hand, it is partially filled for conductors.
(c) Forbidden energy gap. The separation between conduction band and valence band on the energy level
diagram is known as forbidden energy gap (Eg).
No electron of a solid can stay in a forbidden energy gap as there is no allowed energy state in this region. The
width of the forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of valence electrons to the atom. The greater
the energy gap, more tightly the valence electrons are bound to the nucleus. In order to push an electron
from valence band to the conduction band (i.e.to make the valence electron free), external energy equal to
the forbidden energy gap must be supplied.

4. SEMICONDUCTORS
These are solids in which the forbidden energy gap
between the valence band the conduction band is small, of Conduction
the order of 1eV. At 0 kelvin, the valence band is completely band
filled and the conduction band is completely empty. At -le V } Forbidden } }
0K, it behaves like an insulator (electron cannot absorb in band
infinitesimal energy because there is a forbidden gap just Valence
at the top of the valence band). At a finite temperature, band
(room temperature), some electrons gain energy due to
OK TK
thermal motion and jump from the top of the valence
band to the conduction band. These electrons contribute Figure 26.2
to the conduction of electricity in a semiconductor.
P hysi cs | 26.3

The forbidden gap in a semiconductor is small ~ 1eV. At finite temperature, some valance electrons go to conduction
band. Then the formlessly is in middle of the gap
The energy gap is some semiconductors is as follows:
∆Eg ( Silicon) =
1.12eV ; ∆Eg ( germanium) =
0.7 eV
∆Eg ( Indium antimonide ) =
0.17 eV ; ∆Eg ( Gallium arsenide ) =
1.43eV ; ∆Eg ( Tellurium )=
0.33eV
The energy gap decreases slightly with increases in temperature.

Table 26.1: Comparison between conductors, insulators and semiconductors

Conductors Insulators Semiconductors


1 Valence band is partially filled or Completely empty conduction band At 0K, the conductive band is empty
valence band conduction band are separated from completely filled while valence band is full separated
overlapped. valence by small energy gap
2. There is no forbidden energy gap The forbidden gap is large Separated by small energy gap Eg,
Si=1.12 eV
Eg (diamond)~ 6 eV

Eg (diamond) ~ 6 eV
3. At room temperature, all electrons At room temperature, electrons do At room temperature, many
remains in the partially filled valence not get sufficient thermal energy to electrons have sufficient energy to
band or over lapped band cross over and the forbidden energy go to the conduction band.
band remains empty
4. Conducts electric current. Very small Does not conduct electric current May conduct electric current but
resistivity (negligible conduction) very large conduction is small. Medium
ρ ( ohm meter ) resistively (ohm meter) resistivity and medium conductivity
ρ ( glass )  1011 − 1012 Ωm ρ ( Si )= 2100Ωm ρ ( Ge ) = 0.47Ωm
ρ ( Cu) =1.7 × 10 −8 Ωm
ρ ( diamond)  10 Ωm 14
σ ( Ge )  2.13 σ ( Si )  4.7 × 10 −4
ρ ( Ag) =1.6 × 10−2 Ωm
very low conductivity (ohm/m).
The conductivity is high
−10 −14
σ  10 to 10 Ωm
σ ≈ 107 to 10−9 ohm / m
(or Siemen/m) very low conductivity
σ  10−10 to 10−15 ohm / m (or
Siemen/m)
5. Only electrons are the current carrier No current carrier (the electric Both electrons and holes contribute
Number of free electrons (in Cu) conduction is almost zero for all to current conduction. Number of
 1028 per m3 practical purposes, see σ mentioned free electrons (at room temperature)
before) is in Ge  1019 per m3 in Si  1016
per m3
6. Conductivity decreases with Conductivity negligibly small Conductivity increases with
temperature. however increases slightly at very temperature (the resistivity /
high temperatures. resistance decreases with
temperature). The temperature
Conductivity coefficient of resistance of a

 semiconductor is negative
 (Resisivity)

Temperature

Temperature

Temperature
2 6 . 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System

4.1 Classification of Semiconductors


The semiconductors are of two types
A semiconductor in a pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor. The impurity must be less than 0.01 ppm
(parts per million) i.e., less than 1 in 108 parts of semiconductor. At low temperature, the electrons are present in
valence bonds of the semiconductor. As the temperature is increased a few electrons are raised to conduction
band.

In intrinsic semiconductors: ne(0)= nn(0)= ni= AT3/2 e−∆Eg /2KT

Where ne(0) is electron density in conduction band, ne(0) is hole density in valance
band and ni is the density of intrinsic charge carriers.
At absolute zero temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bound and
no free electron is available for electrical condition. In the band picture, at
absolute zero temperature, the conduction band is completely empty while,
the valence band is fully filled. The semiconductor behaves as a perfect
insulator at absolute zero temperature. At room temperature (~300K), some
of the electrons may gain sufficient thermal energy and moved away from the
influence of the nucleus, i.e. the covalent bond may be broken. The electron,
so obtained is free to move in the crystal and conduct electricity (see Fig 26.4).
The vacancy created in the covalent bond is called a hole.
Figure 26.3

Conduction
Free electrons band
Conduction
band Empty
Gap Eg
Eg (gap)
Valence band
with holes Filled

Valence band
Holes
Figure 26.4

When a covalent band is broken, the electron hole pair is created. Thus, in an intrinsic semiconductor, Number of
holes=number of free electrons nh=ne

4.2 Intrinsic Semiconductors


In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of free electrons and holes are equal. Both electrons and holes contribute
in current conduction. For the purpose of flow of current, a hole,
behaves like a positively charged particle having some effective mass.
Electron flow
Therefore, while the electron moves from the negative electrode of the
hole flow
battery to the positive electrode through the semiconductor, the hole
moves on opposite side.
The hole exists only inside a semiconductor. There are no holes in a
metal. There, electric conduction through holes takes place inside the
semiconductor only. Outside, in the metal wires, the electric current
+ -
flow is due to electrons only. (In cell current flow is due to the motion
of positive and negative ions).
Figure 26.5
P hysi cs | 26.5

In an intrinsic semiconductor the current flow occurs due to the motion of both, the electrons and the holes. Let
e=magnitude of charge on the electrons, nh= number density of holes, µe =mobility of electrons an µh =mobility of
holes, then the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is= σ e (neµe + nh + µh ) Consider a block of semiconductor
of length area of cross section A and having density of electron and holes as ne as and nh respectively when a
potential difference say V is applied across it, current I flows through it as shown in Fig. 26.6 The current I is made
of electron current Ie and hole current Ih.
Thus, I = Ie + Ih  … (i)
v
If ve is drift velocity of electrons, Then Ie =ene Ave  …(ii)
Similarly, the hole current is given by Ih= ene Avh  … (iii) Area ‘A’

Using equation (ii) and (iii), the equation (i) becomes


-
I=eA (neve+nhvh)  … (iv) -

-
If R is the resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of current, then
l
V V
I= or = eA (neve+nhvh)  … (v) Figure 26.6
R R
V
The electric field set up across the semiconductor is given
= by E =or V E
l
El E
Therefore, equation (v) becomes = eA (neve+nhvh) or E = e (neve+nhvh)
R A
R
l
A E
But R =ρ = resistivity of the material of the semiconductor. Therefore = e (neve+nhvh) … (vi)
l ρ
Mobility of electrons or holes is defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit electric field.
ve vh
Therefore mobility of electrons and holes is given =
by µe and
= µh
E E
From equation (iv), we have

1  ve v 
= e ne . + nh . h  or σ =e (ne µ e+nh µ h)  … (vii)
ρ  E E 

1
Where σ =e is called conductivity of the material of the semiconductor and µe , µh are electron and hole
ρ
mobilities respectively.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

•• In pure semiconductors, at any temperature t, the carrier concentration ne=nh=n and the conductivity
is determined by the value of Eg (width of the forbidden band)(see relations given above).
•• In metal, however, the value of n is almost the same at different temperatures. The resistance arises
due to interaction of free (conduction) electrons with the lattice vibrations.
•• At absolute zero temperature, n=0, σ =0 i.e., the pure semiconductor behaves like a perfect insulator.
However, as temperature increases both n and σ increases. In germanium at T ≈ 300K, ne = nh
= 2.5 × 1019 per m3. The higher is the temperature, higher is the conductivity and lower is the resistivity.
•• The temperature coefficient of the resistance of a semiconductor is negative.
•• Pure semiconductors are of little use (may be used as heat or light sensitive resistance).
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009, AIR 22)
2 6 . 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System

Illustration 1: Which one is more sensitive to heat, germanium or silicon?  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: The band gap between conduction band and valance band in germanium (0.68 eV) is less than silicon
(1.1 eV). Thus the electron in the valance band in germanium require less thermal energy (Order of KT) to transit
from valance band to conduction band compared to silicon.
Germanium is more sensitive to heat. Electrons from the valence band of germanium require less energy to move
from valence band to conduction band.

4.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors


A semiconductor in which impurities have been added in
a controlled manner is called extrinsic semiconductor. The
Si Si Si
process of deliberately adding impurities to a semiconductor
is called doping. The impurity atoms are either from V group Fifth electron
such as arsenic (as), antimony (Sb), phosphorus (P) etc. or
from III group (such as Aluminum (AI), gallium (Ga), indium Si Si Si
(In) etc. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors, (i) Impurity atom
N-type (extrinsic) semiconductor and (ii) P-type (extrinsic)
semiconductor. The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor
Si Si Si
is controlled by the amount of doping, I part of a donor
impurity per 109 parts of germanium increases its conductivity
by a factor of nearly 103. The compounds of trivalent and
pentavalent elements also behave like semiconductors, Figure 26.7
(indium antimonite), in P, GaP.

4.3.1 N-Type Semiconductor


N-Type (n-type) semiconductor is obtained by adding a small Free electrons
amount of pentavalent (V group) impurity to a sample of intrinsic
semiconductor. The pentavalent impurities are P (phosphorus
+ + + n-type
Z=15), As (Z=3), Sb (z=51), Bi(Z=83).
semi
In the energy band picture we say that impurity atoms produce conductor
+ + +
donor energy levels just below the conduction band. The electrons
from these levels jump to the conduction band easily by gaining Immobile positive
thermal energies (at room temperature). They may also break some ions (impurity)
covalent bonds producing electron hole pair, but their number is
small. So in this type of extrinsic semiconductor, there are a large Figure 26.8
number of free electrons (donated by impurity atoms) and a
negligible number of holes from broken covalent bond.
Conduction
The impurity atom on donating electrons becomes positive ions. band
However the overall charge on the semiconductor is zero. The
negative charge of the immobile positive charge of the immobile Majority
positive ions. The majority charge carriers are electrons (negative electrons
charge). Therefore, this type of extrinsic semiconductor is called
n-type. The Fermi level does not lie in the middle of band gap,
but it shifts towards the conduction band. The few holes formed Donor
by covalent bond breaking are called minority charge carries. The 0.01 (Ge) level
conductivity of the n-type semiconductors is controlled by the
0.05 (Si)
amount of impurity atoms added in it.
(eV)
Valence band
Figure 26.9
P hysi cs | 26.7

4.3.2 P-Type Semiconductor


P-Type (type) semiconductor is obtained by adding a small
amount of trivalent (III group) impurity to intrinsic semiconductor.
The impurities may be Boron (Z=5), AI(Z=13), Ga (Z=31), In (Z=49), Ge Ge Ge
Acceptor
TI (Z=81). For each acceptor iron there exist a hole in this type
atom
of semiconductor, there are a large number of holes present. The
majority charge carriers are holes. Therefore it is called a P-type hole
Ge Ge Ge
semiconductor.
In the picture, we say that accepter energy levels lie just above
the valence band. These levels accept electrons from the valence Ge Ge Ge
band and create holes. The breaking of covalent bonds may create
electron-hole pairs but their number is very little. The majority Hole
carriers are holes. The minority carriers are electrons. migrates
Ge Ge Ge
The conduction takes place mainly through the motion of holes Acceptor
nh>>ne ; σ ≈ eµh nh atom
The overall charge on p-type semiconductor is zero. It is Ge Ge Ge
represented as shown in Fig. 26.11. The positive charge of free
holes is balanced by the negative charge of immobile impurity
ions. Figure 26.10

Conduction
band Free holes

Minority - - -
electrons
- - -
Acceptor level
p-type semi conductor
Immobile negative
Majority ions (impurity)
Valence band Holes
Figure 26.11

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

When temperature is increased, covalent bonds break. This increases minority charge carriers. At very
high temperature, it may happen when number of electron-hole pair obtained from bond breaking, far
exceeds the charge carriers from impurities. Then the semiconductor behaves like intrinsic semiconductor.
The critical temperature at which this happens is 850C germanium and 2000C for silicon.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)

Illustration 2: Calculate the conductivity and the resistivity of silicon crystal at 300K. It is given that µe =1350 cm2 / V s,
10
µh = 480 cm2/ V s, and at 300K, the election- hole pair concentration is 1.072 × 10 per cm3.  (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The conductivity of silicon is given as σ = e × (neµe + nµh ) where ne and nh are electron and hole densities
1
respectively. Here ne = nh = ni is the hole-electron pair concentration. The resistivity of the silicon is ρ = .
σ
The conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor is σ = e × (neµe + nµh )
2 6 . 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System

Given, n= 1.072 × 1010 per cm3 = 1.072 × 1016 per cm3


Also ne=nh for intrinsic semiconductor, further,
µe =1350cm2 / V s, = 0.1350 m2/ volt ; µh =0.048 m2/ V s,
σ 1.6 × 10 −19 × 1.072 × 1016 × ( 0.135 + 0.048
Therefore, = = ) 3.14 × 10−4 Ω m
= 3.14 × 10−4 Siemen per meter
1
The resistivity r= = 10−4 /3.14= 3185 Ω m.
σ

Illustration 3: The concentration of acceptor atoms in a p-type germanium crystal is 4 × 1015 per cm3. Find the
conductivity of the crystal at 300K. The µh for germanium at 300K is 1900 cm2 / V s. It is assumed that all the
acceptor atoms are ionized at this temperature.  (JEE MAIN)
Sol: In p-type germanium hole density is greater than electron density. The conductivity of the p-type germanium
is given by=σ nh eµh
σ nh eµh
For extrinsic semiconductor (p-type)=
Given σ= nh = 4 × 1015 per cm3 = 4 × 1021 per m3
µh =1900cm2 /volt –sec
Thus σ= 4 × 1021 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.190= 1.216 × 102 ohm / m = 1.21.6 siemen / m

Table 26.2: Comparison of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

S. No. Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor


1. It is a pure semiconductor with no impurity for this It is an impure semiconductor i.e. a controlled
reason, it is called intrinsic (i.e. pure) semiconductor. pentavalent or trivalent impurity added to a pure
(intrinsic) semiconductor.
2. The number of free electrons in the conduction band In an n-type semiconductor, free electrons exceed the
is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. hole. A p-type semiconductor, it is the reverse.
3. Its electrical conductivity is low. Its electrical conductivity is high.
4. Its electrical conductivity depends on temperature Its electrical conductivity depends on temperature and
alone. the amount of doping.
5. It is of no practical use. It is used in electronic devices.

Table 26.3: Comparison of n-type and p-type semiconductors

S. No. n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductors


1 It is produced by adding controlled amount of It is produced by adding controlled amount of trivalent
pentavalent impurity to pure (intrinsic) semiconductor. impurity to pure (intrinsic) semiconductor.
2 The number of free electron far exceeds the number The number of free holes far exceeds the number of
of holes. electrons.
3 The current conduction is predominant by free The current conduction is predominant by holes.
electrons.
4 The donor energy level is just below the bottom of the The accepter energy level is just above the top of
conduction band. valence band.
P hysi cs | 26.9

Illustration 4: An intrinsic germanium has a resistivity of 0.47 Ω m at room temperature. Find the intrinsic carrier
concentration if the mobility of electrons and holes are 0.39 m2/ V s, and 0.19 m2/volt-sec respectively. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: The resistivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is ρ = . Here σ is conductivity of the germanium and is given by
σ
σ ni ( µe + µh )
= where ni is the concentration of electron-hole pair
Let ni be the intrinsic carrier concentration.
1 1 σ
Electrical conductivity, σ= = σ ni ( µe + µh ) Or ni =
Now =
ρ 0.47 e ( µe + µh )

Here σ =1/0.47 S/m, µe = 0.39 m2/volt-sec, µh =0.19 m2/volt-sec, e= 1.6 × 10−19 C

1
ni
= = 2.3 × 10−19 / m3
0.47 × 1.6 × 10 −19
( 0.39 + 0.19 )

Illustration 5: The resistivity of n-type germanium is 0.01 Ω m at room temperature. Find the donor concentration
if the mobility of electrons 0.39m2 /volt-sec. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: For n-type germanium the donor concentration is given by nd =
e ρµe
1
Let nd be the donor concentration. nd =
e ρµe
1 1
Conductivity, σ= = = 100S / m Now σ = e Nd µ ……….n-type semiconductor
ρ 0.01 e

Or =
nd σ 100
= = 1.6 × 10−21 / m3
e µe 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.39

Illustration 6: Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are
0.36m2 / V s and 0.17 m2 / V s respectively. If the electron and hole densities are each equal to 2.5 × 1019 /m3 ,
calculate the conductivity.  (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is given by= σ e (neµe + nhµh ) where ne and nh are the electrons
and hole densities. As here both are equal then n=i n=
e nh and conductivity is given by=σ ni e ( µe + µh ) .
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by;=σ ni e ( µe + µh )
Here ni = 2.5 × 10−19 / m3 ;e = 1.6 × 10−19 C; µe = 0.36 m2 / volt-sec; µh =0.17m2 / volt-sec
σ 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 ( 0.36 + 0.17=
= ) 2.12 S/ m

Illustration 7: A semiconductor is known to have an electron concentration of 8 × 1013 per cm3 and a hole
concentration of 5 × 1012 per cm3.
(i) Is the semiconductor n-type or p-type?
(ii) What is the resistivity of the sample if the electron mobility is 23000 cm2/ V s and hole mobility is 100 cm2/ V s?
 (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For the semiconductor sample, if the hole density is less than electron density the semiconductor is N type in
1
nature. The resistivity of the sample is given as ρ = where σ is the conductivity of the sample.
σ

( ) (
(i) Since electron density ne = 8 × 1013 per cm3 is greater than the hole density nh = 5 × 1012 per cm3 , the )
semiconductor is n-type.
σ e (neµe + nhµh )
(ii) The conductivity of the sample is given by;=
2 6 . 1 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System

Here ne= 8 × 1013 per cm3 ; n = 5 × 1012 per cm3


h

= cm2 / Vs; µh 100cm2 / Vs


µe 23000=

∴ ( ) 1.6 × 184.05 × 10−3 S cm−1


= 1.6 × 10 −19 × 8 × 1013 × 23000 + 5 × 1012 × 100 S cm−1 =
σ
1 1
∴ Resistivity of the sample is given by; ρ= = = 3.396 Ωcm
σ 1.6 × 184.05 × 10−3

Illustration 8: Determine the number density of donor atoms which have to be added to an intrinsic germanium
semiconductor to produce an n-type semiconductor of conductivity 5 Ω -1cm-1, given that mobility of conduction
electrons in n-type Ge is 3900 cm2/ Vs. Neglect the contribution of holes to conductivity.  (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: In n type semiconductor the number density of electrons is much greater than number density of holes. Thus
we can neglect the number density of holes. Thus to produce the n type semiconductor, the donor of number
= ene µe .
density to added is found by σ
(
σ e neµe + nhµh
The conductivity of a semiconductor is given by;= )
= eneµ=
Neglect the contribution of holes to conductivity, we have, σ e eNdµe
 N=
d ne 

∴Number density of donor atoms or electron density is Nd = σ


e µe
−1 −1 2 −19
Here σ = 5Ω cm µ
; e= 3900 cm / Vs; e
= 1.6 × 10 C
5
Nd
∴= = 8.01 × 1015 cm−3
3900 × 1.6 × 10−19

Illustration 9: Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m-3. It is doped by 1 ppm concentration of penta-valent
impurity of Arsenic (As). Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that ni = 1.5 × 1016 m-3.
 (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: The arsenic contains the 1 free electron in its conduction band and acts as donor impurity. The number of
electron given by As to the semiconductor is given by
Number of Si atom in parent crystal × 10−6
N= .
| y ppm|
ni2
The number of holes in the semiconductor sample is given by nh = here ni is the concentration of holes and
electron pair.
ne

1
1 ppm =1 part per million =
106
5 × 1028
∴ Number of penta-valent atoms doped in Si crystal= = 5 × 1022 m−3
6
10
As one penta-valent impurity atom donates 1 free election to the crystal,
22 −3
∴ Number of free elections in the crystal is ne = 5 × 10 m

(1.5 × 10 )=
2
16
ni2
∴ Number of holes, n=
h = 4.5 × 109 m−3
ne 5 × 1022
Illustration 10: The mean free path of conduction electrons in copper is about 4 × 10−8 m. Find the electric field
which can give, on an average, 2 eV energy to a conduction electron in a block of copper.  (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: The band gap between conduction and valance band is given as 2 eV. The work done to lift electron from
P hysi cs | 26.11

conduction band to the valance band is given by W= F × d where F=qE, the electric force applied on the electron.
Mean free path, d= 4 × 10−8 m; energy of electron =2eV
If E is the required electric field, then force on the electron is F=eE
The work done by the electric field on electron before it collides with copper atom is Fd. This work done is equal to
the energy to the energy transferred to electron.
2V 2V
∴ Fd=2 eV or eE ×d =2eV∴ E= = = 5 × 107 V / m
d 4 × 10 −8

4.4 Effect of Temperature on Semiconductors


The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor changes appreciably with temperature variations. This is a very
important point to keep in mind.
(a) At absolute zero. At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons are tightly held by the semiconductor atoms.
The inner orbit electrons are bound whereas the valence electrons are engaged in covalent bonding. At this
temperature, the covalent bonds are very strong and there are no free electrons. Therefore, the semiconductor
crystal behaves as a perfect insulator.
In terms of energy band description, the valence band is filled and there is a large energy gap between
valence band and conduction band. Therefore, no valence electron can reach the conduction band to become
free electron. It is due to the non-availability of free electrons that a semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
(b) Above absolute zero. When the temperature is raised, some of the covalent bonds in the semiconductor
break due to the thermal energy supplied. The breaking of bonds sets those electrons free which are engaged
in the formation of these bonds. The result is that a few free electrons exist in the semiconductor. These free
electrons can constitute a tiny electric current if potential difference is applied across the semiconductor
crystal. This shows that the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the rise in temperature i.e. it has
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. It may be added that at room temperature, current through a
pure semiconductor, is too small to be of any practical value.
As the temperature of a semiconductor increases, some of the valence electrons acquire sufficient energy to enter
into the conduction band and thus become free electrons. Under the influence of electric field, these free electrons
will constitute electric current. It may be noted that each time a valence electron enters into the conduction band, a
hole is created in the valence band. As we shall see in the next article, holes also contribute to current. In fact, hole
current is the most significant concept in semiconductors.
Barrier
Effect of temperature on conductivity of semiconductors P-type Electric field N-type
The electrical conductivity σ of a semiconductor is given by;
σ e (neµe + nhµh )
- -
- -

O O O O
= - - - -
-
-

As the temperature increases, the values of µe (electron mobility)


- -
O O O O
and µh (hole mobility) decrease due to increase in their collision - - - - - -
-
-
- - -

frequency. But with the increase in temperature, there is a large


increase in charge carrier concentrations ( µe and µh ) due to the O
- -
O O O
increase in breaking of covalent bonds. In fact, the increase in - - - - - -
-
-

carrier concentration is so large that the decrease in the values


of µe and µh has no significant effect. Hence, the conductivity of
Hole Donor
a semiconductor increases with the increase in temperature and Depletion
Acceptor Free
vice-versa. region ion
ion electron

Figure 26.12
5. P-N JUNCTION
When a piece of p-type material and piece of n-type material are joined in such a manner that crystal structure
remain continuous at the boundary, then a pn junction is formed. It is also called a pn junction (PN junction) diode.
2 6 . 1 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System

AP-N junction cannot be made by simply pushing the two pieces together as it would not lead to a single crystal
structure. There are special fabrication techniques to form a PN junction.
Immediately after a PN junction is formed, the following processes are initiated:
(a) The negative ions on P-sides and positive ions on N-sides are immobile. The majority holes from P region
diffuse into N region, and the majority electrons from N region diffuse into P region,
(b) Due to the above, the electrons and holes at the junction region recombine and disappear (i.e. covalent bonds
are completed).
(c) As a result, a layer of negative ions on P-side and a layer of positive ions on N-side is formed at the junction.
In this region, due to recombination of electrons and holes, depletion of free charge carriers occurs. So this
region is called depletion region. The charge density on the two sides of the junction (due to ion layers) is
shown in Fig. 26.13 (A).
(d) The uncompensated ion layers in the depletion region generate an electric field in this region. The electric
field points from N side to P side. This electric field prevents further diffusion of holes from P-sides. It also
prevents further diffusion of electrons from the N side to P side. The electric field is called barrier electric field.
(e) The barrier electrical field gives rise to a difference of potential from one side to the other side. This is called
barrier potential (or potential barrier). For silicon PN junction the barrier potential is about 0.7 V while for
germanium PN junction, it is about 0.2V.
P N-type
P-type
P-type V N-type P-type V N-type
+
(A) (B) (C)
Depletion
- region Electron static potential Potential barrier for
energy barrier for holes electrons
Charge density (potential barrier for holes)

Figure 26.13

(f) For holes the potential on the N-sides is higher. Holes cannot cross the depletion region because of this
barrier potential. Figure 26.13 (B). For electrons the potential barrier is shown in Figure 26.13 (C).
(g) On the average the potential barrier height in PN junction is ~0.5V and the width of the depletion region
V 0.5
 1µ m or 10−6 m. The barrier electric field is thus E= =
~ = 5 × 105 Volt / m
d 10−6

5.1 P-N Junction with Forward Bias


(a) When the position terminal of a battery is connected to the P-side E
and the negative terminal to the N-side of a PN-junction, then it is P-side EB N-side
said to be forward biased (See Fig 26.14). O
- - -
- - - - -

-
-

(b) The holes are repelled from the positive terminal and completed to
O - -
+ - -
-

move towards the junction. The electrons are also repelled from the
O
- - - -
-

O
negative terminal and move towards the junction. This reduce the - -
-

depletion region for a forward biased PN-junction O


- -
- - - -
-

(c) The potential barrier is reduced. More charge carriers diffuse across
the junction.
(d) In the P-type material, near the positive terminal, an electron breaks Depletion region
the covalent bond and goes to the battery. As a result a hole is + -
created in P-sides. At the same time an electron enters the N sides Figure 26.14
from the negative terminal. The current in the P-region arises due
to flow of the holes while the current in the N-region is due to electrons.
P hysi cs | 26.13

(e) The electric field at the barrier, due to the Battery is from P side to N side (forward bias). This is an opposition
to the barrier electric field.
(f) If battery potential is increased, the potential barrier is further reduced. More majority carriers diffuse across
the junction and the current increases.

5.2 P-N Junction with Reverse Bias


(a) When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the N-side and negative terminal is connected to the
P-side of the PN junction, then it is said to be reverse biased
(b) The holes in the P-region are attracted towards the negative terminal and the electrons in the N-region are
attracted towards the positive terminal. Thus the majority carriers E
move away from the junction. The depletion region increases for a P-side EB N-side
reverse biased PN-junction. O
- - -

- - - - -
-

-
(c) The barrier potential increases, this makes it more difficult for the O - -
+ - -

-
majority carriers to diffuse across the junction. -
O
-
- -

-
O

(d) A very little current called reverse saturation current flows due to - -

-
- -
minority carrier flow. It is of the order nano amperes (10-9 A) for
O
- - - -

-
silicon and micro amperes (10-6 A) for germanium PN-diodes.
(e) In reverse bias situation, the junction behaves like a high resistivity
material sandwiched in between two regions. Depletion region
+ -
(f) The effective capacitance of PN junction in the reverse bias condition
is of the order of few pico farads. Figure 26.15

v
6. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE + - l
+ -
6.1 Forward and Reverse Bias Characteristics + P N -
+
Forward bias characteristics: The circuit diagram for studying the V-I - R
characteristics of a PN junction diode in forward bias is shown in the
Fig. 26.16.
In forward bias the depletion region decreases, the barrier potential
decrease, and the current flows due to diffusion of charge carriers Figure 26.16
across the junction. Majority holes from P side cross over to N side,
and majority electrons from N sides cross over to P sides. The current l
voltage characteristic is shown in Fig. 26.17. (mA)

The diode current is negligibly small for first few tenths of a volt. The 0.7 V 0.2 V
reason is that the diode does not conduct till the external voltage V, for Si
overcomes the barrier potential. The voltage at which the current starts for Ge
to increase rapidly is called cut-in or knee voltage (V0) of the diode. For (Volt)
O V
a silicon diode V0~0.7 volt for germanium V0~0.2 volt junction diode in
reverse bias is shown in Fig. 26.18. Figure 26.17
v
- + l
- +
P N+
-
- A
+
R

P N
Figure 26.18
2 6 . 1 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System

Reverse Bias characteristics: In reverse bias state, the depletion region increases and
potential barrier also increases. The majority holes in P region and majority electrons P N
in N region, now do not cross the junction. This does not give rise to any current. Easy direction for
conventional current
In reverse bias a very small current flows. This arises due to the flow of minority charge
carriers across the junction. The reverse current is only few µ A for germanium diodes
and only a few nA for silicon diodes. It remains small and almost constant for all Figure 26.19
reverse bias voltages less than the break down voltage Vz. At breakdown, the current
increases rapidly for small increase in voltage. The full characteristics, forward and v2 v
reverse bias are shown in the Fig. 26.19. The PN junction diode thus is a unidirectional O
device. Large current (mA) flows in one direction, but negligible current flows in the
reverse direction. l
Reverse (A)
The symbol used for PN junction diode is shown in Fig. 26.20.
breakdown
(
µ I Iο eeV /kT − 1
The equation for diode current is= )
Where Iο is called saturation current, V is positive for forward and negative reverse bias, Figure 26.20
k is Boltzmann constant, T is temperature and e= 1.6 × 10 −19 C .

6.2 Reverse Breakdown


If the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the current through the PN junction increases rapidly at Vz (see Fig
26.21). The voltage at which this happens is called breakdown voltage or zener voltage.
There two mechanism which causes this breakdown. One is called zener breakdown and the other is called
avalanche breakdown.
Zener breakdown: When reverse bias is increased the electric field at the junction
(mA)
also increases. At some stage the electric field becomes so high that it breaks the
covalent bonds creating electron-hole pairs. Thus a large number of carriers are l
generated. This causes a large current to flow. This mechanism is known as zener v2
breakdown. V
Avalanche breakdown: At high reverse voltage, due to high electric field, the
minority charge carriers, while crossing the junction acquires very high velocities. (A)
These by collision breaks down the covalent bonds, generating more carriers. A Figure 26.21
chain reaction is established, giving rise to high current. This mechanism is called
avalanche breakdown. In other words the covalent where the junction break down liberating a large number of
electron hole pairs. Then the reverse current increases abruptly to high value. This is called avalanche break down
and may damage the junction. This phenomenon is used to zener diode and used in voltage regulator.

Illustration 11: In a pure germanium sample, the electron and hole mobilities at room temperature are
3600cm2 / V s, 1700 cm2/ V s respectively. If the electron-hole concentration is 2.5 × 1019 m−3 , then the conductivity
of Ge is  (JEE MAIN)

σ nie ( µe + µn )
Sol: As the electron-hole concentration is given the conductivity of the germanium is given by =
where µe and µh are electron and hole mobilities respectively.

σ nie ( µe + µn ) ; ( ni = pi )
=

σ= 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 ( .36 + .17=


) 2.12  / m
P hysi cs | 26.15

7. JUNCTION DIODE AS RECTIFIER


A device which converts alternating current (a.c.) into direction current (d.c.) is known as rectifier. The process of
converting a.c. into d.c is known a rectification.
Principle: Junction diode conducts only when forward biased and not conduct when reverse biased. It acts as a
valve. This fact makes the junction diode to work as a rectifier.

7.1 Junction Diode as a Half Wave Rectifier


The Rectifier which converts only one half of a.c. into Junction diode
d.c. is called halfwave rectifier. The circuit diagram of
half wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 26.22.
The a.c. input signal to be rectified is fed to the
primary (P) coil of the transformer. The secondary (S)
Input
A.C
 P P RL
Output
voltage
coil is connected to the junction diode through a load
resistance RL. The output signal is obtained across the
load resistance RL.
Transformer
Working: Since upper end of secondary coil is
connected to p-region and lower end is connected Figure 26.22
to the n-region of the junction diode, so the junction
diode is forward biased during the positive half of A.C Input

Input
+ +
input a.c. The output voltage is obtained across the O  t
- 2 -
load resistance RL. Upper end of the secondary coil
becomes negative and lower and becomes positive.
So the junction diode is reverse biased. Hence the Output
junction does not conduct and we get no output +
t
across the load resistance during negative half of O  2 D.C Output
input a.c.
Figure 26.23
Disadvantages:
(a) Since the output signal is discontinuous, so the efficiency of half wave rectifier is small.
(b) The output is not pure d.c. but it is a fluctuating (or pulsating a.c.) which contains a.c. components or ripples
also.
Expression for output d.c. voltage: Output d.c. voltage = Mean load current × load resistance i.e. Vd.c=Id.c. × RL
Iο I
But Id.c. = , where Iο is the maximum value of the secondary half wave current∴Vd.c. =ο × RL
π π

7.2 Junction Diode as a Full Wave Rectifier


Full wave rectifier converts both halves a.c. input signal to d.c. D1
output. S1
The p-regions of both the diode the D1 and D2 are connected S
to the two ends of the secondary coil (s). The load resistance RL A.C  P
across which output voltage is obtained is connected between Source D.C voltage
output
common point of n region of diodes and central tapping of the
S2
secondary coil.
Centre tap type D2
Working: The upper end of the secondary coil becomes
positive while the lower end becomes negative. Thus, diode transformer
D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased, so the Figure 26.24
current due to diode D1 flows through the circuit in a direction
2 6 . 1 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System

shown by arrows (above RL).The output voltage which varies in A.C at S1


accordance with the input half cycle is obtained across the load

Input
+ +
resistance (RL). O  t
- 2 3 - 4
During negative half cycle of input a.c. signal. Diode D1 is reverse A.C at S2
biased and diode D2 flows through the circuit in a direction + +
shown by arrows (below RL). The output voltage is obtained t
 - 2 3 - 4
across the load resistance (RL).
D1 D2 D3 D4
Since both the halves of input a.c. (wave) are rectified, so the

Output
junction diode is called a full wave rectifier.
t
O  2 3 4
Advantage: In full wave rectifier, output is continuous, so its
efficiency is more than that of the half wave rectifier. D.C. Output

However, the output is again fluctuating (or pulsating d.c.) Figure 26.25
which can be smoothened by using a filter circuit.
Expression for output d.c. voltage: Output d.c. voltage=Mean load current × load resistance i.e. Vd.c.
= Id.c. × RL
2Iο
But Id.c. = , where Iο is the maximum value of the secondary full wave current
π
I
∴Vd.c. =ο × RL
π
Thus, output d.c. voltage in case of full wave rectifier is twice the output d.c. voltage in case of half wave rectifier.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

S. No. Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier

Iο 2Iο
1. Iac
= Idc
= Iac =
π π

Vο 2Vο
2. E=
ac E=
dc Eac =
π π

3. r 1.21 ∴Iac > Idc


= ∴Iac < Idc
r= 0.48,

0.406 rp 0.812 rp
4. =η ;1+ =η ;1+
rp RL rp RL

5. Form Factor =1.57 1.11

6. Ripple frequency =w 2w

input pulse frequency


7. Pulse frequency = Pulse frequency = input pulse frequency
2

Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)


P hysi cs | 26.17

7.3 V-I Characteristics of Junction Diode


Volt-ampere or V-I characteristic of a junction diode (i.e. pn junction) is the curve between voltage across the diode
and current through the diode. Since a junction diode may be forward biased or reverse biased, it has two type of
V-I characteristics viz.

(a) Forward characteristics (b) Reverse characteristics.


(a) Forward characteristics. It is the graph between forward voltages (VF) applied across the junction diode
and the resulting forward current (IF) through the diode. Figure 26.26(A) shows the circuit arrangement for
determining the forward characteristics of a junction diode. Note that R is current limiting resistance and
prevents the forward current from exceeding the permitted value.
The forward current is due to the majority carriers.

Forward current (mA)


7
6
K
5
mA
4 B
V 3
V
2 Knee
A
1 voltage
VF
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Forward bias (V)
(A) (B)
Figure 26.26

The forward voltage (VF) across the junction diode is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding
values of forward current (IF) through the diode are noted. If we plot the graph between VF and IF we get the
forward characteristic OAB of the junction diode as shown in Fig. 26.26 (B). The shape of this curve can be
explained as under:
When the applied forward voltage is zero i.e. circuit is open at K, the barrier potential V0 at the junction does
not permit current flow. Therefore, the forward current IF is zero as indicated by point 0 in Fig. 26.26 (b). As the
forward voltage is increased from zero, the forward current increases very slowly (curve 0A) until the forward
voltage across the diode reaches V0 (=0.7V for silicon diode and 0.3V for germanium diode) at the knee of
the curve. The forward voltage corresponding to knee of the curve is called knee voltage. Once the applied
forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the forward current increases rapidly (curve AB).
The forward voltage at which the current through the diode starts to increase rapidly with increase in forward
voltage is called knee voltage. For silicon diode, knee voltage=0.7V while for germanium diode, knee voltage=
0.3V.
Below the knee voltage, the curve is non-linear. But once the forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the
diode behave like an ordinary conductor. Therefore, forward current rises sharply with increase in forward
voltage (curve AB). The curve is now almost linear.
(b) Reverse characteristics. It is the graph between the reverse voltage (VR) applied across the junction diode
and the reverse current (IR) through the diode. Figure 26.27(A) shows the circuit arrangement for determining
the reverse characteristics of a junction diode. Note that the diode is reverse biased.
The reverse voltage (VR) across the junction diode is increased from Fig. 26.27 (B) zero in steps and the
corresponding value of reverse current (IR) are noted. If we plot the graph between VR and IR, we get the
reverse characteristics OCD of the junction diode as shown in Fig. 26.27(B). The shape of reverse characteristic
of the diode can be explained as under:
Since the diode is reverse biased, its resistance is very high and practically no current flows through the circuit.
2 6 . 1 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System

However, in practice, a very small reverse current (of the order of µA ) flows with reverse bias as shown in Fig.
26.27(B). This is called reverse saturation current because its value practically remains constant until reverse
breakdown voltage (VBR) is reached. The reverse saturation current is due to minority carriers. It may be
recalled that are a few free electrons in p-type material and a few holes in n-type material. These undesirable
free electrons in p-type and hole in n-type are called minority carriers. To these minority carriers, the applied
reverse bias appears as forward bias. Therefore, a small reverse current (IR) flows in the circuit.
15 10 5
VR(volts)
O
K VBR C 100
V
200
V V Breakdown
D voltage 300
400
lR(A)

(A) (B)
Figure 26.27

As shown in Fig. 26.27(b) when the reverse voltage becomes equal to reverse breakdown voltage VBR, the
reverse current increases very rapidly. Now reverse voltage remains approximately constant at VBR but reverse
current IR increases very sharply resulting in overheating and possible damage. This large value of IR is due to
the fact that the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) becomes high enough to knock out electrons
from semiconductor atoms. Thus there is sudden decrease in resistance of the junction and abrupt rise of
reverse current.

7.4 Dynamic or A.C. Forward Resistance of Junction Diode


It is the opposition offered by the junction diode to the changing forward current and may be defined as under:
The ratio of change in forward voltage across the diode to the resulting change in current through it is called a.c.
forward resistance of the diode.
change in forward voltage across the diode
a.c. forward resistance, rf =
corresponding change in current through diode

The a.c. forward resistance is more significant as the diodes are generally used with lF
alternating voltages. The a.c. forward resistance can be determined from the forward
characteristic as shown in Fig. 26.28. If P is the operating point at any instant, then
forward voltage is ob and forward current is OE. To find the a.c. forward resistance, F
vary the forward voltage on both sides of the operating point equally as shown in E
D
Fig. 26.28. where AB=BC. It is clear from this figure that:
For forward voltage OA, circuit current is OD. For forward voltage OC, circuit current
vF
is of. O ABC

∴ a.c.
change in forward voltage OC−−oa
oc OA acAC Figure 26.28
forward resistance
= is; rf = = = =
change in forward current OF−−od
of OD dfDF

It may be mentioned here that forward resistance of a crystal diode is very small. Ranging from 1 to 25 Ω. Note that
above the knee point in the forward characteristic, the curve is linear. Therefore, above knee point, r, is independent
of the forward applied voltage.
A.C. reverse resistance. The a.c. reverse resistance of a junction diode is very large and may be considered infinite
for all practical purposes. For reason, a reverse diode practically conducts no current.
P hysi cs | 26.19

8. ZENER DIODE
A property doped P-N junction diode which works in the breakdown region without damaging itself is called a
zener diode.
Zener diode is also known as breakdown diode. It is mainly as a voltage regular.
Symbolic representation of zener diode is made as
The breakdown voltage zener voltage Vz depends on the concentration of doping. Both n and p regions of zener
diode are heavily doped. The depletion layer is very thin. Since electric field,
E=-dV/dr, the electric field across the junction will be very high.
Volt-ampere characteristics of zener diode

+V - -V +



+
mA
- A



- +
+ - - +

(A) Forward biased (B) Reverse biased


Figure 26.29

Zener diode operates in the breakdown region (reverse bias).


Zener Diode as a voltage regulator: A zener diode can be used as
Forward
voltage regular or stabilizer to provide a constant voltage from a source. current Ge
The zener diode is connected across the fluctuating voltage source (mA) Si
through a dropping resistor of resistance Rs. The constant voltage Reverse voltage
supply is obtained across the load RL. V, (Si) V,(Ge)
The zener diode of zener voltage Vz is reverse connected across the
Forward voltage
load RL across which constant output is desired. The series resistance
Rs absorbs the output voltage fluctuation so as to maintain constant
voltage across the load RL. Reverse voltage
(a) Suppose the input voltage increases. Since the zener is in the (A)
breakdown region, the zener diode is equivalent to a battery Vz Figure 26.30
as shown in Fig. 26.32 (ii) It is clear that output voltage remains
constant at Vz (=E0). The excess voltage is dropped across the series
resistance RS. This will cause an load current remains constant. Hence, output voltage E0 remains constant
irrespective of the changes in the input voltage Ein.

RS

Fluctuating or Constant
voltage voltage
VZ RL output
(Input)

Figure 26.31

(b) Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance RL decreases. This will cause an increase
in load current. The extra current cannot come from the source because drop in RS (and hence source current
2 6 . 2 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System

I) will not change as the zener is within its regulating range. The additional load current will come from a
decrease in zener current Iz. Consequently, the output voltage stays at constant value.

RS l RL RS l RL
- -

Ein RL EO Ein VZ EO
RL
lZ
+ +
(i) (ii)
Figure 26.32

Voltage drop across RS=Ein-E0


Current through RS, I=IZ+IL
Ein − E0
Applying ohm’s law, we have, R s =
I Z + IL

9. PHOTO DIODE
The junction diode which conducts when charge carriers are generated by the photons i.e., light incident on it is
known as optoelectronic junction device.
A reverse biased special p-n junction diode having transparent window is known as photo diode and when it is
illuminated with light, the reverse diode current varies linearly with the light flux.
Construction: A reverse biased p-n junction diode is enclosed in a clear plastic envelope. Light is allowed to fall on
the surface of the plastic facing the diode. The output voltage is taken across the load resistance RL.
Symbolic representation of a photo diode is shown in the Fig. 26.33.
Principle. When a rectifier diode is reverse biased, it has a very small reverse leaked current. Cathode
The same is true for a photo-diode. The reverse current is produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs which are swept across the junction by the electric field create by the
reverse voltage. In a rectifier diode, the reverse current increases with temperature due
to an increase in the number of electron hole pairs. A photo-diode differs from a rectifier
diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the Anode
increase in light intensity and vice-versa. This is explained as follows. When light (photons)
falls on the pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to the atoms in the junction. Figure 26.33
This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional free electrons will
increase the reverse current. As the intensity of light incident on the pn junction increases,
the reverse current also increases. In other words, as the incident light intensity increases, the resistance of the
device (photo-diode) decreases. Figure 26.33 shows the schematic symbol of a photo-diode. The inward represent
the incoming light.
Photo-diode operation. Figure 26.33 shows the basic photo-diode circuit. The circuit has reverse biased photos-
diode, resistor R and d.c. supply. The operation of photo-diode is as under:
(a) When no light is incident on the pn junction of photo-diode, the reverse current Ir is extremely small. This is
called dark current.
The resistance of photo-diode with no incident light is called dark resistance (RR).
VR
Dark resistance of photo-diode, RR =
Dark current
(b) When light is incident on the junction of the photo-diode, there is a transfer of energy from the incident light
P hysi cs | 26.21

(photons) to the atoms in the junction. This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional
free electrons will increase the reverse current.
(c) As the intensity of light increases, the reverse current IR goes on increasing till it becomes maximum. This is
called saturation current.
Reverse current versus illumination curve. lR(A)
Figure 26.34 shows the graph between reverse lR
current (IR) and illumination (E) of a photo-diode.
The reverse current is shown on the vertical 100
axis and is measured in µ A. The illumination is R
30
indicated on the horizontal axis and is measured v
in m W/cm2. Note that graph is a straight line VR 10

 
passing through the origin.
mW
E
m E Where m= slope of the straight line
2
∴ IR = 0 1 3 10 cm
The quantity m is called is called the sensitivity
Figure 26.34
of the photo-diode.
Volt- ampere characteristics of photo diode. When photo diode is reverse biased,
then a constant current known as saturation current I0 due to thermally generated
minority carriers flows in the circuit. This current is also known as dark current.
When light of energy (hv) more than the energy gap (Eg) of semiconductor falls on the Photo diode
photo-diode, additional electron-hole pairs are formed. The electron-hole pairs formed
Figure 26.35
are proportional to the intensity of the incident light or the number of incident photons.
These electrons holes diffuse through the junction and hence current Is also flows in
addition to the dark current I0. Thus the electric current I0 is proportional to the intensity
of incident light. Hence, the total reverse current is given by. I=I0+Is
RL
Total reverse current in a photo-diode increase with the increase in the intensity of the
incident light.

Uses of photo diodes: Figure 26.36


(a) Photo diodes are used as photo detectors intensity of
radiation. Reverse voltage
(in volts)
(b) They are used as light operated switches.
Dark current
(c) They are used in optical communication equipment’s. Photo-diode
(d) They are used in fast reading of film sound tracks and current (in A)
tapes. Intensity (l1)
(e) They are used in logic circuits.
Intensity (l2)
(f) They are used as optical demodulators. l2>l1

Figure 26.37

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

Photo-diodes are operated in reverse photo-diode is used to detect photo radiation.


Light variations affect minority carrier based reverse current much more than the forward current
Anand KJEE 2011, AIR 47
2 6 . 2 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System

10. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)


A special heavily doped P-N junction diode which emits spontaneous radiation when forward
biased is known as light emitting diode (LED).
The symbolic representation of LED is snown in the Fig. 26.38:
LEDs made of elemental semiconductor like germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) emit energy in the LED
form of infra-red (or heat) radiation. Figure 26.38
LEDs made of Ga As of Eg~1.4 eV emits infrared radiations.
LED made of Ga As 0.6 P 0.4 eV Eg~1.9 eV emits red light.
Theory: When a p-n junction diode is forward biased (See Fig. 26.39), the Visible Visible
electrons injected to p-side of the junction diode falls from the conduction light light
band to the valence band and recombine with the holes in the valence p n
band. [This is equivalent to the jumping of electrons from higher energy
state (i.e., conduction band) to lower energy state (i.e., valence band)]. + +
Hence, energy is known as electro-luminescence. The energy of the photon -+ +-
of visible light by hv =Eg, where Eg is the energy gap between conduction
band and valence band v is the frequency of emitted visible radiation. The
hc hc Figure 26.39
wavelength of the emitted light is given=
by Eg or λ
λ Eg
Advantage of LED
(a) Light emitting diodes are easily manufactured.
(b) LEDs have low cost.
(c) LED works at low voltage as compared to the incandescent bulb.
(d) LED has longer life than the incandescent bulb.
(e) They can be switched on and off very fast so they can be used as blinkers.
(f) Now warm up time is taken by them,
(g) They can emit monochromatic light as well as white light.

Uses of light emitting diodes


Light emitting diodes have the following uses:
(a) They are used as indicator lamps.
(b) They are used in digital displays in watches and calculators.
(c) Light emitting diodes which emit infra-red light are used in burglar alarm.
(d) They are used in remote control schemes.
(e) They are used as blinkers.
(f) They are used as decorating lights.
(g) They are used as light lamp and in torches.

11. SOLAR CELL OR PHOTO-VOLTAIC DEVICE


A special p-n junction diode which converts solar energy (sun light) into electrical is known as solar cell or photo-
voltaic device. Junction surface of these diodes is kept large so that large radiations are caught.
A simple solar cell consists of a p-n junction of which n-region is very thin and p-region is thick.
P hysi cs | 26.23

Nickel plated Solar Energy or light energy


contact
of hv > Eg
l
n

RL p Junction

Nickel plated
contact

Figure 26.40

Action:
(a) When solar energy or light energy falls on the cells, electron-hole pairs are

Electric current
generated in both n-region and p-region of the junction in diode.
(b) The electrons from p-region diffuse through the junction to n-region and holes
from n-region diffuse through the junction to the p-region due to electric field
of depletion layer.
(c) If p-n junction diode is open circuited, then holes and electrons will collect or Intensity of sun light
accumulate on the two sides of the junction. This gives rise to an open circuit
voltage V0. Figure 26.41

V-I characteristics: A typical V-I characteristic of a solar cell is shown in Fig.26.42. V0


is open circuit voltage of the solar cell and Is is the maximum current i.e., short circuit
which can be drawn from the cell. ll l
VR
Uses of solar cell: (V)
(a) Solar cells are used in street lights
lll lS lV
(b) They are used in solar heaters.
(l)
(c) They are used in power supply of satellites and space vehicles.
Figure 26.42
(d) They are used in calculators.

Illustration 12: A diode used in the circuit shown in Fig. 26.43. has a constant R
voltage drop of 0.5 V at all currents and a maximum power rating of 100 mW.
What should be the value of resistance R connected in series with diode for
obtaining maximum current?  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: The power dissipated across diode is given by Pmax = V.Imax where Imax is the
maximum current through the diode. The value of resistance across the diode
is given by Ohm’s law.
Figure 26.43
Applied voltage, E=1.5V
Voltage drop across diode Vd = 0.5V
Max. Power rating of diode, Pmax=100 mW =0.1 W
Pmax 0.1
The maximum current (Imax) that diode can carry safely is Imax
= = = 0.2A
Vd 0.5
Voltage drop across resistance R=E-Vd=1.5-0.5=1.0V
Voltage drop across R 0.1
∴R= = =5Ω
Imax 0.2
2 6 . 2 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System

Illustration 13: A battery of 2 V is connected across the points A and B as shown in Fig. 26.44. Find the current
drawn from the battery if the positive terminal is connected to (i) The points A and (ii) The point B. Assume that the
resistance of each diode is zero in forward bias and infinite in reverse bias.  (JEE ADVANCED)

10 10 20


20

2V 2V
A B
Figure 26.44

Sol: When the diode is connected in forward bias condition the resistance of diode is zero and hence the current
through the diode is maximum. While the diode is in the reverse biased condition the resistance is infinite thus the
circuit acts as open circuit. Thus the effective current in the circuit is obtained using Ohm’s Law.
(a) When positive terminal of the battery is connected to point A, diode D1 is forward biased and offers zero
resistance while diode D2 is reverse biased and offers infinite resistance therefore, diode D1 may be replaced
by a wire while diode D2 is open- circuited.
The circuit then reduced to that shown in Fig. 26.44.
2V
∴ Current drown from battery, I = 0.2A
10Ω
(b) When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to point B, diode D1 is reverse biased and offers infinite
resistance while diode D2 is forward biased and offers zero resistance. The circuit then reduces to that shown
in Fig. 26.44.
2V
∴ Current drown from battery, I = 0.1A
20Ω

Illustration 14: In Fig, 26.45 what is the voltage needed at the source, to maintain 15 V across the load resistance
RL of 2k Ω , assuming that the series resistance R is 200 Ω and the zener requires a minimum current of 10 mA to
work satisfactory? What is the zener rating required?  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Current through the load resistor of resistance 2k Ω is found using Ohm’s law. As
10 mA current is still flowing through the zener when it is connected in reverse biased
condition while the rest of current passes through load resistor, the rating of the zener
lR
R
diode should be higher than total current passing through the zener. The rating is given
by IR+IL.
Voltage across RL, is VL=15 V lZ vZ RL lL
VL 15
Current through RL , IL= = 7.5 10−3 A =
=× 7.5mA
RL 2 × 10 −3

Zener current, Iz=10 mA ∴ Current through R, IR= Iz+IL=10+7.5mA Figure 26.45

Voltage drop across R, VR= IR × R=17.5 × 10-3×200=3.5 V


Input voltage required, V= VR+VL =3.5+15=18.5V
Therefore, zener diode should have a current rating of 17.5 mA and a breakdown voltage of 15V.

Illustration 15: An a.c. supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a transformer of turn ratio
10:1 Find (i) The output d.c. voltage and (ii) The peak inverse voltage. Assume the diode to be ideal. 
 (JEE ADVANCED)
P hysi cs | 26.25

Sol: The transformer is the step down transformer, thus the 10 : 1 Ideal
secondary voltage will be less than primary voltage applied. The
DC output voltage obtained at the end of secondary coil is given
N2
by V=
sm Vpm × where Vpm is peak voltage at the primary coil.
N1

340 V RL
The inverted DC voltage obtained at the secondary coil is given by
Vsm
′ =
Vdc .
π
Primary to secondary turns is [see fig.26.46] Figure 26.46

N1
= 10 R.M.S primary voltage =230 V
N2
∴ Maximum primary voltage is V
=pm ( 2 ) × r.m.s. primary voltage = ( 2 ) × 230 = 325.3V Max. Secondary voltage
is
N2 1
Vsm = Vpm × = 325.3 × = 32.53V
N1 10
Vsm 32.3
(i) =′
Vdc = = 10.36V
π π
(ii) During the negative half-cycle of a.c. supply, the diode is reverse biased and hence conducts no current.
Therefore, the maximum secondary voltage appears across the diode.
∴ Peak inverse voltage = 32.53 V

Illustration 16: A crystal diode having internal resistance ri=20 Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the applied
voltage
= V 50 sin ωt and load resistance = RL 800 Ω, find:
(i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) a.c. power input and d.c power output (iii) d.c output voltage (iv) Efficiency of rectification 
 (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The equation of AC voltage is given by= V Vo sin ωt where Vo is the maximum voltage from the source. As
a load resistance is applied in series to the supply, the current through the resistance and output voltage are

obtained by Ohm’s law. The power is given by = P Ieff2 × R eff where Reff is the effective resistance in the circuit. The
PDC
efficiency of the diode is given by ε = where PDC and PAC are DC and AC powers dissipated in the circuit.
PAC

Given that, V=50 sin ωt ; ri = 20 Ω, and RL = 800


∴Maximum voltage, Vm=50V
Vm 50
(i) Im
= = = 0.061A
= 61 mA; I= Im /=
π 61 /=
π 19.4 mA
dc
rf + RL 20 + 800
Irms Im
= = / 2 61
= / 2 30.5 mA
2
 30.5 
a.c. power input= ( Irms ) × (rf +=
RL )   × ( 20 + 800 ) 0.763 watt
2
(ii) =
 1000 
2
 19.4 
(iii) d.c power output = I2dc=
× RL  800 0.301 watt
 ×=
 1000 

(iv) d.c. output voltage ==


IdcRL 19.4mA × =
800Ω 15.52 volts

0.301
(v) Efficiency of rectification== × 100= 39.5%
0.763

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