chapter 14 ( 12th Physics)
chapter 14 ( 12th Physics)
chapter 14 ( 12th Physics)
SEMICONDUCTOR
1. INTRODUCTION
Certain substances like germanium, silicon etc. are neither good conductors like copper nor insulators like glass. In
other words, the resistivity of these materials lies in between conductors and insulators. Such substances are classified
as semiconductors. These substances have crystalline structure and are formed by covalent bonds. An important
property of a semiconductor is that by adding a controlled amount of suitable impurity to it, its conductivity can
be changed appreciably. This useful property is responsible for the widespread use of semiconductors in electronic
devices. In this chapter, we shall discuss the electrical properties of semiconductors.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
On the basis of electrical conductivity ( σ ) or resistivity ( ρ= 1 / σ ) , the solids can be classified into the following
three classes:
(a) Metal conductors. These are those solids which possess high conductivity or low resistivity. This is due to the fact
that metals have a large number of free electrons. The conductivity of metal conductors lies between 102 and 108
Sm-1 while their resistivity is in between 10-2 and 10-8 Ω m. Examples of metal conductors are: Al, Cu, Ag, Au, etc.
(b) Insulators. These are those solids which possess very low conductivity or very high resistivity. This is due to the
fact that insulators have practically no free electrons. The conductivity of insulators lie between 10-11 and 10-19
Sm-1 while their resistivity is between 1011 and 1019 Ω m. Examples of insulators are: glass, rubber, plastic etc.
(c) Semiconductors. These are those solids which possess conductivity and resistivity in between metallic
conductors and insulators. This is due to the fact that semiconductors have very few free electrons at room
temperature and can be regarded as insulators for all practical purposes. The conductivity of semiconductors
lies between 10-5 and 100 Sm-1 while their resistivity in between 105 and 0.5 Ω m. Examples of semiconductors
are: germanium, silicon, carbon, etc.
(d) Electrical conduction in solid can take place only when electron remains present in its conduction energy
band.
(e) The minimum energy required for exciting an electron from valence
energy band to conduction energy band is known as forbidden energy
( )
gap ∆Eg ; ∆=Eg CEBmin − VEBmax Conduction band
Band energy
We have seen that energy levels of an isolated atom are converted into
corresponding energy bands when the atom is in solid form. There is no Forbidden
appreciable modification in the energy levels of electrons in the inner energy
gap
orbits but there is a considerable modification of energy levels of valence
electrons. It is because valence electrons are shared by more than one atom
Valence band
in the crystal. Therefore, valence electrons can be considered to be in either
of the two energy bands viz lower valence band or upper or conduction
band as shown in Fig. 26.1. No electron can have energy in the forbidden
Figure 26.1
energy gap between two bands. Normally, the electrons reside in the
valence band where they are held rather tightly to the individual atoms.
(a) Valence band. The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons. In a normal atom, valence
band has the electrons of highest energy. This band may be completely or partially filled. For instance, in case
of inert gases, the valence band is full whereas for other materials, it is only partially filled. The partially filled
band can accommodate more electrons.
(b) Conduction band. In certain materials (e.g. metals), the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus.
Even at ordinary temperature, some of the valence electrons may get detached to become free electrons.
In fact, it is these free electrons which are responsible for the conduction of current in a conductor. For this
reason, they are called conduction electrons.
The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction band electrons is known as conduction band.
All electrons in the conduction band are free electrons. If a substance has empty conduction band, it means
current conduction is not possible in that substance. Generally, insulators have empty conduction band. On
the other hand, it is partially filled for conductors.
(c) Forbidden energy gap. The separation between conduction band and valence band on the energy level
diagram is known as forbidden energy gap (Eg).
No electron of a solid can stay in a forbidden energy gap as there is no allowed energy state in this region. The
width of the forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of valence electrons to the atom. The greater
the energy gap, more tightly the valence electrons are bound to the nucleus. In order to push an electron
from valence band to the conduction band (i.e.to make the valence electron free), external energy equal to
the forbidden energy gap must be supplied.
4. SEMICONDUCTORS
These are solids in which the forbidden energy gap
between the valence band the conduction band is small, of Conduction
the order of 1eV. At 0 kelvin, the valence band is completely band
filled and the conduction band is completely empty. At -le V } Forbidden } }
0K, it behaves like an insulator (electron cannot absorb in band
infinitesimal energy because there is a forbidden gap just Valence
at the top of the valence band). At a finite temperature, band
(room temperature), some electrons gain energy due to
OK TK
thermal motion and jump from the top of the valence
band to the conduction band. These electrons contribute Figure 26.2
to the conduction of electricity in a semiconductor.
P hysi cs | 26.3
The forbidden gap in a semiconductor is small ~ 1eV. At finite temperature, some valance electrons go to conduction
band. Then the formlessly is in middle of the gap
The energy gap is some semiconductors is as follows:
∆Eg ( Silicon) =
1.12eV ; ∆Eg ( germanium) =
0.7 eV
∆Eg ( Indium antimonide ) =
0.17 eV ; ∆Eg ( Gallium arsenide ) =
1.43eV ; ∆Eg ( Tellurium )=
0.33eV
The energy gap decreases slightly with increases in temperature.
Eg (diamond) ~ 6 eV
3. At room temperature, all electrons At room temperature, electrons do At room temperature, many
remains in the partially filled valence not get sufficient thermal energy to electrons have sufficient energy to
band or over lapped band cross over and the forbidden energy go to the conduction band.
band remains empty
4. Conducts electric current. Very small Does not conduct electric current May conduct electric current but
resistivity (negligible conduction) very large conduction is small. Medium
ρ ( ohm meter ) resistively (ohm meter) resistivity and medium conductivity
ρ ( glass ) 1011 − 1012 Ωm ρ ( Si )= 2100Ωm ρ ( Ge ) = 0.47Ωm
ρ ( Cu) =1.7 × 10 −8 Ωm
ρ ( diamond) 10 Ωm 14
σ ( Ge ) 2.13 σ ( Si ) 4.7 × 10 −4
ρ ( Ag) =1.6 × 10−2 Ωm
very low conductivity (ohm/m).
The conductivity is high
−10 −14
σ 10 to 10 Ωm
σ ≈ 107 to 10−9 ohm / m
(or Siemen/m) very low conductivity
σ 10−10 to 10−15 ohm / m (or
Siemen/m)
5. Only electrons are the current carrier No current carrier (the electric Both electrons and holes contribute
Number of free electrons (in Cu) conduction is almost zero for all to current conduction. Number of
1028 per m3 practical purposes, see σ mentioned free electrons (at room temperature)
before) is in Ge 1019 per m3 in Si 1016
per m3
6. Conductivity decreases with Conductivity negligibly small Conductivity increases with
temperature. however increases slightly at very temperature (the resistivity /
high temperatures. resistance decreases with
temperature). The temperature
Conductivity coefficient of resistance of a
semiconductor is negative
(Resisivity)
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
2 6 . 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Where ne(0) is electron density in conduction band, ne(0) is hole density in valance
band and ni is the density of intrinsic charge carriers.
At absolute zero temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bound and
no free electron is available for electrical condition. In the band picture, at
absolute zero temperature, the conduction band is completely empty while,
the valence band is fully filled. The semiconductor behaves as a perfect
insulator at absolute zero temperature. At room temperature (~300K), some
of the electrons may gain sufficient thermal energy and moved away from the
influence of the nucleus, i.e. the covalent bond may be broken. The electron,
so obtained is free to move in the crystal and conduct electricity (see Fig 26.4).
The vacancy created in the covalent bond is called a hole.
Figure 26.3
Conduction
Free electrons band
Conduction
band Empty
Gap Eg
Eg (gap)
Valence band
with holes Filled
Valence band
Holes
Figure 26.4
When a covalent band is broken, the electron hole pair is created. Thus, in an intrinsic semiconductor, Number of
holes=number of free electrons nh=ne
In an intrinsic semiconductor the current flow occurs due to the motion of both, the electrons and the holes. Let
e=magnitude of charge on the electrons, nh= number density of holes, µe =mobility of electrons an µh =mobility of
holes, then the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is= σ e (neµe + nh + µh ) Consider a block of semiconductor
of length area of cross section A and having density of electron and holes as ne as and nh respectively when a
potential difference say V is applied across it, current I flows through it as shown in Fig. 26.6 The current I is made
of electron current Ie and hole current Ih.
Thus, I = Ie + Ih … (i)
v
If ve is drift velocity of electrons, Then Ie =ene Ave …(ii)
Similarly, the hole current is given by Ih= ene Avh … (iii) Area ‘A’
-
If R is the resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of current, then
l
V V
I= or = eA (neve+nhvh) … (v) Figure 26.6
R R
V
The electric field set up across the semiconductor is given
= by E =or V E
l
El E
Therefore, equation (v) becomes = eA (neve+nhvh) or E = e (neve+nhvh)
R A
R
l
A E
But R =ρ = resistivity of the material of the semiconductor. Therefore = e (neve+nhvh) … (vi)
l ρ
Mobility of electrons or holes is defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit electric field.
ve vh
Therefore mobility of electrons and holes is given =
by µe and
= µh
E E
From equation (iv), we have
1 ve v
= e ne . + nh . h or σ =e (ne µ e+nh µ h) … (vii)
ρ E E
1
Where σ =e is called conductivity of the material of the semiconductor and µe , µh are electron and hole
ρ
mobilities respectively.
MASTERJEE CONCEPTS
•• In pure semiconductors, at any temperature t, the carrier concentration ne=nh=n and the conductivity
is determined by the value of Eg (width of the forbidden band)(see relations given above).
•• In metal, however, the value of n is almost the same at different temperatures. The resistance arises
due to interaction of free (conduction) electrons with the lattice vibrations.
•• At absolute zero temperature, n=0, σ =0 i.e., the pure semiconductor behaves like a perfect insulator.
However, as temperature increases both n and σ increases. In germanium at T ≈ 300K, ne = nh
= 2.5 × 1019 per m3. The higher is the temperature, higher is the conductivity and lower is the resistivity.
•• The temperature coefficient of the resistance of a semiconductor is negative.
•• Pure semiconductors are of little use (may be used as heat or light sensitive resistance).
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009, AIR 22)
2 6 . 6 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 1: Which one is more sensitive to heat, germanium or silicon? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The band gap between conduction band and valance band in germanium (0.68 eV) is less than silicon
(1.1 eV). Thus the electron in the valance band in germanium require less thermal energy (Order of KT) to transit
from valance band to conduction band compared to silicon.
Germanium is more sensitive to heat. Electrons from the valence band of germanium require less energy to move
from valence band to conduction band.
Conduction
band Free holes
Minority - - -
electrons
- - -
Acceptor level
p-type semi conductor
Immobile negative
Majority ions (impurity)
Valence band Holes
Figure 26.11
MASTERJEE CONCEPTS
When temperature is increased, covalent bonds break. This increases minority charge carriers. At very
high temperature, it may happen when number of electron-hole pair obtained from bond breaking, far
exceeds the charge carriers from impurities. Then the semiconductor behaves like intrinsic semiconductor.
The critical temperature at which this happens is 850C germanium and 2000C for silicon.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)
Illustration 2: Calculate the conductivity and the resistivity of silicon crystal at 300K. It is given that µe =1350 cm2 / V s,
10
µh = 480 cm2/ V s, and at 300K, the election- hole pair concentration is 1.072 × 10 per cm3. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The conductivity of silicon is given as σ = e × (neµe + nµh ) where ne and nh are electron and hole densities
1
respectively. Here ne = nh = ni is the hole-electron pair concentration. The resistivity of the silicon is ρ = .
σ
The conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor is σ = e × (neµe + nµh )
2 6 . 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 3: The concentration of acceptor atoms in a p-type germanium crystal is 4 × 1015 per cm3. Find the
conductivity of the crystal at 300K. The µh for germanium at 300K is 1900 cm2 / V s. It is assumed that all the
acceptor atoms are ionized at this temperature. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: In p-type germanium hole density is greater than electron density. The conductivity of the p-type germanium
is given by=σ nh eµh
σ nh eµh
For extrinsic semiconductor (p-type)=
Given σ= nh = 4 × 1015 per cm3 = 4 × 1021 per m3
µh =1900cm2 /volt –sec
Thus σ= 4 × 1021 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.190= 1.216 × 102 ohm / m = 1.21.6 siemen / m
Illustration 4: An intrinsic germanium has a resistivity of 0.47 Ω m at room temperature. Find the intrinsic carrier
concentration if the mobility of electrons and holes are 0.39 m2/ V s, and 0.19 m2/volt-sec respectively. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: The resistivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is ρ = . Here σ is conductivity of the germanium and is given by
σ
σ ni ( µe + µh )
= where ni is the concentration of electron-hole pair
Let ni be the intrinsic carrier concentration.
1 1 σ
Electrical conductivity, σ= = σ ni ( µe + µh ) Or ni =
Now =
ρ 0.47 e ( µe + µh )
1
ni
= = 2.3 × 10−19 / m3
0.47 × 1.6 × 10 −19
( 0.39 + 0.19 )
Illustration 5: The resistivity of n-type germanium is 0.01 Ω m at room temperature. Find the donor concentration
if the mobility of electrons 0.39m2 /volt-sec. (JEE MAIN)
1
Sol: For n-type germanium the donor concentration is given by nd =
e ρµe
1
Let nd be the donor concentration. nd =
e ρµe
1 1
Conductivity, σ= = = 100S / m Now σ = e Nd µ ……….n-type semiconductor
ρ 0.01 e
Or =
nd σ 100
= = 1.6 × 10−21 / m3
e µe 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.39
Illustration 6: Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are
0.36m2 / V s and 0.17 m2 / V s respectively. If the electron and hole densities are each equal to 2.5 × 1019 /m3 ,
calculate the conductivity. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is given by= σ e (neµe + nhµh ) where ne and nh are the electrons
and hole densities. As here both are equal then n=i n=
e nh and conductivity is given by=σ ni e ( µe + µh ) .
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by;=σ ni e ( µe + µh )
Here ni = 2.5 × 10−19 / m3 ;e = 1.6 × 10−19 C; µe = 0.36 m2 / volt-sec; µh =0.17m2 / volt-sec
σ 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 ( 0.36 + 0.17=
= ) 2.12 S/ m
Illustration 7: A semiconductor is known to have an electron concentration of 8 × 1013 per cm3 and a hole
concentration of 5 × 1012 per cm3.
(i) Is the semiconductor n-type or p-type?
(ii) What is the resistivity of the sample if the electron mobility is 23000 cm2/ V s and hole mobility is 100 cm2/ V s?
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: For the semiconductor sample, if the hole density is less than electron density the semiconductor is N type in
1
nature. The resistivity of the sample is given as ρ = where σ is the conductivity of the sample.
σ
( ) (
(i) Since electron density ne = 8 × 1013 per cm3 is greater than the hole density nh = 5 × 1012 per cm3 , the )
semiconductor is n-type.
σ e (neµe + nhµh )
(ii) The conductivity of the sample is given by;=
2 6 . 1 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 8: Determine the number density of donor atoms which have to be added to an intrinsic germanium
semiconductor to produce an n-type semiconductor of conductivity 5 Ω -1cm-1, given that mobility of conduction
electrons in n-type Ge is 3900 cm2/ Vs. Neglect the contribution of holes to conductivity. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: In n type semiconductor the number density of electrons is much greater than number density of holes. Thus
we can neglect the number density of holes. Thus to produce the n type semiconductor, the donor of number
= ene µe .
density to added is found by σ
(
σ e neµe + nhµh
The conductivity of a semiconductor is given by;= )
= eneµ=
Neglect the contribution of holes to conductivity, we have, σ e eNdµe
N=
d ne
Illustration 9: Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m-3. It is doped by 1 ppm concentration of penta-valent
impurity of Arsenic (As). Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that ni = 1.5 × 1016 m-3.
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The arsenic contains the 1 free electron in its conduction band and acts as donor impurity. The number of
electron given by As to the semiconductor is given by
Number of Si atom in parent crystal × 10−6
N= .
| y ppm|
ni2
The number of holes in the semiconductor sample is given by nh = here ni is the concentration of holes and
electron pair.
ne
1
1 ppm =1 part per million =
106
5 × 1028
∴ Number of penta-valent atoms doped in Si crystal= = 5 × 1022 m−3
6
10
As one penta-valent impurity atom donates 1 free election to the crystal,
22 −3
∴ Number of free elections in the crystal is ne = 5 × 10 m
(1.5 × 10 )=
2
16
ni2
∴ Number of holes, n=
h = 4.5 × 109 m−3
ne 5 × 1022
Illustration 10: The mean free path of conduction electrons in copper is about 4 × 10−8 m. Find the electric field
which can give, on an average, 2 eV energy to a conduction electron in a block of copper. (JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: The band gap between conduction and valance band is given as 2 eV. The work done to lift electron from
P hysi cs | 26.11
conduction band to the valance band is given by W= F × d where F=qE, the electric force applied on the electron.
Mean free path, d= 4 × 10−8 m; energy of electron =2eV
If E is the required electric field, then force on the electron is F=eE
The work done by the electric field on electron before it collides with copper atom is Fd. This work done is equal to
the energy to the energy transferred to electron.
2V 2V
∴ Fd=2 eV or eE ×d =2eV∴ E= = = 5 × 107 V / m
d 4 × 10 −8
O O O O
= - - - -
-
-
Figure 26.12
5. P-N JUNCTION
When a piece of p-type material and piece of n-type material are joined in such a manner that crystal structure
remain continuous at the boundary, then a pn junction is formed. It is also called a pn junction (PN junction) diode.
2 6 . 1 2 | Semiconductor and Communication System
AP-N junction cannot be made by simply pushing the two pieces together as it would not lead to a single crystal
structure. There are special fabrication techniques to form a PN junction.
Immediately after a PN junction is formed, the following processes are initiated:
(a) The negative ions on P-sides and positive ions on N-sides are immobile. The majority holes from P region
diffuse into N region, and the majority electrons from N region diffuse into P region,
(b) Due to the above, the electrons and holes at the junction region recombine and disappear (i.e. covalent bonds
are completed).
(c) As a result, a layer of negative ions on P-side and a layer of positive ions on N-side is formed at the junction.
In this region, due to recombination of electrons and holes, depletion of free charge carriers occurs. So this
region is called depletion region. The charge density on the two sides of the junction (due to ion layers) is
shown in Fig. 26.13 (A).
(d) The uncompensated ion layers in the depletion region generate an electric field in this region. The electric
field points from N side to P side. This electric field prevents further diffusion of holes from P-sides. It also
prevents further diffusion of electrons from the N side to P side. The electric field is called barrier electric field.
(e) The barrier electrical field gives rise to a difference of potential from one side to the other side. This is called
barrier potential (or potential barrier). For silicon PN junction the barrier potential is about 0.7 V while for
germanium PN junction, it is about 0.2V.
P N-type
P-type
P-type V N-type P-type V N-type
+
(A) (B) (C)
Depletion
- region Electron static potential Potential barrier for
energy barrier for holes electrons
Charge density (potential barrier for holes)
Figure 26.13
(f) For holes the potential on the N-sides is higher. Holes cannot cross the depletion region because of this
barrier potential. Figure 26.13 (B). For electrons the potential barrier is shown in Figure 26.13 (C).
(g) On the average the potential barrier height in PN junction is ~0.5V and the width of the depletion region
V 0.5
1µ m or 10−6 m. The barrier electric field is thus E= =
~ = 5 × 105 Volt / m
d 10−6
-
-
(b) The holes are repelled from the positive terminal and completed to
O - -
+ - -
-
move towards the junction. The electrons are also repelled from the
O
- - - -
-
O
negative terminal and move towards the junction. This reduce the - -
-
(c) The potential barrier is reduced. More charge carriers diffuse across
the junction.
(d) In the P-type material, near the positive terminal, an electron breaks Depletion region
the covalent bond and goes to the battery. As a result a hole is + -
created in P-sides. At the same time an electron enters the N sides Figure 26.14
from the negative terminal. The current in the P-region arises due
to flow of the holes while the current in the N-region is due to electrons.
P hysi cs | 26.13
(e) The electric field at the barrier, due to the Battery is from P side to N side (forward bias). This is an opposition
to the barrier electric field.
(f) If battery potential is increased, the potential barrier is further reduced. More majority carriers diffuse across
the junction and the current increases.
- - - - -
-
-
(c) The barrier potential increases, this makes it more difficult for the O - -
+ - -
-
majority carriers to diffuse across the junction. -
O
-
- -
-
O
(d) A very little current called reverse saturation current flows due to - -
-
- -
minority carrier flow. It is of the order nano amperes (10-9 A) for
O
- - - -
-
silicon and micro amperes (10-6 A) for germanium PN-diodes.
(e) In reverse bias situation, the junction behaves like a high resistivity
material sandwiched in between two regions. Depletion region
+ -
(f) The effective capacitance of PN junction in the reverse bias condition
is of the order of few pico farads. Figure 26.15
v
6. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE + - l
+ -
6.1 Forward and Reverse Bias Characteristics + P N -
+
Forward bias characteristics: The circuit diagram for studying the V-I - R
characteristics of a PN junction diode in forward bias is shown in the
Fig. 26.16.
In forward bias the depletion region decreases, the barrier potential
decrease, and the current flows due to diffusion of charge carriers Figure 26.16
across the junction. Majority holes from P side cross over to N side,
and majority electrons from N sides cross over to P sides. The current l
voltage characteristic is shown in Fig. 26.17. (mA)
The diode current is negligibly small for first few tenths of a volt. The 0.7 V 0.2 V
reason is that the diode does not conduct till the external voltage V, for Si
overcomes the barrier potential. The voltage at which the current starts for Ge
to increase rapidly is called cut-in or knee voltage (V0) of the diode. For (Volt)
O V
a silicon diode V0~0.7 volt for germanium V0~0.2 volt junction diode in
reverse bias is shown in Fig. 26.18. Figure 26.17
v
- + l
- +
P N+
-
- A
+
R
P N
Figure 26.18
2 6 . 1 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Reverse Bias characteristics: In reverse bias state, the depletion region increases and
potential barrier also increases. The majority holes in P region and majority electrons P N
in N region, now do not cross the junction. This does not give rise to any current. Easy direction for
conventional current
In reverse bias a very small current flows. This arises due to the flow of minority charge
carriers across the junction. The reverse current is only few µ A for germanium diodes
and only a few nA for silicon diodes. It remains small and almost constant for all Figure 26.19
reverse bias voltages less than the break down voltage Vz. At breakdown, the current
increases rapidly for small increase in voltage. The full characteristics, forward and v2 v
reverse bias are shown in the Fig. 26.19. The PN junction diode thus is a unidirectional O
device. Large current (mA) flows in one direction, but negligible current flows in the
reverse direction. l
Reverse (A)
The symbol used for PN junction diode is shown in Fig. 26.20.
breakdown
(
µ I Iο eeV /kT − 1
The equation for diode current is= )
Where Iο is called saturation current, V is positive for forward and negative reverse bias, Figure 26.20
k is Boltzmann constant, T is temperature and e= 1.6 × 10 −19 C .
Illustration 11: In a pure germanium sample, the electron and hole mobilities at room temperature are
3600cm2 / V s, 1700 cm2/ V s respectively. If the electron-hole concentration is 2.5 × 1019 m−3 , then the conductivity
of Ge is (JEE MAIN)
σ nie ( µe + µn )
Sol: As the electron-hole concentration is given the conductivity of the germanium is given by =
where µe and µh are electron and hole mobilities respectively.
σ nie ( µe + µn ) ; ( ni = pi )
=
Input
+ +
input a.c. The output voltage is obtained across the O t
- 2 -
load resistance RL. Upper end of the secondary coil
becomes negative and lower and becomes positive.
So the junction diode is reverse biased. Hence the Output
junction does not conduct and we get no output +
t
across the load resistance during negative half of O 2 D.C Output
input a.c.
Figure 26.23
Disadvantages:
(a) Since the output signal is discontinuous, so the efficiency of half wave rectifier is small.
(b) The output is not pure d.c. but it is a fluctuating (or pulsating a.c.) which contains a.c. components or ripples
also.
Expression for output d.c. voltage: Output d.c. voltage = Mean load current × load resistance i.e. Vd.c=Id.c. × RL
Iο I
But Id.c. = , where Iο is the maximum value of the secondary half wave current∴Vd.c. =ο × RL
π π
Input
+ +
resistance (RL). O t
- 2 3 - 4
During negative half cycle of input a.c. signal. Diode D1 is reverse A.C at S2
biased and diode D2 flows through the circuit in a direction + +
shown by arrows (below RL). The output voltage is obtained t
- 2 3 - 4
across the load resistance (RL).
D1 D2 D3 D4
Since both the halves of input a.c. (wave) are rectified, so the
Output
junction diode is called a full wave rectifier.
t
O 2 3 4
Advantage: In full wave rectifier, output is continuous, so its
efficiency is more than that of the half wave rectifier. D.C. Output
However, the output is again fluctuating (or pulsating d.c.) Figure 26.25
which can be smoothened by using a filter circuit.
Expression for output d.c. voltage: Output d.c. voltage=Mean load current × load resistance i.e. Vd.c.
= Id.c. × RL
2Iο
But Id.c. = , where Iο is the maximum value of the secondary full wave current
π
I
∴Vd.c. =ο × RL
π
Thus, output d.c. voltage in case of full wave rectifier is twice the output d.c. voltage in case of half wave rectifier.
MASTERJEE CONCEPTS
Iο 2Iο
1. Iac
= Idc
= Iac =
π π
Vο 2Vο
2. E=
ac E=
dc Eac =
π π
0.406 rp 0.812 rp
4. =η ;1+ =η ;1+
rp RL rp RL
6. Ripple frequency =w 2w
The forward voltage (VF) across the junction diode is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding
values of forward current (IF) through the diode are noted. If we plot the graph between VF and IF we get the
forward characteristic OAB of the junction diode as shown in Fig. 26.26 (B). The shape of this curve can be
explained as under:
When the applied forward voltage is zero i.e. circuit is open at K, the barrier potential V0 at the junction does
not permit current flow. Therefore, the forward current IF is zero as indicated by point 0 in Fig. 26.26 (b). As the
forward voltage is increased from zero, the forward current increases very slowly (curve 0A) until the forward
voltage across the diode reaches V0 (=0.7V for silicon diode and 0.3V for germanium diode) at the knee of
the curve. The forward voltage corresponding to knee of the curve is called knee voltage. Once the applied
forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the forward current increases rapidly (curve AB).
The forward voltage at which the current through the diode starts to increase rapidly with increase in forward
voltage is called knee voltage. For silicon diode, knee voltage=0.7V while for germanium diode, knee voltage=
0.3V.
Below the knee voltage, the curve is non-linear. But once the forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the
diode behave like an ordinary conductor. Therefore, forward current rises sharply with increase in forward
voltage (curve AB). The curve is now almost linear.
(b) Reverse characteristics. It is the graph between the reverse voltage (VR) applied across the junction diode
and the reverse current (IR) through the diode. Figure 26.27(A) shows the circuit arrangement for determining
the reverse characteristics of a junction diode. Note that the diode is reverse biased.
The reverse voltage (VR) across the junction diode is increased from Fig. 26.27 (B) zero in steps and the
corresponding value of reverse current (IR) are noted. If we plot the graph between VR and IR, we get the
reverse characteristics OCD of the junction diode as shown in Fig. 26.27(B). The shape of reverse characteristic
of the diode can be explained as under:
Since the diode is reverse biased, its resistance is very high and practically no current flows through the circuit.
2 6 . 1 8 | Semiconductor and Communication System
However, in practice, a very small reverse current (of the order of µA ) flows with reverse bias as shown in Fig.
26.27(B). This is called reverse saturation current because its value practically remains constant until reverse
breakdown voltage (VBR) is reached. The reverse saturation current is due to minority carriers. It may be
recalled that are a few free electrons in p-type material and a few holes in n-type material. These undesirable
free electrons in p-type and hole in n-type are called minority carriers. To these minority carriers, the applied
reverse bias appears as forward bias. Therefore, a small reverse current (IR) flows in the circuit.
15 10 5
VR(volts)
O
K VBR C 100
V
200
V V Breakdown
D voltage 300
400
lR(A)
(A) (B)
Figure 26.27
As shown in Fig. 26.27(b) when the reverse voltage becomes equal to reverse breakdown voltage VBR, the
reverse current increases very rapidly. Now reverse voltage remains approximately constant at VBR but reverse
current IR increases very sharply resulting in overheating and possible damage. This large value of IR is due to
the fact that the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) becomes high enough to knock out electrons
from semiconductor atoms. Thus there is sudden decrease in resistance of the junction and abrupt rise of
reverse current.
The a.c. forward resistance is more significant as the diodes are generally used with lF
alternating voltages. The a.c. forward resistance can be determined from the forward
characteristic as shown in Fig. 26.28. If P is the operating point at any instant, then
forward voltage is ob and forward current is OE. To find the a.c. forward resistance, F
vary the forward voltage on both sides of the operating point equally as shown in E
D
Fig. 26.28. where AB=BC. It is clear from this figure that:
For forward voltage OA, circuit current is OD. For forward voltage OC, circuit current
vF
is of. O ABC
∴ a.c.
change in forward voltage OC−−oa
oc OA acAC Figure 26.28
forward resistance
= is; rf = = = =
change in forward current OF−−od
of OD dfDF
It may be mentioned here that forward resistance of a crystal diode is very small. Ranging from 1 to 25 Ω. Note that
above the knee point in the forward characteristic, the curve is linear. Therefore, above knee point, r, is independent
of the forward applied voltage.
A.C. reverse resistance. The a.c. reverse resistance of a junction diode is very large and may be considered infinite
for all practical purposes. For reason, a reverse diode practically conducts no current.
P hysi cs | 26.19
8. ZENER DIODE
A property doped P-N junction diode which works in the breakdown region without damaging itself is called a
zener diode.
Zener diode is also known as breakdown diode. It is mainly as a voltage regular.
Symbolic representation of zener diode is made as
The breakdown voltage zener voltage Vz depends on the concentration of doping. Both n and p regions of zener
diode are heavily doped. The depletion layer is very thin. Since electric field,
E=-dV/dr, the electric field across the junction will be very high.
Volt-ampere characteristics of zener diode
+V - -V +
+
mA
- A
- +
+ - - +
RS
Fluctuating or Constant
voltage voltage
VZ RL output
(Input)
Figure 26.31
(b) Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance RL decreases. This will cause an increase
in load current. The extra current cannot come from the source because drop in RS (and hence source current
2 6 . 2 0 | Semiconductor and Communication System
I) will not change as the zener is within its regulating range. The additional load current will come from a
decrease in zener current Iz. Consequently, the output voltage stays at constant value.
RS l RL RS l RL
- -
Ein RL EO Ein VZ EO
RL
lZ
+ +
(i) (ii)
Figure 26.32
9. PHOTO DIODE
The junction diode which conducts when charge carriers are generated by the photons i.e., light incident on it is
known as optoelectronic junction device.
A reverse biased special p-n junction diode having transparent window is known as photo diode and when it is
illuminated with light, the reverse diode current varies linearly with the light flux.
Construction: A reverse biased p-n junction diode is enclosed in a clear plastic envelope. Light is allowed to fall on
the surface of the plastic facing the diode. The output voltage is taken across the load resistance RL.
Symbolic representation of a photo diode is shown in the Fig. 26.33.
Principle. When a rectifier diode is reverse biased, it has a very small reverse leaked current. Cathode
The same is true for a photo-diode. The reverse current is produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs which are swept across the junction by the electric field create by the
reverse voltage. In a rectifier diode, the reverse current increases with temperature due
to an increase in the number of electron hole pairs. A photo-diode differs from a rectifier
diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the Anode
increase in light intensity and vice-versa. This is explained as follows. When light (photons)
falls on the pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to the atoms in the junction. Figure 26.33
This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional free electrons will
increase the reverse current. As the intensity of light incident on the pn junction increases,
the reverse current also increases. In other words, as the incident light intensity increases, the resistance of the
device (photo-diode) decreases. Figure 26.33 shows the schematic symbol of a photo-diode. The inward represent
the incoming light.
Photo-diode operation. Figure 26.33 shows the basic photo-diode circuit. The circuit has reverse biased photos-
diode, resistor R and d.c. supply. The operation of photo-diode is as under:
(a) When no light is incident on the pn junction of photo-diode, the reverse current Ir is extremely small. This is
called dark current.
The resistance of photo-diode with no incident light is called dark resistance (RR).
VR
Dark resistance of photo-diode, RR =
Dark current
(b) When light is incident on the junction of the photo-diode, there is a transfer of energy from the incident light
P hysi cs | 26.21
(photons) to the atoms in the junction. This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional
free electrons will increase the reverse current.
(c) As the intensity of light increases, the reverse current IR goes on increasing till it becomes maximum. This is
called saturation current.
Reverse current versus illumination curve. lR(A)
Figure 26.34 shows the graph between reverse lR
current (IR) and illumination (E) of a photo-diode.
The reverse current is shown on the vertical 100
axis and is measured in µ A. The illumination is R
30
indicated on the horizontal axis and is measured v
in m W/cm2. Note that graph is a straight line VR 10
passing through the origin.
mW
E
m E Where m= slope of the straight line
2
∴ IR = 0 1 3 10 cm
The quantity m is called is called the sensitivity
Figure 26.34
of the photo-diode.
Volt- ampere characteristics of photo diode. When photo diode is reverse biased,
then a constant current known as saturation current I0 due to thermally generated
minority carriers flows in the circuit. This current is also known as dark current.
When light of energy (hv) more than the energy gap (Eg) of semiconductor falls on the Photo diode
photo-diode, additional electron-hole pairs are formed. The electron-hole pairs formed
Figure 26.35
are proportional to the intensity of the incident light or the number of incident photons.
These electrons holes diffuse through the junction and hence current Is also flows in
addition to the dark current I0. Thus the electric current I0 is proportional to the intensity
of incident light. Hence, the total reverse current is given by. I=I0+Is
RL
Total reverse current in a photo-diode increase with the increase in the intensity of the
incident light.
Figure 26.37
MASTERJEE CONCEPTS
RL p Junction
Nickel plated
contact
Figure 26.40
Action:
(a) When solar energy or light energy falls on the cells, electron-hole pairs are
Electric current
generated in both n-region and p-region of the junction in diode.
(b) The electrons from p-region diffuse through the junction to n-region and holes
from n-region diffuse through the junction to the p-region due to electric field
of depletion layer.
(c) If p-n junction diode is open circuited, then holes and electrons will collect or Intensity of sun light
accumulate on the two sides of the junction. This gives rise to an open circuit
voltage V0. Figure 26.41
Illustration 12: A diode used in the circuit shown in Fig. 26.43. has a constant R
voltage drop of 0.5 V at all currents and a maximum power rating of 100 mW.
What should be the value of resistance R connected in series with diode for
obtaining maximum current? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The power dissipated across diode is given by Pmax = V.Imax where Imax is the
maximum current through the diode. The value of resistance across the diode
is given by Ohm’s law.
Figure 26.43
Applied voltage, E=1.5V
Voltage drop across diode Vd = 0.5V
Max. Power rating of diode, Pmax=100 mW =0.1 W
Pmax 0.1
The maximum current (Imax) that diode can carry safely is Imax
= = = 0.2A
Vd 0.5
Voltage drop across resistance R=E-Vd=1.5-0.5=1.0V
Voltage drop across R 0.1
∴R= = =5Ω
Imax 0.2
2 6 . 2 4 | Semiconductor and Communication System
Illustration 13: A battery of 2 V is connected across the points A and B as shown in Fig. 26.44. Find the current
drawn from the battery if the positive terminal is connected to (i) The points A and (ii) The point B. Assume that the
resistance of each diode is zero in forward bias and infinite in reverse bias. (JEE ADVANCED)
2V 2V
A B
Figure 26.44
Sol: When the diode is connected in forward bias condition the resistance of diode is zero and hence the current
through the diode is maximum. While the diode is in the reverse biased condition the resistance is infinite thus the
circuit acts as open circuit. Thus the effective current in the circuit is obtained using Ohm’s Law.
(a) When positive terminal of the battery is connected to point A, diode D1 is forward biased and offers zero
resistance while diode D2 is reverse biased and offers infinite resistance therefore, diode D1 may be replaced
by a wire while diode D2 is open- circuited.
The circuit then reduced to that shown in Fig. 26.44.
2V
∴ Current drown from battery, I = 0.2A
10Ω
(b) When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to point B, diode D1 is reverse biased and offers infinite
resistance while diode D2 is forward biased and offers zero resistance. The circuit then reduces to that shown
in Fig. 26.44.
2V
∴ Current drown from battery, I = 0.1A
20Ω
Illustration 14: In Fig, 26.45 what is the voltage needed at the source, to maintain 15 V across the load resistance
RL of 2k Ω , assuming that the series resistance R is 200 Ω and the zener requires a minimum current of 10 mA to
work satisfactory? What is the zener rating required? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Current through the load resistor of resistance 2k Ω is found using Ohm’s law. As
10 mA current is still flowing through the zener when it is connected in reverse biased
condition while the rest of current passes through load resistor, the rating of the zener
lR
R
diode should be higher than total current passing through the zener. The rating is given
by IR+IL.
Voltage across RL, is VL=15 V lZ vZ RL lL
VL 15
Current through RL , IL= = 7.5 10−3 A =
=× 7.5mA
RL 2 × 10 −3
Illustration 15: An a.c. supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a transformer of turn ratio
10:1 Find (i) The output d.c. voltage and (ii) The peak inverse voltage. Assume the diode to be ideal.
(JEE ADVANCED)
P hysi cs | 26.25
Sol: The transformer is the step down transformer, thus the 10 : 1 Ideal
secondary voltage will be less than primary voltage applied. The
DC output voltage obtained at the end of secondary coil is given
N2
by V=
sm Vpm × where Vpm is peak voltage at the primary coil.
N1
340 V RL
The inverted DC voltage obtained at the secondary coil is given by
Vsm
′ =
Vdc .
π
Primary to secondary turns is [see fig.26.46] Figure 26.46
N1
= 10 R.M.S primary voltage =230 V
N2
∴ Maximum primary voltage is V
=pm ( 2 ) × r.m.s. primary voltage = ( 2 ) × 230 = 325.3V Max. Secondary voltage
is
N2 1
Vsm = Vpm × = 325.3 × = 32.53V
N1 10
Vsm 32.3
(i) =′
Vdc = = 10.36V
π π
(ii) During the negative half-cycle of a.c. supply, the diode is reverse biased and hence conducts no current.
Therefore, the maximum secondary voltage appears across the diode.
∴ Peak inverse voltage = 32.53 V
Illustration 16: A crystal diode having internal resistance ri=20 Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the applied
voltage
= V 50 sin ωt and load resistance = RL 800 Ω, find:
(i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) a.c. power input and d.c power output (iii) d.c output voltage (iv) Efficiency of rectification
(JEE MAIN)
Sol: The equation of AC voltage is given by= V Vo sin ωt where Vo is the maximum voltage from the source. As
a load resistance is applied in series to the supply, the current through the resistance and output voltage are
obtained by Ohm’s law. The power is given by = P Ieff2 × R eff where Reff is the effective resistance in the circuit. The
PDC
efficiency of the diode is given by ε = where PDC and PAC are DC and AC powers dissipated in the circuit.
PAC
0.301
(v) Efficiency of rectification== × 100= 39.5%
0.763