Digital Electronics And Logic Design

Computer science semester three

STUDENT’S HANDOUT
10/03/24

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What is digital electronics?
Digital electronics is the branch of electronics that deals with digital signals,
which are discrete levels of voltage representing binary numbers (0s and 1s). It
forms the basis for the design and operation of digital devices like computers,
smartphones, and many other modern electronic systems.

Digital electronics is the fundamental building block of computer organization

which provides all the important tools and techniques required for designing and
implementing circuits and systems of a computer.

Under digital electronics, several important concepts are covered such as logic
gates, Boolean operations, logic functions, combinational circuits, sequential
circuits, logic families, and more.

What are the Advantages of Digital Electronics Over Analog Electronics?

Some of the key advantages of digital electronics over analog electronics are
listed here −

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  Digital electronic systems are more precise and accurate as compared to
analog electronic system.
 Digital electronic systems can process, store, and transmit signals and
information more efficiently.
 Digital signals and systems are highly immune against noise and
interferences.
 Digital systems can be programmed and reprogrammed easily to meet the
requirements of a specific application, on the other hand analog systems
require changes at hardware level.
 Digital systems are highly cost-effective and also scalable.

Digital Electronics Important in Computer Organization

Computer organization is a branch of computer engineering that deals with the

study of the physical components of a computer system and their functioning. It
allows us to understand how different components of a computer system interact
with each other to process data instructions and perform tasks.

Under computer organization, we study about the hardware architecture and design
principles of a computer system. Therefore, computer organization helps computer
engineers and system designers to develop more efficient computer systems.

Here are the key points that highlight the importance of Digital Electronics in the
field of Computer Organization −

 The binary representation of digital electronics is used to design different

circuits of a computer system.
 Digital electronics provide logic gates and other digital circuits which are
used in designing different components of a computer system like control
units, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), memory unit, and more.
 Digital electronics provide principles for design memory units and data
storage systems in computers.
 Digital electronics principles also empower computers to perform various
digital signal processing tasks such as modulation, demodulation, filtering,
etc.

What are the prerequisites for learning digital electronics and logic design?

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A basic understanding of electrical circuits and fundamental concepts in
electronics is recommended. Familiarity with binary numbers and Boolean
algebra is also beneficial.

Why is digital electronics important?

Digital electronics is crucial because it forms the foundation of modern
computing and communication systems. It enables the development of complex
electronic devices and systems that are faster, more efficient, and more reliable
than their analog counterparts.

Types of Digital Systems

A system is defined as a group of various components interconnected together to

perform a specific task. For example, a digital computer consists of several
components such as monitor, CPU (Central Processing Unit), memory, keyboard,
mouse, printer, and more. All these components are connected together to
accomplish certain tasks. Hence, a computer can be termed as a system.

We can broadly classify systems into the following two categories −

 Analog Systems
 Digital Systems
An analog system is a type of system that operates on continuous time signals,
while a digital system is one that can work on discrete time signals.

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What is a Digital System?
A type of electronic system that is designed to store, manipulate, and communicate
digitally represented information is termed as a digital system. Some common
examples of digital systems include smartphone, laptops, smartwatch, tablet,
desktop computers, etc.
A digital system is a type of electronic system that utilizes the binary number
system to work. In other words, a digital system is a two-state electronic system
used to represent two binary digits 0 and 1, where 0 represents the low or "off"
state and 1 represents the high or "on" state of the system.

The working of a digital system is entirely based on digital signals or binary

signals. Where, a digital signal is a type of signal that is represented as a discrete-
elements. It can have two possible states namely high or low. The high state is
denoted by the logic 1 and the low state is denoted by the logic 0.

In a digital system, if the state of the signal is logic 1, the system will be on, and if
the state of the signal is 0, the system will be off.

Characteristics of Digital Systems

Today, digital systems are widely used in almost every aspect of life. This is
because of their high reliability and efficiency. The following are some key
characteristics of digital systems −

 Digital systems are relative less complex to implement as they use binary
number system having only two digits to represent the state of a system.
 In digital systems, the information is represented in the form of a group of 0s
and 1s i.e., bits. This is called binary or digital representation of information.
 Digital systems rely on digital signals having two well-defined discrete
states. This makes digital systems more reliable and efficient in terms of
processing, storage, and communication of information.
 Digital systems use logical mathematics and operations to perform
computing tasks.
 Digital systems can be manufactured in the form of integrated circuits (ICs)
of very small sizes.
 Digital systems can be easily programmed to perform repeated tasks that
reduces human efforts and cost.
 Digital systems are highly immune to noise and distortions.

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Types of Digital Systems

Digital systems can be classified based on various parameters.

Here are some important types of digital systems that we commonly use in
practice −

Combinational Digital Systems

A combinational logic circuit or system is a type of digital circuit that performs

logical operations and produces output depending on the present inputs. Hence, the
output of a combinational digital circuit does not depend on the past inputs and
outputs of the system.

Example − The common examples of combinational digital systems are binary

adders, subtractors, logic gates, multiplexers, etc.

Sequential Digital Systems

A type of digital system that has a memory element to store past history of the
system operation is called a sequential digital system. Therefore, the output of a
digital system depends on both present inputs and past outputs of the system.

Example of sequential digital systems are flip-flops, registers, memory devices,

counters, etc.
Components of a Digital System

A typical digital system consists of the following main components −

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Memory
 Input Devices
 Output Devices
 Logic Gates
 Power Supply
 Communication Channels

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Let’s discuss each of these components of a digital system in detail.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

In a digital system, the central processing unit is the most important component
of the system, as it performs all the operations in the system. It is also known
as processor.
The CPU is an electronic circuit that consists of two sub-circuits
namely, arithmetic and logic unit, and control unit.

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is the part of a CPU that performs all the
arithmetic and logical operations and executes the instructions to manipulate data.
ALU is made up of logic gates and other electronic components. It can perform
operations like addition, subtractions, comparison, etc.

The control unit (CU) is another major electronic circuit in the central processing
unit that coordinate the operation of all other components of a digital system. It
generates clock signals for the synchronization of the system.

Semiconductor Memory

Memory is another major component of a digital system. It is used to store and

instructions in the system. In most digital system, semiconductor memory is used
to store digital information.

Memory of a digital system can be classified into the following two types −

 Random Access Memory (RAM) − It is a temporary memory used to store

data and instruction on which the CPU is currently working. Once the digital
system is turned off, its data will be deleted.
 Read Only Memory (ROM) − ROM is also an important component of a
digital system. It is a permanent memory used to store those data and
instructions that require again and again to perform tasks.

In digital systems, both RAM and ROM are used in the form of ICs made up of
semiconductors.

Apart from RAM and ROM, digital systems may also support external memory
devices like CD, DVD, Pen Drive, SD card, etc. All these external memories are
used for permanent data storage.

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Input Devices

Input devices are those electronic components of a digital system used for entering
data into the system. Examples of input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner,
sensors, camera, light pen, code readers, etc.

Input devices are designed to accept data in the form of a specific type or format
and convert them into digital signals for processing.

For example, a keyboard gets outside instructions in the form of keystrokes and
then convert them into digital signals.

Output Devices

Output devices are those components of a digital system that allow users to view
the processed data or information. Examples of output devices are monitor, display
screens, printers, projectors, speakers, etc.

Output devices are designed to accept digital signals and convert them in a suitable
format to make them readable by human.

For example, a monitor takes digital signals and convert them as visuals and
display on a screen.

Logic Gates

Logic gates are essential components of any digital system. They are the
fundamental building block of the digital system. Logic gates are nothing but
electronic circuits that can perform logical operations.

In digital systems, logic gates are used to realize all the information processing and
storage systems. The most commonly used logic gates are AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, Ex-OR, and Ex-NOR.

Power Supply

Power supply is the energy bank of the digital system that provides necessary
electric power to the components of the system so they can work.

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The primary function of the power supply unit of a digital system is to convert the
electric power received from an external source into the desired type and voltage
level required by the system.

Most digital systems work on 5 V DC supply. Hence, the power supply unit
receives 220 V AC from the supply mains and convert it to 5 V DC supply. Also,
the power supply unit regulates the fluctuations occurring in the power supply to
protect the system from damages.

Communication Channels

In a digital system, the communication channel is also known as bus system. It

consists of several different types of buses (conductors) such as data bus, address
bus, and control bus. These communication channels allow data transmission
between different components of the system.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a digital system consists of several components. Some important

components of a typical digital system are described in this chapter. All these
components are connected together and allowed to communicate to perform
different jobs. In the next chapter, we will learn about different types of "digital
logic operations".

Types of Signals
In electronics engineering, an electrical quantity like voltage or current or
electromagnetic wave that is used for transmission of data or information is called
a signal.

Signals are considered the heart of any data communication or processing system
like the Internet. Signals instruct the electronics hardware components to perform a
certain task such as convey the information from one point to another.

Apart from voltage, current or electromagnetic signals, we also have optical

signals, where the information is represented and transmitted in the form of light.

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This chapter will explain the concept of signal and different types of signals used
in electronics engineering.

What is a Signal?
A physical quantity that has capability to transmit information from one point to
another is called a signal. Some common examples of signals include voltage,
current, electromagnetic wave, optical signals, etc.

Signals are the backbone of any electronic processing or communication system.

These can be transmitted through various types of communication channels like
wires, space (electromagnetic waves), optical fibers, etc.

Properties of Signal

In electronics, a signal is characterized by the following important properties −

 Magnitude − The intensity or maximum value of a signal is termed as its

magnitude.
 Frequency − The number of oscillations per second is called frequency of
the signal.
 Time period − The time taken to complete one oscillation is called the time
period of the signal.

Types of Signals

In electronics, there are mainly two types of signals used, they are −

 Analog Signals
 Digital Signals

Let us discuss these two types of signals in detail.

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What is an Analog Signal?

A type of electronic signal that has continuous values within a given range is called
an analog signal. Analog signals are expressed as the continuous functions of time.
They are represented as the waveforms of continuously varying current or voltage.

Example of analog signals are voice, speed, pressure, temperature, etc.

An important characteristic of analog signals is that they have a definite value at

every instant of time, known as instantaneous value of the signal.

Analog signals have smooth waveforms as they are continuous in both amplitude
and time. That meant, there is no interruptions in their representation over time.

Properties of Analog Signal

The following are main properties of analog signals −

 Analog signals are continuous signals in both amplitude and time.

 Analog signals have a certain value or magnitude at any given instant of
time.
 Analog signals have infinite resolution.
 Analog signals are best suited for representing the real-world phenomena.
 Analog signals are represented by the continuously varying smooth
waveforms.
What is a Digital Signal?
A digital signal is a type of electronic signal that has a finite set of discrete values
representing information.

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Digital signals are also called binary signals, as they use binary 0 or 1 to represent
the state of a signal. Where, the binary 0 represents the off or low state of the
signal, while the binary 1 represents the on or high state of the signal.

Thus, digital signals are expressed as discontinuous functions of time.

Properties of Digital Signal

The following are some key characteristics of digital signals −

 Digital signals have discrete or discontinuous values in terms of both

amplitude and time.
 Digital signals do not have values defined between any two distinct instants
of time.
 Digital signals are represented using binary system by sampling the values
of the signals at specific time instants.
 Digital signals represent information in the form of a sequence of binary 0s
and 1s.
 Digital signals have a finite resolution.
 Digital signals are capable to perform logical operations.
 Digital signals are more efficient and reliable when it comes to storage and
transmission.

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Difference between Analog and Digital Signals

Let us now discuss the important differences between analog and digital signals −

Key Analog Signals Digital Signals

Analog signals are

represented as continuous Digital signals are represented
Representation
functions or waveforms of as discrete functions of time.
time.

Analog signals are Digital signals are

continuous as they have discontinuous as they have
Nature
infinite values within a distinct values sampled at
specified range. specific time instants.

Analog signals have Digital signals have a finite

Resolution
infinite resolution. resolution.

Analog signals are more Digital signals are relatively

Accuracy
accurate. less accurate.

Analog signals are difficult Digital signals are efficient to

Storage
to store. store.

Noise Analog signals are less Digital signals have high

immunity immune to noise. immunity against noise.

Data transmitted over internet,

Voice signals, temperature, computer generated signals,
Examples etc.
speed, etc.

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Applications of Signals

Both analog and digital signals are widely used in the field of electronics. The
following are some key applications of signals −

Signals are used for storage and transmission of information.

 Signals are used in control systems to regulate their behavior.
 Signals are also used in measurement of physical quantities like temperature,
pressure, speed, sound, light, and more.
 Signals are used in computing systems for data processing, etc.

Conclusion

In electronics engineering, signals are most significant elements of a system.

Signals are nothing but physical quantities like voltage, current, electromagnetic
waves, light pulses, etc. used to convey information from one point to another.

In this chapter, we covered different types of signals and their properties. In the
next chapter, we will cover the concept of logic levels and pulse waveform.

Digital Electronics - Number Systems

A digital number system is a positional number system that has some symbols
called digits. It provides a complete set of digits, operators, and rules to perform
operations.

In a digital number system, the number of digits used determines the base of the
number system. For example, the binary number system has two digits (0 and 1),
hence, the base of the binary number system is 2.

Digital number systems form the foundation of the modern computing

technologies and digital electronics. They are used to represent, process, and
manipulate the information using a digital system.

In this chapter, we will discuss the fundamental concepts of different types of

digital number systems.

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 Types of Digital Number Systems

1. Decimal Number System

2. Binary Number System

3. Hexa-decimal number system

4. Octal number system

Any quantity is measured in some system. The quantity measured is

represented in some numbers. There are different number systems. In each
number system, different symbols are used to represent the numbers. The
different number systems are Decimal, Octal, Binary and Hexa-decimal.

1 Decimal Number System

In these ten symbols are used to represent the numbers and hence it is called decimal
number system. The ten symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.These are called Arabic
numerals.

It is necessary to learn only the 10 basic numerals and the positional

notational system in order to measure any desired quantity or to count
any required figure. After memorizing the addition and multiplication
tables and learning a few simple rules, we can perform all arithmetic
operations.

Example-1: Let us represent the quantity 127. The actual meaning of

the number 127 can be seen more clearly if we notice that it is said as
“one hundred and twenty-seven” Basically, the number is a
contraction of 1 x 100

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 + 2 x 10 + 7. The important point is that the value of each digit is
determined by its position. For example, the 3 in 300 has a different
value than the 3 in30. We show this verbally by saying “three
hundred” and „thirty”.

The base, or radix, of a number system is defined as the number of different

digits which can occur in each position in the number system. The decimal
number system has a base, or radix, of 10. Thus the system has 10 different
digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4 , …9), any one of which may be used in each position in a
number.

Example-1:

In the decimal system, there are 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9

These digits can represent any value, for example: 754.

The value is formed by the sum of each digit, multiplied by the base (in this
case it is 10 because there are 10 digits in decimal system) in power of digit
position (counting from zero):

Position of each digit is very important! For example, if you place "7" to the
end: 547 it will be another value:

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Important note: Any number in power of zero is 1; even zero in power
of zero is 1:

2. Binary Number System

In this number system two symbols are used to represent the numbers and
hence it is called binary number system. The two symbols are 0 and 1. The
same type of positional notation is used in the binary number system as in
the decimal system.

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 Although the same positional notation system is used, the instead
of powers of 10 as used in decimal number system the binary
system uses powers of 2. As was previously explained, the
number 127 actually means 1 ×102 + 2 × 101 + 7 × 100. In the
binary system, the same number (127) is represented as 1111111,
meaning 1 × 26 + 1× 25+ l × 24+1×23+ l × 22 + l × 21 + l × 20.

3.2. Hexadecimal number system

In mathematics and computing, hexadecimal (also base 16, or hex) is
a positional numeral system with a radix, or base, of 16. It uses sixteen distinct
symbols, most often the symbols 0–9 to represent values zero to nine, and A, B, C,
D, E, F (or alternatively a, b, c, d, e, f) to represent values ten to fifteen.
Hexadecimal numerals are widely used by computer system designers and
programmers. As each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits (bits), it
allows a more human-friendly representation of binary-coded values.

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3.3. octal numeral system,
The octal numeral system, or oct for short, is the base-8 number system, and uses
the digits 0 to 7. Octal numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping
consecutive binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right). For
example, the binary representation for decimal 74 is 1001010. Two zeroes can be
added at the left: (00)1 001 010, corresponding the octal digits 1 1 2, yielding the
octal representation 112.
In the decimal system each decimal place is a power of ten. For example:

Conversion from Decimal Numbers to Binary

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 Many methods are available for converting a decimal number to a
binary number.

In the first method simply subtract all powers of 2, which can be

subtracted from the decimal number until nothing remains. The
highest power of 2 is subtracted first, then the second highest, etc.

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 A good way to organize this conversion is to list the divisions in
table form as below:

Reading from bottom to top, the final answer is 10112. Remember that
the first division gives us the least significant digit of our answer, and
the final division gives us the most significant digit of our answer.
Also, the result of the final division is always 0.

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Example 2: convert 2510 to binary

Convert the following decimals to binary:

a. 3710
b. 7610
c. 4510
d. 8310
e. 72910
3.5.1. Conversion from Binary Numbers to Decimal

1. Write down the binary number and list the powers of 2 from
right to left

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 2. Write the digits of the binary number below their
corresponding powers of two.

3. Connect the digits in the binary number with their corresponding

powers of two.

4. Write down the final value of each power of two.

3.5

5. Add the final values

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Example2

Binary Number − 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number − 111012 = Decimal Number − 2910

More Examples:
101012 = 10101Base2 = 1×24+0×23+1×22+0×21+1×20 = 16+4+1= 21
101112 = 10111Base2 = 1×24+0×23+1×22+1×21+1×20 = 16+4+2+1= 23
1000112 = 100011Base2 = 1×25+0×24+0×23+0×22+1×21+1×20=32+2+1= 35

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Converting Fractions Decimal Value to Binary

When converting a fractional decimal value to binary, we need to use a slightly

different approach. Instead of dividing by 2, we repeatedly multiply the decimal
fraction by 2. If the result is greater than or equal to 1, we add a 1 to our
answer. If the result is less than 1, we add a 0 to our answer.

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 3.4.1 Binary Addition and Subtraction

In the same manner as decimal addition is performed, Binary addition

is also carried out.

The table for binary addition is as follows:

0+0=0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1 + 1 = 0 and a carry-over of 1

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 “Carry-overs” are performed in the same manner as in decimal
arithmetic. Since 1 is the largest digit in the binary system, any sum
greater than 1 requires that a digit be carried over. For example, 010
plus 010 binary requires the addition of the two 1‟s in the second
position to the left, with a carry-over. Since 1 + 1 = 0 plus a carry-over
of 1, the sum of 010 and 010 is 100.

Here are more examples of binary addition:

DECIMAL BINARY DECIMAL BINARY

6 110 15 1111
7 111 20 10100

13 1101 35 100011

Another example of binary addition:

1011
+1011
10110
Lets add the two following binary numbers:

01001010010
+ 10010010101

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The result is the following:

00111010010
+ 10110010101
11101100111
Questions

1. 101 + 11 =
2. 111 + 111 =
3. 1010 + 1010 =
4. 11101 + 1010 =
5. 11111 + 11111 =
Binary Subtraction

It is necessary to establish a procedure for subtracting a larger digit from a

smaller digit in subtraction. The only case in which this occurs with binary
numbers is when 1 is subtracted from 0. The remainder is 1, but it is necessary
to borrow 1 from the next column to the left.

This is the binary subtraction table.

0–0=0

1–0=1

1–1=0

0 – 1 = 1 with a borrow of 1
**Reminder: 10 - 1 = 1**

Let's first look at an easy example.

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 111
- 10
101
The following examples show "borrowing" in binary subtraction.

10 100 1010
- 1 - 10 - 110
1 10 100

Questions

6. 110 - 10 =
7. 101 - 11 =
8. 1001 - 11 =
9. 1101 - 11 =
10. 10001 - 100 =

3.4.2 Binary Multiplication and Division

Binary Multiplication:

The table for binary multiplication is also given below:

0x0=0

1x0=0

0x1=0

1x1=1

Hint: very similar to decimal multiplication**

Example 1: multiply 101 by 11

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 Solution
101
x11
101
101
1111

Questions

11. 10 x 10 =
12. 100 x 11 =
13. 101 x 10 =
14. 1011 x 11 =
15. 11011 x 101 =

3.5.1 Complements in Binary Number System

The two best-known methods of extending the binary numeral system to
represent signed numbers are: ones' complement, two's complement

1's complement
The 1's complement of a number is found by changing all 1's to 0's and all 0's to 1's.
This is called as taking complement or 1's complement. Example of 1's Complement is
as follows.

2's complement
The 2's complement of binary number is obtained by adding 1 to the Least Significant
Bit (LSB) of 1's complement of the number.

2's complement = 1's complement + 1

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Example of 2's Complement is as follows.

3.7 Summary

In Binary number system two symbols are used to represent the numbers and
hence it is called binary number system.

The two symbols are 0 and 1.

The same type of positional notation is used in the binary number system as in
the decimal system. In the same manner as decimal arithmetic is performed,
Binary addition, subtraction, multiplication and division is also carried out. The
negative numbers are represented in complement form so that a machine can
be made to add and subtract, using only circuitry for adding. There are two
types of complements in this and they are 2‟s complement and 1‟s
complement.

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 3.8 Terminal Questions

1. What is Decimal number system?

2. How do you convert Fractional Decimal value to Binary Numbers?

3. Convert the following from Binary to Decimal:

a) 11111

b) 10110

c) 11001

d) 00101

4) Perform the following Arithmetic operations in Binary

a) 11011 + 11110

b) 11.01 + 101.11

c) 1110 – 1100

d) 1001 – 0101

e) 1011 * 110

f) 111* 101

5) Perform the following subtraction using 1‟s and 2‟s complement system

a) 11101 – 11110

b) 11001 – 10011

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