INTRODUCTION

Electricity and magnetism were considered

separate and unrelated phenomena for a long
time. In the early decades of the nineteenth
century, experiments on electric current by
Oersted, Ampere and a few others established the
fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-
related. They found that moving electric charges
produce magnetic fields. For example, an electric
current deflects a magnetic compass needle
placed in its vicinity. This naturally raises the
questions like: Is the converse effect possible? Can
moving magnets produce electric currents? Does
the nature permit such a relation between
electricity and magnetism? The answer is
resounding yes! The experiments of Michael
Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in USA,
conducted around 1830, demonstrated
conclusively that electric currents were induced
in closed coils when subjected to changing
magnetic fields. In this chapter, we will study the
phenomena associated with changing magnetic
fields and understand the underlying principles.
The phenomenon in which electric current is
generated by varying magnetic fields is
appropriately called electromagnetic induction.

When Faraday first made public his discovery that

relative motion between a bar magnet and a wire loop
produced a small current in the latter, he was asked,
“What is the use of it?” His reply was: “What is the use of a
new born baby?” The phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction
The Experiment of Faraday and Henry

The discovery and understanding of

electromagnetic induction are based on a
long series of experiments carried out by
Faraday and Henry. We shall now describe
some of these experiments.
Experiment 1
Figure 1 shows a coil C* connected to a
galvanometer

JOSEPH HENRY (1797 – 1878)

G. When the North-pole of a bar magnet is pushed
towards the coil, the pointer in the galvanometer deflects,
indicating the presence of electric current in the coil. The
deflection lasts as long as the bar magnet is in motion.
The galvanometer does not show any deflection when the
magnet is held stationary. When the magnet is pulled
away from the coil, the galvanometer shows deflection in
the opposite direction, which indicates reversal of the
current’s direction. Moreover, when the South-pole of
the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the
coil, the deflections in the galvanometer are opposite
to that observed with the North-pole for similar
movements. Further, the deflection (and hence current)
is found to be larger when the magnet is pushed
towards or pulled away from the coil faster. Instead,
when the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C is

FIGURE 1 .When the bar magnet is

pushed towards the coil, the pointer in
the galvanometer G deflects.
moved towards or away from the magnet, the same
1
effects are observed. It shows that it is the relative
motion between the magnet and the coil that is
responsible for generation (induction) of electric
current in the coil.
moved towards the coil C, the galvanometer shows a

deflection. This indicates that electric current is

induced in
coil C. When C is moved away, the galvanometer shows a
Cis held fixed and C is moved, the same effects are
observed.

deflection again, but this time in the opposite direction.

The
deflection lasts as long as coil C is in motion. When the
coil
Again, it is the relative motion between the coils that induces
the electric current.
Experiment 2
The above two experiments involved relative
motion between a magnet and a coil and between
two coils, respectively. Through another
experiment, Faraday showed that this relative
motion is not an absolute requirement. Figure 6.3
shows two coils C and C held stationary. Coil C is
connected

to galvanometer G while the second coil C is

connected to a

battery through a tapping key K.

 FIGURE 2 Experimental set-up for
Experiment 2

It is observed that the galvanometer shows a momentary

deflection when the tapping key K is pressed. The pointer
in the galvanometer returns to zero immediately. If the
key is held pressed continuously, there is no deflection
in the galvanometer. When the key is released, a
momentory deflection is observed again, but in the
opposite direction. It is also observed that the
deflection increases dramatically when an iron rod is
inserted into the coils along their axis.

a plane of area A placed in a uniform

magnetic field B (Fig. 3) can be written as
 F = B . A = BA cos q
where q is angle between B and A. The notion of the
area as a vector
has been discussed earlier in Chapter 1. Equation (6.1)
can be
extended to curved surfaces and nonuniform fields.
If the magnetic field has different magnitudes and directions at
various parts of a surface as shown in Fig. 6.5, then the magnetic
flux through the surface is given by
Φ=B.dA+B.dA+... =∑Bi.dA
where ‘all’ stands for summation over all the area elements

dA
dA. The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla
meter
i
comprising the surface and B is the magnetic field at the
area element
squared (T m2). Magnetic flux is a scalar
quantity.

Faraday's Laws and experiment

FIGURE 3 A plane of
surface area A placed in a
uniform magnetic field B.

From the experimental observations, Faraday

arrived at a conclusion that an emf is induced in
a coil when magnetic flux through the coil
changes with time. Experimental observations
discussed in Section 6.2 can be explained using this
concept.
 From the experimental observations, Faraday arrived
at a conclusion that an emf is induced in a coil
when magnetic flux through the coil changes with
time. Experimental observations discussed in Section
6.2 can be explained using this concept.

The motion of a magnet towards or away from coil C in

Experiment 6.1 and moving a current-carrying coil C towards
or away from coil C in Experiment 6.2, change the magnetic
flux associated with coil C. The change in magnetic flux induces

emf in coil C. It was this induced emf which caused

electric current to flow in coil Cand through the galvanometer.
A plausible explanation for the observations of
Experiment 6.3 is as follows: When the tapping key K is
pressed, the current in coil C (and the resulting
magnetic field) rises from zero to a

coil C drops to zero. When the key is released, the current in C and the
resulting magnetic field decreases from the maximum value to zero
in a short time. This results in a decrease in magnetic flux through1
coil C and hence again induces an electric current in coil C*. The
common

FIGURE 4 Magnetic field B

at the ith area element. dA
represents area vector of the
ith area element.

point in all these observations is that the time rate of change of

magnetic flux through a circuit induces emf in it. Faraday stated
experimental observations in the form of a law called Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction. The law is stated below.
 The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is
equal to the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through the circuit.
Mathematically, the induced emf is
given by
ε = – dΦB
dt

The negative sign indicates the direction of e and hence

the direction of current in a closed loop. This will be
discussed in detail in the next section.

In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, change

of flux associated with each turn, is the same.
Therefore,
the expression for the total induced emf is given by
MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867)

ε = –N dΦB
dt

The induced emf can be increased by increasing the

6.1

number of turns N of a closed coil.

XAMPLE

From Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2), we see that the flux can be
varied by changing any one or more of the terms B, A and
q. In Experiments 6.1 and 6.2 in Section 6.2, the flux is
changed by varying B. The flux can also be altered by
E XAMPLE 6.2 E

changing the shape of a coil (that is, by shrinking it or

stretching it) in a magnetic field, or rotating a coil in a
magnetic field such that the angle q between B and A
changes. In these cases too, an emf is induced in the
respective coils.
 Len's law and Convertion of energy

In 1834, German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz (1804-1865)

deduced a rule, known as Lenz’s law which gives the polarity
of the induced emf in a clear and concise fashion. The
statement of the law is:

The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to

produce a current
which opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produced it.

The negative sign shown in Eq. (3) represents this effect. We

can understand Lenz’s law by examining Experiment 6.1 in
Section 6.2.1. In Fig. 6.1, we see that the North-pole of a bar
magnet is being pushed towards the closed coil. As the
North-pole of the bar magnet moves towards the coil, the
magnetic flux through the coil increases. Hence current is
induced in the coil in such a direction that it opposes the
increase in flux. This is possible only if the current in the
coil is in a counter-clockwise direction with respect to an
observer situated on the side of the magnet. Note that
magnetic moment associated with this current has North
polarity towards the North-pole of the approaching
magnet. Similarly, if the North- pole of the magnet is being
withdrawn from the coil, the magnetic flux through the
coil will decrease. To counter this decrease in magnetic
flux, the induced current in the coil flows in clockwise
direction and its South- pole faces the receding North-pole
of the bar magnet. This would result in an attractive force
which opposes the motion of the magnet and the
corresponding decrease in flux.
What will happen if an open circuit is used in place of the closed
loop in the above example? In this case too, an emf is induced
across the open ends of the circuit. The direction of the induced
emf can be found using Lenz’s law. Consider Figs. 6.6 (a) and (b).
They provide an easier way to understand the direction of
direction shown by induced currents. Note that the
currents. and indicate the directions of the induced
A little reflection on this matter should convince us on the
correctness of Lenz’s law. Suppose that the induced current was in the
direction opposite to the one depicted in Fig. 6.6(a). In that case, the
South-pole due to the induced current will face the approaching
North-pole of the magnet. The bar magnet will then be attracted
towards the coil at an ever increasing acceleration. A gentle push on
the magnet will initiate the process and its velocity and kinetic energy
will continuously increase without expending any energy. If this can
happen, one could construct a perpetual-motion machine by a suitable
arrangement. This violates the law of conservation of energy and
hence can not happen.

FIGURE 5 Illustration of Lenz’s law.

Now consider the correct case shown in Fig. 6.6(a). In this
situation, the bar magnet experiences a repulsive force
due to the induced current. Therefore, a person has to do
work in moving the magnet. Where does the energy spent
by the person go? This energy is

dissipated by Joule heating produced by the induced

current.
 Motional Electo motive force

Let us consider a straight conductor moving in a

uniform and time- independent magnetic field. Figure
6.10 shows a rectangular conductor PQRS in which the
conductor PQ is free to move. The rod PQ is moved
towards the left with a constant velocity v as shown in
the figure. Assume that there is no loss of energy due to
friction. PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing an area
that changes as PQ moves. It is placed in a uniform
magnetic field B which is perpendicular to the plane of
this system. If the length RQ = x and RS = l, the
magnetic flux Fenclosed by the loop PQRS
E XAMPLE 6.5

FIGURE 6 The arm PQ is moved to the left side,

thus decreasing the area of the rectangular loop.
This movement induces a current I as shown.

will
be
F = Blx
Since x is changing with time, the rate
of change
of flux Fwill induce an emf given by:
–dΦ
ε = d (Blx
dt =– dt )
= –Bl dx = Blv
dt
where we have used dx/dt = –v which is the speed of the conductor
PQ. The induced emf Blv is called motional emf. Thus, we are able to
produce induced emf by moving a conductor instead of varying the
magnetic field, that is, by changing the magnetic flux enclosed by
the circuit.

It is also possible to explain the motional emf expression in Eq. (6.5) by

invoking the Lorentz force acting on the free charge carriers of
conductor PQ. Consider any arbitrary charge q in the conductor
PQ. When the rod moves with speed v, the charge will also be moving
with speed v in the magnetic field B. The Lorentz force on this
charge is qvB in magnitude, and its direction is towards Q. All
charges experience the same force, in magnitude and direction,
irrespective of their position in the rod PQ. The work done in moving
the charge from P to Q is,

W = qvBl

Since emf is the work done per unit charge,

ε=W
q
= Blv

This equation gives emf induced across the rod PQ and is identical
to Eq. (6.5). We stress that our presentation is not wholly rigorous.
But
it does help us to understand the basis of Faraday’s law when
the conductor is moving in a uniform and time-
independent
magnetic field.

On the other hand, it is not obvious how an emf is induced when a

E XAMPLE 6.6

conductor
which is stationary and the magnetic field is changing – a fact
Faraday verified by numerous experiments. In the case of a stationary
conductor, the force on its charges is given by
 F = q (E + v ´ B) = qE

(6.6)
since v = 0. Thus, any force on the charge must
arise from the electric
field term E alone. Therefore, to explain the
existence of induced emf or
induced current, we must assume that a time-
varying magnetic field
generates an electric field. However, we hasten to
add that electric fields
produced by static electric charges have
properties different from those
produced by time-varying magnetic fields. In
Chapter 4, we learnt that
charges in motion (current) can exert
force/torque on a stationary magnet.
Conversely, a bar magnet in motion (or more
generally, a changing
magnetic field) can exert a force on the
stationary charge. This is the
fundamental significance of the Faraday’s
discovery. Electricity and
magnetism are related.
 Conclusion

The study of electromotive force (EMF) in this

project provided valuable insights into its
fundamental role in electrical circuits. EMF,
often misunderstood as a physical force, is
actually the potential difference generated
by a source, enabling the flow of electric
current. We examined the various factors
affecting EMF, including the nature of the
source, circuit configuration, and external
influences such as temperature and magnetic
fields. This exploration highlighted the
significance of EMF in powering electrical
devices and its applications in technologies
like batteries, generators, and renewable
energy systems. By combining theoretical
understanding with practical
experimentation, this project deepened our
appreciation for the principles of
electromagnetism, which underpin much of
modern electrical engineering and
technology.