Rocks-II: Sedinentary

and Metamorphic Rocks

6
6.1. SEDIMENATARY ROCKS
The total amount of sedimentary rocks that exists in the
upper 16
kilometers of the earth's crust is estimated to be only about 5%. These rocks
are found chiefly as an extensive cover over the continents.
rock:s" are formed by consolidation and cementation of sediments"Sedimentary
under watcer. Scdimentary rocks also include the rocks formed by depositcd
tion of chemically precipitated or organically derived material.
accumula
rocks occur in layers and frequently contain fossils. Sedimentary
6.2.
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The formation of sedimentary rocks takes place in three
stages: ()
Weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks, (iü) sedimentation, and (iii)
lithification and diagenesis.
Weathering and Erosion. During weathering and erosion, the
preexist
g rocks and their constituent minerals are broken down. The
material thus
Poduced is called the "sediment". The sediments are usually
d deposited in areas of accumulation by the action transported
of water or less
Irequently by glacial or wind action. During transportation, the sediments
Oughly sorted and deposited according to size. Bigger rocks fragments,
Ininthe gravel, settle first, sands are next in order and clays are deposited
last. The minerals which are dissolved by the water, travel in solution.

Sedi m entation.
deposition is called theThe "sedimentation". The material
process of accumulation carried inat solution
of scdiments a site of
precipitates and accumulates. Sedimentation is the intermediate stage in he
lomaion of sedimcntary rocks.
axd loLisethification and IDiagenesis. "Lithification" is ap
process by which soft
sediments are converted into hard and firn rocks. This process is
 PRINCIPLES OF
186 ENGINEERING
also called "consolidation". During
this process many physical
sediment. Such changes arcand
GEOLOGY ROCKS-l1:SEDIMENTARy AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS 187

calchemi
led cthale
changes take place within the Argillaceous Rocks. These rocks are made up of very finc grained
described
diagenetic changes and the process is compaction. as sediments. "Shale" and "mudstone" are typical argillaceous rocks which are
three processes : () (ii) "diagenesis'". Theand Composed of clay-<s0zed
sediment.
diagenesis includes
(ii) recrystallization. cemnentation, There are some clastic rocks which do not fit into the above said
(i) Compaction. Compaction occurs when the weight of Jacsification. They require consideration of mineral composition also. For
sediovcrmlyentings
sediments
layers compressesthe below. As the gruins of example, when appreciable quantities of felspars are prescnt in asandstone,
are pressedcloser and closer together, there is considerable called "arkose". When the sandstone contains an appreciable
the rock is called
tion in pore space and volume. Fine grained scdiments, gmantity of clay as well as angular quartz grains, the rock is
clays are consolidated more effectively by this process. such as "graywacke". In addition therc are many clastic rocks which contain grains
(ii) Cementation. When water circulates through thc pores of coaree of more than one size. For example, a rock containing a mixturc of sand and
grained sediment, dissolved mineral matter is precipitatcd he. eilt may be classified as sandy siltstone" or "silty sandstone" depending
dominates.
tween the grains which causes cementation. The most comnmon on which particle size
cementing materials are silica, calcium carbonatc, iron oxides and 6.3.2. Nonclastic Sediments
clay minerals. The identification of the cemcnting material is a Nonclastic rocks include those sedimentary rocks which arc formed by
relatively simple matter. Calcite cement will effervesce with dilue chemical precipitation of minerals from water or by accumulation of remains
hydrochloric acid, while iron oxide gives the rock a characterstic of animals and plants. They are classified into two groups : () chemically
red, orrange or yellow colour. Silica, the hardest of the ccmcnts, formed rocks, and (ii) organically formed rocks.
produces the hardest sedimentary rocks. Chemically Formed Rocks. These rocks are formed when mineral
(iüi) Recrystallization. Although most sedimentary rocks are lihiticd by matter in solution is precipitated from water, usually because of changes in
compaction, cementation or a combination of both, some are con water temperature or in the chemical content of water. Such chemical sedi
solidated chiefly by the recrystallization of their constitucnts. Chemi ments are derived from the dissolution of materials from older rocks and
cally formmed rocks, such as lmestones, dolomites, salland gypsun subsequent transportation of dissolved chemical substances into a sea or
are the examples of the rocks consolidated by recrystallizatiOn. lake. On he basis of composition, the chemically formed rocks are classified
as follows.
6.3. CLASSIFICATION
The sediments from which sedimentary rocks are formcd, may be () Carbonate Rocks. "Limestones" and "dolomites" are the most
dËvided into two major groups : (i) clastic sedimcnts, non-clastic abundant carbonate rocks. They are formed by the chemical
and (ii)
sediments. precipitation of calcium carbonate from sea waler.
6.3.1. Clastic Sediments (0) Salt Rocks. Evaporation is the major process involved in the
"Clastic sediments" are precxisting rocks ranging deposition of chemical precipitates. The salt deposits formed by
in size from minute clay broken fragments ofboulders. Clastic rocks are (he evaporation of saline lakes are called the "evaporites". The
formed by the mechanical particles to very large scdiments. principal minerals of these deposits are chloridcs and sulfates of
accumulation of grains of clastic classilicd Na, K, Mg and Ca. Rock-salt, gypsum and anhydrite are by far
Depending upon the size of constituent grains, the clastic rocks arc and(i) he most abundant minerals of evaporites. They comnonly form
into three groups :(i) rudaceous rocks., (ii) arenaceouS rocks,
argillaceous rocks. massive beds.
ofbigger
Rudaceous Rocks. These rocks are formed by accumulationgrains (u) Ferruginous Rocks. This group includes thosc rocks which are
are
rocks fragments such as gravels, pebbles and boulders. tf the thcrock lormed by the chemical precipitation of iron oxides. Such rocks
rounded, the rock is called ngular, COntain a high proportion of iron-bearing minerats suchas siderite,
is termed as "breccia". "conglomerate" and if they are sand hematite, chamosite and pyrite. "Iron-stone" is an example of
Arenaceous Rocks. These rocks are composed almost cntircly y
"sandtstone'
of
ferruginous rocks.
grains. When individual grains are rounded, TY) Siliceous Deposits. Siliceous rocks are formcd when silica is
the rock is callcd
and "grit" if the grains are angular. Prec1pitated from water. Examples of such deposits are flint, chert,
jasper and agate.
 PRINCIPLES OF
188
ENGINEERING ROCKS-:
:SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Organically Formed Rocks. These rocks arc composcd GEOLOGY nded. partially rounded or angular. Grains which havc bccn transported
189

remains of animals or plants. Organically formed rocks arc

two groups: () biochernical rocks, and (ii) organic rocks.
mainly
subdivided of considcrable distances commonly show a high degrec of
rounding
linto whercas grains that have resulted from disintegration, volcanic explosion or
(i) Biochemical Rocks. The biochemical sedment produccd
is glacial action are commonly angular. In breccias the rock fragments are
plants and animals living under water, extract from it when angular while in conglomerates, they are rounded.
mineral matter, usually calcite, to formm shells or other
These shells accumulate on the Ocean floor in
dissolved
haard parts. The chemically forined rocks may contain rounded concrctions. If thcy
of the size of a pin head (size Imm), the texturc of the rock is said to
form sedimentary rocks. An example of the great quantitics to be "politic", and if they are of the size of a pea, the texture is described as
"shell - limestone". biochemical
rock is "pisolitic".
(ii) Organic Rocks. Rocks containing organic matler The texture and mineral composition of sedimentary rocks are of great
group. An example of such rocks is "coal". These aurc bclong to this
also callad value in determining the nature of the environment at the time when the
the "carbonaceous rocks". sediment was deposited. A conglomerate, for example, indicates a high
6.4. TEXTURE energyenviron1mcnt,such as a swiftly flowing stream where only the coarse
material can be deposited. The arkose suggests a dry climate where little
"Texture" means the size, shape and arrangement of grains in a rock. chemical alteration of felspar is possible. Carbonaceous shale indicates a
As sediments contain particles of various size, grain size is an
important low cnergy, organic rich environment, such as swamp or lagoon.
factor for the description of sedimentary rocks. Depending upon the size,
6.5. STRUCTURAL KEATURES
particles of sediments are classified into pcbbles, gravels, sand, silt and clay,
and cach of these gives rise to a perticular type of rock. This classification The important structural features of sedimentary rocks are stratification,
is shown in Table 6.1. lamination, graded bedding, current bedding and ripplc marks. Besides
these, there are some minor structures such as mud cracks, rain prints, tracks
Table 6.1. Particle Size in Sediments of terrestrial animals, etc. These structures give clues to
ment.
the past environ
Grade Grain Size Rock Type
Pebble 10 mm and above
Stratification. AIl sedimentary rocks are, in general, characterized by
Gravel 2 mm to 10mm jConglomerate stratification. Deposition of sediments into layers or beds is called the
"stratification'". The planes dividing different beds arc called the "bedding
Sand 0.1 mm to 2 mm Sandstone planes" (Fig. 6.1). The- thickness of a bed may vary from a few
o many `meters. Different beds are centimeters
distinguished from cach other by ()
Silt 0.01 mm to 0.1 mm Silistone diiterence in mineral'composition, (ii) variation in grain size or texture, (im)
differençe in colour, and (iv) variation in thickness.
Clay Less than 0.01 mm Shale

The grain size of sands arcsub- ding,Lamination. Thin bed

less than one cen
varies from 2 mm to 0.1 mm. They
divided into four groups : (i) "very coarse sand (grain sizc more i timeter in thickness, are
BEDDING PLANE

mm), (ii) "coarse sand' (grain size 1to 0.5 mm), (iii) "medium sand"(grait C"lled "lamination'" (Fig.
6.l).
loundLamination
LAMINATION
SZe 0.5 to 0.25 mm) ,and (iv) "fine sand (erain size 0.25 to 0.! mn):cqual isusually
in very
Sediments which contain grains of various grades in ncarlyContaining rocks like shalefineandgraincd
amount are said to be "unassorted'.On the other hand, sediments
"'graded'". them the gives
mainly grains of one grade only, are said to be "well assorted' or
andinscdi- property characterstic
of Fig. 6.1. Stratification. Bed 'b' shows lamination.
The degree of assortment may be high in
many wind deposits commonly
ments deposited on gently sloping sea floors. Stream deposits arc laminated rocks,fissility.
surfaces the clay In
and other flaky minerals tend to lie with their flat
less well graded. Glacial deposits are generally
unassorted. con-
tion refersparallel
to the plane of aminaion. It should be noted that launina-
to parallel arrangements of minerals within a bed whereas
The shapes of the constituent grains of
sedimentary rocks
siderable significance in the study of texture. The grains of a rock
are of
may
he
stratification refers to asuccession of beds separaled by bedding planes.
 PRINCIPLES OF
190 ENGINEERING
Graded Bedding. In TOP GEOLOGY ROCKS-ll:SEDIMENTARy AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Minor Structures. The surface of bedding planes may show somne minor
191

"graded bedding" each bed SHALE

shows a gradation in grain structures such as mud cracks, rain prints,and tracks and trails of animals. These
size from coarse below
to structures are commonly preserved as casts. "Mud cracks" are often found in
under
fire above (Fig. 6.2). The 001. oo0 the fine grained sedimentary rocks that have been exposcd to drying
sub-aerial Conditions. They form a network of fissures enclosing polygonal
graded bedding results from
rapid sedimentation in ne Mud cracks are charactersitc of the flood plains of large rivers. A "rain
water. This structure is com print"is a slight shallow depression rimmed by alow ridge which is raised by
monly found in graywackes. the impact
the rain drop. It is formed when a brief rain shower falls on a
The bottom of a graded bed smooth surface of fine grained sediment. "Tracks and trails" arc the markings
All these minor
generally lies on shale and indicating the passage oÌ some animal over soft sediment.
structures if found in formations that have been disturbed by severe folding, arc
may consist of a coarse grit.
It than shows an upward &oTTO M
COARSE GRI of great help in detemining the top and
bottom of beds.
transition towards finer Coneretions. "Concretions"are variouslyshaped masses or nodules of
Fig. 6.2. Graded bedding.
material. At the top it com mineral matter found withina sedimentary rock. Their shapc may bc spheri
of cal
monly ends in shale. cal, ellipsoidal, lenticular or irregular. Concretions generally consist
cium carbonate or silica and often possess an internal radiating or concentric
Current Bedding. Current bedding is also callcd the "cross beddine': structure. They are formned by the deposition of mincral matter from per
In this structure minor beds or laminations lie at.an angle to the plancs of solating solutions about a nucleus. Their chemical composition is gencrally
MINOR BED DING different from the enclosing rock. They often represent a concentration of
limestones
one of the minor constituents of the host rock. For example, in
MAJOR BED DING there are concretions of chert or flint, in clays concretions are of calciu1n
PLANE carbonate or iron sulfide, and in sandstones the concretions arc commonly
of iron oxide or calcium carbonate.
SiO
Fig. 6.3. Current bedding. AVG, SANDSTONE

general stratification (Fig. 6.3). These minor beds commonly tenninale abruply AVa. SHALE AVG. IGNEOUs

the top where they are overlain by the next current bedded deposit. Current bco ROCK

IS COmmnonly found in shallow water and wind fomed deposits.srcauns This sruClUwind
or
indicates rapid changes in the velocity and direction of flow of and stackedup
are inclined I
carying sediment. In curent bedding, the minor beds
in the forna wedge in the direction of water cuments or prevailing wind.
Ripple Marks. "Ripple marks'" AVG. LIME
are the wavy undulations scen on the STONé
surface of bedding planes (Fig. 6.4). Al,03
They are produced by the action of (A) Fe203 Cao
waves and currents in shallow water.
This structure may also be formed on
the surface of deposits formed by SANDS TONE
wind. Ripple marks are of two types SHALE
: (i) asymmetrical or current ripple
LIMESTONE
marks, and (ii) symmetrical or oscil
LATERITES
lation ripple marks. The OScillation (B) ripplemark
ripple marks are useful in determin- Fig. 6.4. (a) Symmetrical mark.
ing top and bottom of deformned beds. Assymetricalripple Fig. 6.5. Showing range in composition of common sediments.
(0)
 PRINCIPLES OF
192
6.6. CHEMCIAL COMPOSITION ENGINEERING GEOLOGY ROCKS-ll:SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
u SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES
193

The range in chemical composition of sedimentary

and this respect they differ fromigneous rocks. For
in rocks is aquilc larpe Conglomnerate
99% silica, in banded exarnple, Nature. Consolidated gravels. Colour variablc.
Imay contain as much as
content may be as high as S8%, in pure limestones
iron formations
the
the CaO iron Oxide sandslone
content may
Mineral Composition. Rounded pebbles are set in a fine grained matrix.
The matrix commonly consists of sand or silt and it is cemented by silica,
reach 55%. This large range in composition which is
(page 191), is caused by wcathering cycle. This cycleillustrated
has a
in Fig. 6.5 calcium carbonate or iron oxide. The individual pebbles may be entirely
produce mechanical sedinents which are
from chemical sediments. compositionally verytcndency to
diflereni
oomposed of quartz or may be rock fragments that have not been decom
posed.
6.7. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION Texture. Very coarse grained.
The minerals of sedimentary rocks can be divided into two maior oro Varieties. Fine conglomerates grade into coarse sandstones. If the rock
: i) minerals which are resistant to contains angular or subangular fragments, it is caled "breccia'". The an
weathering and (ii) minerals which
products of chemical weathering. The relative stabilities of minerale t gularity of rock fragments in breccia suggests that this material could not
weathering are shown in Table 6.2. This table shows that quartz is one of have travelled very far from its source.
the most resistant minerals whereas olivine is easily altered by Sandstone
chemical
weathering. The position of minerals shown between quartz and olivine haye Nature. Arenaceous. Colour variable according to the lype of cementing
intermediate stabilities. material. Rocks having silica or calcite as their cementing material are light
Table 6.2. Relative Stabilities of Rockforming in colour, those that contain iron oxide are red to reddish brown.
Minerals During Weathering Mineral Coposition. Quartz is the chief mineral constituent. Small
amounts of felspar, mica, garnet, etc. may also occur. Ccmenting material
Low stability Olivine may be silica, calcite, iron oxide, clay or chlorite.
Increasing
Stability Anorthite
Texture. Sandstones are composed almost entirely of well sorted, sub
angular to rounded sand grains. The texture of sandstone is : (i) "coarse
grained when the size of grains is between 2 to 0.5 mm, (iÜ) "mediun1
Intermediate Augite
grained, when the size of grains is between 0.5 to 0.25 mm, and (iii) fine
Plagioclases Hornblende
grained, when the size of grains is between 0.25 to 0.Imm.
Albite Structure. The common stru:tures scen in the sandstones arc stratilica
tion, curTent bedding, ripple marks and rain
Biotite prints.
Varneties. (i)
K-felspar
Muscovite
of the grains as Orthoquartzite. White siliceous sandstones in which most
well as cement consist of quartz, are called
(ii) Grit. It is orthoquartzite.
a sandstone containing sharply angular grains. (iii) ArkOse. A
|High stability Quartz Oarse grained sandstone containing notable amounts of
felspar is called
Detrital sedimentary rocks consist mainly of the most resistant rock- arkose. (iv) Graywackes. Itis a grey coloured rock containing poorly sorted
plagioclase.
forming minerals such as quartz, K-felspar, mica and sometimes Sedimentar) angular fragments of and basic igneous rocks, and fnc grained
Small amounts of garnet, zircon and chlorite or clay material.quartzGraywackes may contain as much as 30% fine
rocks which are formed from spinel may also occur.precipitatonof grained clay or chlorite or both. The finer grained grawackes grade into the
the inorganic or organic
minerals frequently contain calcite, halite,
hematite, shales. (v)
ing a mineralGlauconite sandstone. It is a grcen colourcd sandstone contain-
argonite, Bypsum, called glauconite.
siderite and chert.
In addition to the detrital minerals and
sedimen- Shale
precipitales,Ilite)and
tary rocks may contain clay mincrals chemical
Montmorillonite, sill: Nature.by aArgillaceous. Colour variable. Shales are often soft and can be
SCratched
chlorite. These minerals result from (Kaolinite,
the weathering of earlier prinary kife.
cates, such as felspars, olivines and
pyroxenes.
 PRINCIPLES OF
194
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Mineral Composition. Shalcs are composed mainly of
ROÇKS-I:SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC ROCKS 195
clay
kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite. Small amounts of othcr inincrals ike
i inestones. Those rocks which contain more than 90% calcite and
as quartz, mica and chlorite arc also prescnt.
grain
mincrals such less than 10% dolonite.
:h Dolomitic limestones. Those rocks which contain 90- 50% calcic
Texture. Very fine graincd with size less than 0.01 mm. and 1050% dolomite.
Structure. Lamination, ripple marks and some organic
be present. structures
may (ii) Calcitic dolomites. The rocks which contain 50- 10% calcite and
50 90% dolomite.
Varieties. )Calcarious shale. When considerable amount f,.
carbonate is prescnt. (ii) Ferruginous shale. When (iv) Dolomites. Those rocks which contain less than 10% calcitc and
considcrable amount of more than 90% dolomite.
iron oxide is present. (iii) Carbonaceous shale.
When considerable
of carbonaceous (organic) matter is present. (iv) Siltstone. It is amount Tavture Dolomite is a fine grained rock. It is commonly compact and
a rock massive.
containing compact silt (grain size 0.0l to 0.1 mm). (v) Mudstone, l
structureless rock containing compacted mud. Iron Formation
Limestone Nature. Iron-formation is a banded iron rock. Itis formed due to chemi
Nature. Calcarious rock. Formed chemically or organically. Commonly cal precipitation of iron oxide and chert.
white, grey or cream coloured. Often contains fossils. Limestones are iden. MineralComposition. The iron-formation consists mainly of chert-mag
tified by their softness, fossil content and effervescence in dilute netite, chert-hematite, and chert-hematite-magnetite. Other ninerals that are
hydrochloric acid. commonly present are siderite, ankerite and chamosite.
Mineral Composition. Calcium carbonate in the chicf constituent. Texture and Structure. In these rocks the sedimentary banding is
generally well preservcd.
Magensium carbonate is also present is variable amounts. Chalcedony, silt
Laterite
and clays are present as impurities. Somne limestones may also contain
calcarious shells of marine animals. Nature. Colour is often red, brown or yellow. Laterite is a residual
Texture. Limestone is a fine grained rock. It is commonly compacl and product of weathering in hot humnid climate. It occurs as mantle over bed
rocks.
massive. Some linestones may have oolitic structure. Organic struclures arc
also common. Minerals Composition. Laterites are cssentially clays rich in aluminium
and iron hydroxides with minor amounts of silica.
Varieties. The important varieties of limestones arc as follows. 0
Chalk. The porous fine grained and generally friable limcstone composeo Texture. Porous and concretionary.
mainly of foraminiferal sheils, is know as chalk. (i) Oolitic limestone. I Varieties. Laterites rich in aluminium hydroxides are called bauxites".
limestone is mainly composed of rounded grains resembling fish roe. Bauxites commonly show 'pisolitic" sructure.
believed to have bcen formed by chemical precipitation. Under helaycrs
m ol 6.9. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
scope cach grain (Oolith) is seen to be made up of concentriclimestones Metamorphic roCks" are formed from the older rocks when they are
CaCOs, often with a bit of shell at the centre. (ii) Marl. Impure
in which the percentage of clay and calcium carbonate is almost equal,
are subjected to increased and
shcaring stresses at con-
known a "marl".
temperature,
siderable depth in the carth's pressure
crust. The older rocks may be cither sedimen
tary, igneous or
other mctamorphic rocks. During mctamorphism
Dolomite
recrystallization takes
and new place essentially in the solid state and new minerals
Nature. Dolomites resemble limestones. textures
are
6.9.1. Agents of produced.
rockis
Mineral Composition. The chief constituent of dolomitc caleile.
dolomite mineral [CaMg(CO,).]. It may also contain some They The agents which Metamorphism
bring about mctamorphic changes in the rocks are:
Dolomites are generally not forned by original chemical prccipitation.
dolomitc. )
heat, (i) uniform pressure, (iii) directed pressure or slress, and (ivV)
are formed when calcium carbonate of limestonc is replaced by propor- Chemica!ly active
This process is called "dolomitization". Depending upon thc relativeureclas
fluids and gascs.
tion of calcite and dolomite present, the limcstones and dolomites
Heat. Withinthe
carth, temperature increases with depth and as a result
sified as follows. appreciably high temperature exists aal grcat depths. In the outer parts of the
 PRINCIPLES OF
196

carth, the common cause for

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
elevated temperaturc is the
ROCKS-|l:SEDIMENTARy AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS 197

igneous bodies.
Uniform Pressure. The static pressure on rocks
is
intrusion of hot 6.10. TYPES
OF METAMORPHISM

This pressure is due to the weight of the overlying causcd

rocks. Asbytempcrature
deep burial. '
The main types of metamorphism are : () cataclastic metamorphism,
dypamic metamorphis1n, (1) contact melamorphism, (iv) plutonic
gradient exists within the earth, the static pressure is usually melamorphism, () regional metamorphism, (vi) metasomatism, and (vii)
higher temperatures. associated with retrogressive metamorphism.
6.10.1. Cataclastic Metamorphism.
Directed Pressure. Dirccted pressure or stress operates
during
moverncents that accompany mountain
important role near the
building. Gencrally dirccted
earth's surface. As the depth
fol ding
pressure The metamorphism in which only the directea pressure or lateral stress
plays an
increascs, the playss dominant role, is called the cataclastic metamorphism'". These stres-
effect of directed pressure decreases and that of uniform Eare caused by earth movements such as folding and faulting. They
pressure incrcases, in the upper part of the carth's crust where the temperatures
Chemically Active Fluids and Gases. Chemically activc fluidsS onerate mainly
low. Due to these stresses rocks are crushed, ground and
when pass through the pores of rocks, they bring about changesandin gases
their
are moderately
deformed. New rocks thus formed are called "cataclastic rocks". Thcy show
original composition. The source of these chemical agcnts is generally ib mainlymechanical crushing with little new mineral formation. Examples of
intrusive igneous body within the country rocks.
cataclastic rocksare "nylonites'" and fault breccias".
6.9.2. Processes of Metamorphism 6.10.2. Dynamic Metamorphism
The processes which operate together in the, effectcdrock to bring abou A metamorphism which is associated with high pressure with little
metamorphism are : (i) granulation, (ii) plastic deformation, (ii) recrystak: increase in temperature, is called the "dynamic metamorphisn". In this case
lization, and (iv) netasomatism. a new rock is fornedpartly by the mechanical effects of flow and partly by
the growth of new minerals that develop in the direction of flow. Slates
Granulation. Pressure shatters rocks and the friction is so great that the
rock are partially melted. This process where crushing of rocks takes place which possess flow cleavage, are perhaps the best examplc of a dynamically
imetamorphosed rock.
without loss of coherence, is called the "granulation".
6.10.3. Contact Metamorphism
Plastic Deformation. When a solid is subjected to stresses, its shapt Contact metamorphism is also called the "hernmal metamorphism".
changes. On the removal of stresses if the solid does not rcgain its original This metamorphism is caused due to local heating of rocks by the intrusion
shape, its is said to be plastically deformed. ot hot igneous bodies nearby. The zone of contact metamorphic rocks which
Recrystallization. "Recrystallization'" means either the formation 0 ocCurs surrounding the intrusion is called "aureole" (Fig. 6.6). As tcinpera
new minerals or formation of new crystals of the pre-existing minerals. The ure decreases away from the intrusive, the outer rocks in thc aureole are
Recrystallization
pore fluid of rocks is thought to facilitate this process. less intensely metamorphosed than thatof the innernost rocks. Thus depend
causes mineralogical and textural changes in rocks during metamorphis1n. ng upon the degree of alteration, the rocks in the aureole can be divided
original Into concentric zones which may differ greatly in mineral assemblages.
Metasonatism. "Metasomatism'" is the process in which thercmoval of
composition of rocks are changed primarily by the addition or fluids In the contact metamorphism heat plays dominant role and its general
material. This change is caused by the movement of hydrothermal effect is to promote recrystallization. In this process, minerals grow hap-
through rocks usually under high tenperatures and pressureS.
produce
hazardly in all directions and the metamorphic rock acquires a granular
fabric which is called the "hornfels texture". Contact metamorphic rocks do
All the above said processes usually combination to
plastically not show schistosity.
operate in
metamorphic rocks. During granulation individual crystals arcrccrystalliza-
deformed. This deformation initiates recrystallization. During clongatedor
tion the structures of original minerals are produced
fromouring contact metamorphis1m transfer of magmatic vapours and gases
an igneous body into the country rocks often takes placc. These
changed. They are
flattened in the direction of minimum stress. Thus new textures are cleinents
of
emanat
processionsis called the "pneumatolytic
react with the Country rocks and form new minerals. Such a
metanorphisni". Alocalized burning
inthe rocks. New minerals are forined as a result of exchange or
and compounds. bakingrocks.
country eflect may be produced at the contact of an igncous body and thc
This effect is deseribed as the "pyrometamorphism'".
198 PRINCIPLES OF
Contact Metamorphism of Shales. Where ENGINEERING GEOLOSY
argillaceous
ROCKS-li:SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS 199

shales, come into contact with an igncous intrusion,

is formed. Within this
rocks
aureole metanorphic zones of meta1norphic such as
a 2. When medium to coarse grained sedimentary rocks such as
graywackes and impure sandstones, are subjected to contact
can be traccd as the contact is approached. These ZOnes aureole
increasinfgol oinws.tensity
are as metamorphism, aluminium bearing minerals (e.g. felspars) are
(i) Outermost Zone of Spotted Slate. The spots in converted into micas and garnets. When carbonate minerals, such
may be composed cither of asinglc minerall or athe spotgrained
ted slates as calcite, are present as impurities in the parent rocks,
of different minerals. fine hornblende, epidote and diopside are formed.
(iü) Intermediate Zone of Spotted Hornfels. Nearer
1mass 3. Impure limestones containing sand, chert or clayey material
trusion, the cleavagc of the slate the igneous during contact metamorphism produce calc-silicate rocks. These
disappears and the rock in rocks contain mostly calcite, lime-garncts, olivine, serpentine,
harder. The spots in this rock arc now due
andalusite and he ground1nass recrystallizestotosmall becomes wollastonite, termolite and diopside.
quartz.
form crystals
mica and
of
4. On contact metamorphism basic igneous rocks, such as basalt and
(iü) gabbro, give rise to hornfels containing generally pyroxéne and
Innermost Zone of Hor1ifels. Close to the contact of plagioclase.
thorough recrystallization takes place and hornfcls, a fineintrusion
grainel 6.10.4. Plutonic Metamorphism
hard rock is forned (Fig. 6.6).
IGNES At great depths bclow the carth's surface, static pressures and high
INTRUSION temperatures operate together. The metamorphisn causcd by these factors
SLATE
is called the "plutonic metamorphism'". High static pressure favours reduc
tion in volume. Hence during recrystallization mainly denser minerals are
formed. The metamorphic rocks produced in this way commonly have an
even grained texture. Such rocks are called "granulites".
6.10.5. RegionalMetamorphism
-SPOTTED When directed pressure and heat act together in the pre sence of migral
SLATE ing hydrothermal fluids, the rocks are metamorphosed over wider arcas. This
LHORNFELS kind of metamorphism is called the "regional" or "dynanothermal
Fig. 6.6. Contact metamorphic aureole. Fig. 6.7. Prophyroblast distorting
metamorphism". Regional mctamorphism takes place at great depths, such
as in root regions of fold mountains, where tenperatures and stresses are
groundmass. high.
In the hornfels porphyroblasts may be present. "Porplhyroblasts e Heat prOmotes recrystallization and the stresses cause shearing and flow
the large, well shaped crystals which are set in afine grainced marix (r5
movements wiich produce ncw structures in rocks. The new minerals that
6.7).These may reach 4 or 5 centimeters in size.
Porphyroblasts crystai
late in the solid rock during metamorphism, The minerals which comiio"y
grOw under directed pressure are usually flat, elongated, bladed or llaky in
nature. cXamples of such ninerals are muscovite, biotite, chlorite, talc and
Occur as porphyroblasts in the contact metamorphic hornfelses arc cordieritc,
amphiboles. These miuerals arrange themselves in parallel- layers and
andalusite and sillimanite. Hornfels may form from any type ol parentrock. Proauce a banded or laminated structure, called "foliation". The most com
Metacrysts or rocks.
They also occurporphyroblasts
are not limited to contact melamorphic ElOlated metamorphic rocks are slates, phylites, schists and gneisses.
in regionally Foliated rocks split easily into flaky shects.
Contact Metamorphismmetamorphoscd
of Other Rocks.rocks.
The contact metamophism When shales are subjected to regional metamorphism, the characterstic
of sandstones, graywackes, impure limestones and basic igneous rocks may
be summarized as minerals that develop in succession with the rise in temperature and stress
are chlorite, biotite, garrnet, staurolite, kyanite and sillimanile. Thus shale
follows.
1. Pure sandstones recrystallize to quartzites Composed of quarlu changes to "slate" in carly stages, to "schist" in the middle stage and finally
im-
with perhaps a little biotite and magnetite derived from lheyield lo "gneiss" at the
schist highest temperatures of regional metamorphism. The
purities of clays and iron oxide limestones cOnnonly contains staurolite, garnet, biotite, muscovite and quartz
calcite marbles. respectively. Pure
 200 PRINCIPLES OF
and the gneiss contains sillimanite, garnet, cordicrilcENGINEERI NG
potash GEOLOGY
ROCKS-ll:SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC ROCKS 201
quartz.
During regional meamorphis1m sandstones and felspar and volatile components comes in contact with limestones, a variety of minerals
ncluding magnetile, garne, diopside, enstatite and forsterite are formed.
foliated rocks. They recrystall1ze "quar1zite" limestones do not
into and Metalliferous ore deposits containing sulfides of lead, zinc, copper and iron
Iv. Both of these rocks show granular structure. "marble" form are commonly found in association with scarns.
Basic igneous rocks, such as basalt, dolerite or
diabasc
respective- Cranitization. Some granites show evidences of former sedimentary
grades of regional metanorphism, change into
green-schists,during dilfercnt bedding. If they are traced towards the margin, they gradually grade into
granulites or ccogites as follows.
(i) During low gradessof regional
melamorphism,
amphibolites, gneiss (migmatite), felspethized schists, mica schists, and finally to shale.
Such granites appear to have formed by the metasomatism of schists where

containing mainly basic

new mineral matter is added and the old is carried away. This process of
change into "green-schists"
epidote. igncous
chlorite, albiterocks tansformation of country rocks into granite is called granitization". The
material which is displaced during grantization, commonly contains Mg, Fe
(iù At medium to high
grades of andCa. This results in the concentration of ferromagesian minerals, such as
converted into "amphibolites". metamorphism,
Amphibolites
grccnschists are
are coarse grainei bËotite, garnet, pyroxene or amphibole in the peripheral zone. Thus with the
rocks containing garnet, formation of granites, a frontal zone of Fe - Mg enrichment is fomed. This
hornblende or diopside and plagioclase.
Schistosity or bands of dark Zone is called the "basicfront". It must be remembered that all fronts are
(üü) Át the highest
coloured minerals may be present. not basic. Silica fronts of various kinds are developed when quartz rich
metamorphic
Granulites possess a granular grades, "granulites" are forned. are granitized. Granites and granitic rocks are known to have fomed from
rocks
texture and contain plagioclase, various types of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. During
hypersthene and diopside. "Charnockites" are the mostcommon granitization the transfer of material is caused by the infilration of gaseous
granulite-type rocks which are formed from basic igneous rocks. or liquid emanations (granitizing solutions) into country
Hypersthene is the characterstic mineral of charnockiles. fusion of ions in a solid rocks or by dif
(iv) In he most deep scated medium.
conditions where very high pressures
prevail, a red and green rock Lit-Par-Lit Injection. Near the contact of the intrusive
called
is a coarse grained granulose rock "eclogite" formed. clogie
is tions from the invading magma are often injected into the body, emana
consisting of pyrope garnet and metamophosed
cOuntry rocks along the foliation and other planes of weakness.
omphacite (pyroxene). Though eclogites arc often classitied as appreciably large quantity of magmatic fluid is introduced in theWhen an
metamorphic rocks, their origin is rather obscure. They arc also rocks, numerous thin sills are forned between layers of country
believed to be of igneous origin. This phenomeron is called "lit-par lit injection". bedding or foliation.
6.10.6. Metasomatism When there is a large scale
ransfer of igneous material in the surrounding country
Of rock having gneissose structure is rocks, a mixed type
Many metanorphic reactions are generally considered to be formed. Such mixed rocks are called
isochemical. This implies that during recrystallization essenuai he "migmatite". Most migmaties have a somewhat granitic
phic reactions, the bulk chemistry of the rocks has and other metai
6.10.7. Retrogressive Metamorphis1n composition.
If other elements are introduced into the remaincd nearly consta
from igneous magma, the resulting rockmetamorphism
by circulating fluids do
is called the When high temperature metamorphic mineral
assemblages are changed
loW temperature mineral assemblages, the process 1s called the
"metasonmatism". In other words, the
metamophism in which much material is metasomatism is abytype
added to the rock
of contact
the hydrother- "retrogressive" or "retrograde" metamorphism. Such changes take place
when an
mal ffuids. During metasomatisn the composition of the parent rock is intensely metamorphoscd rock is subjected cither to
novement or to hydrothermal activity. In zones of strong differen-
changed substantially but its volume remains unchanged. As this alteration amphibolitea may be converted to agreen-schist and due todisplacement
hydrothermalan
occurs without any deformation, the textures and structures of the original
rock are usually preserved. alterationScrpentine rock may change to talc-magnesite-schist.
0.11. METAMORPHIC MINERALS
Scarns. During perticularly
effectivE. "Scarns arecontact metamorphism,
the product
metasomatism is the contact
of metasomatis1m formed at
The
by the minerals which form in metamorphic rocks are largcly controlled
of granites with
limestones. When granitic magma rich in walcr
and other
divided conditions
of
temperature,
into three groups pressure or stress. These minerals can be
: () stress minerals, (ii) antistress minerals, and
 PRINCIPLES OF
202
ENGINEERING ROCKS-l::SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
(iüi) relict mincrals. "Stress minerals" are forned under GEOLOGY 203

or directed pressure during regional metamorphism.

Theyconditions
tabular, elongatcd or flaky in nature and grow parallel to the are
of
usually lastress 100
TeMPE RATURE (°C )
300 600
least pressure. Stress minerals play a major role in
tures and textures which are characterstic of many
dirccionslruc-of
producing parallel (3NV9019)
99nssavd Low MEDuM 5
DEPTH

Examples of stress mincrals are micas, chlorite, talc, metalbite,amorphic rocks. GRADE
GAADE 142AE aRAD¬
kyanite and staurolitc.
The "anistress minerals" develop mainly under
amphiboles, (km)
FACE
SUR
BELOW

conditions of 6 26

pressure, such as in plutonic metamorphism. These minerals

dimensional in form. Examples of antistress minerals are are oftcn unilom LpIAGENETIC 25 THB
cqui-
andalusite, sillimanite, cordierite and spincl. pyroXenes, olivine, coNpTIONS
PossiBL30
PARTIAL
mELTING
EARTAS
35
During metamorphism recrystallization of mincrals takes place essen
tially in the solid state. Complete
therefore certain original mincralsrecrystallization
is not always possible and
Fig. 6.8. Pressure-temperature diagram outlining
continue to survivc in the mctamomhie
rocks. These original minerals which have failed to rcact to approximate fields of various metamorphic grades.
conditions of temperature and pressure, are called the "relict the chanped
minerals" accompanied by an increase in the grain size of rocks. For cxample, slates
6.12. METAMORPHIC ZONES and phyllites are fine grained rocks while schists and gneisses are coarse
Below the earth's surface temperature and pressure both graincd.
incrcascs with
increasing depth.The degrce or grade of metamorphism exhibited 6.12.2: Zones of Progressive Regional Metamorphism
by arock,
therefore, varics with depth. On the basis of this conccpt In an area where argillaceous sedimentary rocks have becn subjected
of metamorphism have been recognized : () epizone, (ii)threc depth zones toregional metarmorphism, five metamorphic zoncs have been recognized
(iii) katazone. mesozone, and on the basis of the occurrence of index minerals. The "index minerals'" ar:
() Epizone. This zone of metamorphis1m occurs near the carth's those minerals which indicate the grade of metamorphis1n. At successively
surface. In this zone generally the conditions of cataclastic higher grades of metamorphism, the index minerals that develop in the
argillaceous rocks are, first chlorite, then biotite, next almandite, afterwards
metamorphism prevail. staurolite, then kyanite and at the highest temperatures sillimanite. Thc
(ii) Mesozone. This is the intermediate zone of metamorphism whch
lies below the epizone. In the mesozone, the conditions O arious metamorphic zones are named after the index minerals present in
them. These zones in the order of increasing grade of imetamorphisIm are as
temperatures and pressures are such as to promote regional follows.
metamorphism. () Chlorite Zone. In this zone the clayey material recrystallizes as
(iii) Katazone. The bottommost zone of metamorphism is called the
muscovite and chlorite. Phyllites and slates are the typical rocks
katazonc. In this zone plutonic metamorphism takes place of this Zone.
6.12.1. Grade of Metamorphism (u) Biotite Zone. In this zone brown biotite appears in place of mus
The degrec or intensity of a rock, s Covite and chlorite. The typical rock of this zone is biotilc-schist.
metamorphis1m that has affected
called the "grade of metamorphism". It varies directly with thc amount ol (i) Garnet Zone. The characterstic mineral of this zone is
heat and pressure to which the rocks have been rocks of por
the same composition form different mineral subjccted. Parcnt grades phyroblastic al1mandite garnet. The important rock of this zonc is
of metamorphism. The grade of assemblages in different low garnetiferous mica-schist.
expressed as very which (") Staurolite-Kvanite Zone. Staurolite is for1med only in iron rich
metamorphism
low, medium and high grade (Fig. 6.8). For is
and phyllite
are formed away from the intrusive example, slate
show
gradeof
a low forned
argillaceous rocks, while kyanite is formed in normal argillaceous
rocks.
igneous body, is
metamorphism while a high grade
close to its margin. The increase inmetamorphic
rock like gnciss also
P) Sillimanite Zone. Gneisses containig
the grade of Imetamorphis1m is biotite, garnct and sil
lmanite along with potash felspar occur in this zone.
204 PRINCIPLES OF ROCKS-:SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
ENGINEERING 205
When thc various metamorphic zoncs are demarcatcd
the boundaries bctwcen different Zones are callcd the
on a
geologiGEOLOGY
cal ny
recrystallization of mineral grains in thc solid medium. The crystals
showing
perfect crystal outline, are called the "idioblasts'" while those which do not
reflect positions of similar metanorphic grade in tenns of "isograds". The
temperalure and isograls have any definite shape, are described as "xenoblasts".
6.13. METAMORPHICFACIES
Metamorphic rocks are often classified on the
pres ure, Porphyroblastic Texture. Whenidioblasts occur as large crystals em-
bedded in a finc graincd groundmass, the texture is called "porphyroblastic".
basis
of The large well-shpacd crystals of this texture are referred to as "por-
facics. Parent rocks of different compositions, if mnetamorphoscd
same pYessure-temperature conditions, will
characterstically
metamorphic
under thc phyroblastS" or "mnetacrysts".
same set of definite minerals. They are said to belong to the sameContain the Granoblastic Texture. In a metamorphic rock if the major constituents
phic facics. A"'metamorphic facies" therefore, may be defined inetamor- are oranular or equidimensional, the texture is called "grunoblastic".
of metamorphic rocks that as a
have formed under the same set of group Palimpest Texture. The remnant texture of the parent rock found
chemical conditions and is characterized by a definite set of physico nreserved in the metamorphic rock, is called "palimpest texture".
various metamorphic facies are as follows. minerals. The 615.STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
(i) Zeolite Facies. This facies
represents the lowcst
metamorphism. The mineral assemblages include grade
of Cataclastic Structure. Calaclastic structure is found in rocks such as
zeolites crush breccias and mylonites. These rocks are formed mainly under the
chlorite, muscovite and quartz.
influence of shearing stresses in the upper zones of the earth's crust. Harder
(ii)) Green Schist Facies. This facies
represents low grade of constituents of rocks are broken into pieces while softer ones are crushed to
metamorphism found in many regionally metamorphosed arcas. powder.
The mineral assemblages of green-schist facies include chlorite.
Maculose Structure. When argillaceous rocks are subjected to contact
epidote, muscovite, albite and quartz. mctamorphism, a spotted rock is formed in areas where incomplete recrys
(iÜ) Amphibolite Facies. This facies is found in medium to high grade tallization takes place. The spots in the spotted rock are due to the develop
metamorphic terrains. The mineral assemblages include ment of bigger crystals of some minerals (e.g. andalusite) within the fine
hornblende, plagioclase and almandite. Amphibolitc facies repre grained groundnass. This structure is called the "mcculose structure".
sents those metamorphic conditions which occur in staurolile and Slaty Structure. Slaty structure is also called the "slaty cleavage". This
sillimanite grade of metamorphism. structure commonly develops in shales thathaveundergone slight metamor
(iv) Glaucophane Lawsonite Schist Facies. This facies represents he phisim. Rocks showing a slaty structure are very fine grained composed
metamorphisn that takes place in conditions of relatively low primarily of microscopic flaks of mica. The slaty structure is caused due to
temperatures but high pressures. Such conditions commonly ocu he parallel orientation of flaky minerals, mainly micas and
chlorite.
in young orogenic zones, such as California (U.S.A.)and Japan. rocks splitreadily into thin sheets. The slaty cleavage may form at any Slaty
tO ne old bedding planes of the shale from which the slaty rock angle
The mineral assemblages include lawsonite, jadeite, alu has been
glaucophane, muscovile and garnet. derived [Fig. 6.9 (c)].
(v) Granulite Facies. This acies represents the maximum tempera-
ture conditions of regional mctamorphism, such as thosc foundin
Archaean terrains. The characterstic minerals of this lacies are
plagioclase, hypersthene, garnct and diopside.
(vi) Eclogite Facies. This facies seated con-
represents the most deep Pyrope
ditions of metamorphism. The characterstic minerals con1nonly
are
garnet and omphacite. Such mineral assamblages are
found in kimberlite pipes, many of which contain diamonds.
6.14. TEXTURES OF ()
METAMORPHIC ROCKS metanorphic
Crystalloblastic Texture. The holocrystalline texture of duelo
Fig. 6.9. Structures of metamorphic rocks.
(a) Schistose suructure. (b) Gneissose
rocks is called the "crystalloblastic texture". This texture develops structure, (c) Slaty structure,
(d) Granulose structure.
 PRINCIPLES OF
206

Schistose Structure. The most obvious

ENGINEERING GGEOLOGY ROCKS-ll:SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS 207

structural feature of Mineral Composition. It consists of chlorite, muscovite and quartz. The
metamophic rocks is the alignment of minerals in parallel most
layers.
parallel arrangement of platy or flaky minerals brought about by recryslal
The grainsof this rocks are so fine that individual minerals can not be recognized
by unaided eye.
lization during regional metamorphism, is called "foliation'. A
which is coarse grained and is largely composed of flaky and foliated
platy rock
Texture and Struciure. lt is a fine grained rock showing foliated struc
is called "schist". The foliation of schists is called minerals,
"schistosity'" IFig. ture. It splits along
foliation planes with an uneven surface.
(a)]. 6.9 Origin. Phyllites are formed due to dynamothermal metamorphism of
Gneissose Structure. In rocks that have been thoroughly abales. They represent an intermediate stage of metamorphism between slate
under conditions of high grade metamorphism, the light and dark
the
recrystmial ized and schist.
may segregate into alternate bands parallel to schistosity. Such a coarse Schist
grained metarmorphicrock showing banded or streaked appearance, is callod Nature. Schists are coarse grained metamorphic rocks which show well
"gneiss and its structure is called the "gneissose structure'". The hoh Arveloned foliation or schistosity along which the rock may be easily
coloured bands are composed of quartz and felspars while dark colourcd hroken. Their colour varies according to mineral composition. Mica-schists
bands contain ferromagnesian minerals. In gneissose rocks the plancs of are the mostcommon metamorphic
rocks.
schistosity are poorly defined [Fig. 6.9 (b). Mineral Composition. Mica-schists consist essentially of quartz and
Granulose Structure. Granulose structure is produced due to mica. usually muscovite or biotite. Mica is the major mineral which occurs
predominance of equidimensional minerals such as quartz, felspar, in iregular leaves and foliated masses. Mica-schists frequently carry char
pyroxenes, and calcite [Fig. 6.9 (d)]. The flaky minerals are either absent or acterstic accessory minerals such as garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite,
present only in small amounts. Granulose structure is characterstic of rocks andalusite, epidote and hornblende.
such as marbles and quartzites. Because granulose rocks have even grained Varieties. Besides mica-schists, there are various other kinds of schists
structure, they break with a rough fracture surface. which are chiefly derived by the mnetamorphism of the basic igneous rocks.
Hornfelsic Structure. Hornfelsic texure is characterstic of the contact The most importan t types are "talc-schist', chlorite-schist'",
metamorphic rock called the hornfels". A hornfels is a dark, compact, fune "hornblende-schist' and amphibolite". These are characterized, as thcir
grained rock having granoblastic texture. Hornfelsic structure is formed due names indicate, by the abundance of some metamorphic ferromagnesian
mineral.
to the predominance of cquidimensional minerals such as felspars, an
dalusite, cordierite, and quartz. Texture and Structure. Schists are coarse grained rocks having a
6.16. METAMORPHIC ROCK TYPES prominent schistose structure. They split easily into thin sheets along the
planes of schistosity.
Slate
Origin. Schists are generally the product of regional metamorphism.
Nature. Slates are dark coloured exceedingly fine graincd low grau Gneiss
metamorphic rocks. They have a remarkable property called slaty clcavage
which permits them to be split into thin broad sheets. Their colour is Nature. Agneiss is a coarse grained, iregularly banded metamorphic
Commonly gray to black but may be green, yellow, brown and red. Ckishaving poor schistosity. Agneiss has usually a light colour, although
mix- this not
Mineral Composition. Slates are composed of a very fine grained necessarily so.
ture of micas and chlorite with some quartz and felspar. Mineral Composition. Quartz and felspar occur together in light
Texture and Structure. Slates are very fine grained rocks which
show coloured bands which alternate with dark bands of laky ferromagnesian
slaty cleavage.
minerals, such as biotite or hornblende. Generally quartz and felspars
metamorphis1mol predominate over micaceous minerals.
Origin. Majority of slatcs are formed by the dynamic paralleltothe
shales. Their characterstic slaty cleavage may or may not be Varieties. There are many varieties of gneiss having varicd mineral
associations. are named generally according to thc domincnt ferromag-
They
bedding planes of the original shales. nesian mineral present, such as biotite-gneiss" and hornblende-gneiss".
Phyllite When it is certain that agneiss is the result of metamorphism of' an carlier
Nature. A phyllite is a finc grained. foliated lustrous rock.
 PRINCIPLES OF
208 ENGINEERING
formed igneous rock, the igneous
rock name is used in the GEOLOGY ROCKS-ll:SEDIMENTARy AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS 209

as the granite-gneiss" or 'syenite-gneiss".

Texture and Structure. Gneisses are coarse grained rocks
terminology, such Texture and Structure. Hornfelses commonly show granoblastic texture.
The fine grained granoblstic texture of these rocks is also
callcd the
sOse structure. having gneis- "hornfelsictexture".
Oriein. Hornfelses are formed in the contact aureoles of igneous in
Origin. Gneisses are more commonly derived by the high grade
metamorphism of igneous rocks, mostly granites. They may also be regional trusions.
from sedimentary rocks. formed REVIEW QUESTIONS
Quartzite
Nature. A quartzite is a hard, dense, siliceous metamorphic rock
granular texture. It is distinguished from asandstone by noting the havir:g
fractur:
, Cyolain how are the sedimentary rocks formed. Describe the various struc
tures present in these rocks.
which in a quartzite passes through the grains but in a
sandstonc passes
around them. 2. What is asedimentary rock ? Classify sedimentary rocks into various classes
and give abrief description of each class.
Mineral Composition. Quartzites are composcd essentially of quary
with small amounts of mica, tourmaline, graphite or iron minerals. They are 3. Describe in detail the textures and structures of either sedimentary or
usually light in colour. metamorphic rocks.
4. Give the distinguishing characters of the following rocks. Sandstones, Con
Texture and Structure. A quartzite is a compact rock of inerlocking glomerale, Shale, Limestone, Slate, Gneiss, Schist, Hornfels.
quartz grains. Its structure is granulose. This rocks breaks wih arough
fracture surface. 5. (a) What is a metamorphic rock ? Discuss the various agents of metamor
phism.
Origin. Quartzites are derived from sandstones by high grade metamor
phism. (6) Describe in brief the processes involved in the metamorphis1m.
Marble 6. Enumerate the various types of metamorphism. Explain in brief either contact
Nature. A marble is a crystalline calcarious metamorphic rock having metamorphism or regional metamorphisn.
granular texture. Marbles are generally white but various impuritics may 7. Discuss the facies concept in metamorphism with suitable examples.
create a wide range of colour such as pink, yellow, grey,greenand black. 8. What is meant by zones of progressive regional metamorphism ? Describe
Mineral Composition. Amarble is composed of grains of calcite or more briefly the stages of advancing regional metamorphism of argillaceous sedi
ments.
rarely dolomite.
9. Write short notes on the
Texture and Structure. The marbles show granulose texture. The following.
dividual grains may be so small that they can not be distinguished by uie Greywackes, Concretions, Stratification, Metamorphic facies. Granitization.
eye or they may be quite coarse and show clearly the characterstic cal Migmatite, Metasomatism.
cleavage.
Origin. Marbles are formed as a result of metamorphism of limestones.
Hornfels
composed
Nature. Ahornfels is afine grained, nonschistose rock
mostly of equidimensional grains. It is dense,
commonly found in the
contactzones
of igneous intrusions.
bccause
Mineral Composition. Mineral of hornfelses
varics
they may be produced from any typecomposition
commonly
of rock. The minerals which
Occur in these rocks are felspar, biotiteand
quartz.
andalusite, cordierite, magnetite,