QUESTIONNAIRE

When data are collected by asking questions from people who are thought to
have the desired information. Question may be asked in person or in writing. A
formal list of such questions is called questionnaire.

DRAFTING OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
There is no hard and fast rules to make a questionnaire. To make a successful
questionnaire, one should keep in mind the following points:

• 1. The size of the questionnaire should be as small as possible.

• 2. The question should be clear, brief, unambiguous in nature and to the point.
• 3. The question should be logically arranged
• 4. The questions should be short, simple and easy to understand.
5. Questions should be so designed that the respondents can easily comprehend
and answer them
• 6. Questions involving mathematical calculation should not be asked.
• 7. Question of sensitive or personal nature should be avoided.
• 8. The questionnaire should provide necessary instructions to the enumerators.
• 9. If a particular question needs clarification, it should be explained by way of a
foot
10. Questions should be capable of objective answer.
• Various types of questions in the questionnaire may be grouped under three
categories such as i) dichotomous or simple alternative questions ii) multiple
choice questions and iii) open questions
.• 11. In case of mailed questionnaire method, a self-addressed stamped
envelope should be enclosed.
• 12. To ensure quick response, respondents may be offered incentives. note.
13. Method of tabulation and analysis, whether hand operated, machine
operated or computerized, should also be kept in mind while designing
questionnaire.

• 14. Lastly, the questionnaire should be made attractive by a proper layout and
appealing get up.

TYPES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Structured Questionnaire:

✓ Highly standardized with predetermined questions.

✓ Typically consists of closed-ended questions (e.g., multiple-choice, Yes/No,

Likert scale).

✓ Suitable for quantitative research where data can be easily quantified and
analyzed statistically.

✓ Examples: 1. Customer satisfaction surveys with rating scales.

2. Product feedback questionnaires with fixed response options.

2. Unstructured Questionnaire:

✓ Contains open-ended questions that allow respondents to give detailed

answers.

✓ Encourages in-depth responses, giving insights into thoughts and perspectives.

✓ Commonly used in qualitative research to explore subjective information.

✓ Examples:

1. Open-ended interview questions for exploratory studies.

2. Surveys asking respondents to describe experiences or opinions freely.

3. Semi-Structured Questionnaire (Mixed-Methods):

✓ Combines both structured (closed-ended) and unstructured (open-ended)

questions.

✓ Offers both fixed responses and opportunities for elaboration.

✓ Useful in mixed-methods research, providing both quantitative and qualitative

data.

✓ Examples: 1. Employee feedback forms with both rating scales and comment
sections.

2. Surveys with Likert scale questions followed by open-ended follow-ups.

PHRASING QUESTIONS
Phrasing questions refers to the way in Example 1: Poorly Phrased Question:
which questions are formulated in a "Don’t you think the management is
questionnaire to ensure clarity, doing a fantastic
neutrality, and precision. The way a job?"
question is phrased can significantly Improved Phrasing:
impact the quality of the responses "How would you rate the performance
received, as poorly constructed of management
questions may lead to in supporting employee engagement?"
misunderstandings or biased answers. • Response Options: Excellent, Good,
Fair, Poor,
Very Poor.
Example 2: Poorly Phrased Question:
"Isn’t our new product just amazing?"
Improved Phrasing:
"What is your overall opinion of our
new product?"
• Response Options: Very satisfied,
Satisfied,
Neutral, Dissatisfied, Very dissatisfied.
 ART OF ASKING
The "Art of Asking" refers to the skillful practice of formulating questions or requests. It
promotes open communication, encourages participation, and helps get meaningful
answers. Key elements include:

Wording of Questions: Clear and direct language is essential.

Timing: Asking at the right moment enhances receptiveness.

Tone: A respectful and friendly tone encourages openness.
Context: Understanding the situation aids in crafting relevant questions.

Scenario: A manager seeks feedback from employees about a recent company policy
change.

Poor Example: “What do you think of the new policy? It's great, right?”

This question suggests a desired positive answer and may lead to biased or unthoughtful
responses.
Improved Example: “Do you agree that the new policy will improve our workflow?”
Response Options: Yes / No This closed-ended question encourages employees to
express a clear opinion

1. Question Sequence: Arranging questions logically can reduce respondent confusion

and improve data quality. Typically, surveys begin with easier, more engaging questions
to ease respondents in, with sensitive or complex questions saved for later. Grouping
related questions together can help respondents stay focused and provide more
accurate answers.

2. Questionnaire Layout: A clean, intuitive layout improves readability and makes it

easier for respondents to follow along. Using clear headings, ample spacing, and
consistent fonts ensures that respondents can easily navigate the questionnaire. For
online surveys, using a responsive design that adjusts to screen sizes is essential to
ensure usability across devices.

3. Pretesting: Pretesting, or piloting the survey, involves administering it to a small

sample similar to the target audience. This process helps identify unclear questions,
confusing instructions, and technical issues. Pretesting allows researchers to make
necessary revisions to improve clarity, reduce potential biases, and ensure the
questionnaire collects the intended information
 RELIABILITY
Reliability is the degree to which a measuring instrument (procedure) produces
consistent (similar) outcomes, when it is repeated under similar (same)
conditions.
• For example, a tailor measuring fabric with a measuring tape obtains a value of
the length of fabric as 20 inches. If tailor takes repeated measures of the fabric
and each time comes up with same length, it is said the tape measure is reliable.
• The reliability of a measure can be described in terms of three interrelated
concepts such as i) stability, ii) equivalence and iii) internal consistency.
• Stability: a measure is said to be stable if it produces consistent results with
repeated measurement of the same individuals or objects with the same
instruments. An observational procedure or a measuring device is stable if it gives
the same readings on an individual or objects when repeated one or more times.
• Equivalence: considers how much error may be introduced by different
investigators (in observation) or different samples of items being studied (in
questioning or scale). It is concerned with variations at one point in time among
observers and samples of items.
• Internal consistency: uses only one administration of an instrument or test to
assess the consistency or homogeneity among the items.
• Measurement of reliability: The reliability can be measured by the following
methods:
• i) Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r)
• ii) Reliability coefficient (rc)
• iii) Test –retest method (equivalent to correlation coefficient)
• iv) Parallel forms method
• v) Split half method
• vi) Kuder-Richardson formula
• vii) ANOVA method
• viii) Cronbach’s alpha ( alpha)

HOW TO INCREASE RELIABILITY

The estimated reliability of a test can be increased by the following techniques:
1. Increase the length of a test by adding more items. The longer the test item is
higher the likely reliability
2. You can achieve enhanced reliability through improved investigator consistency
by using only well trained supervised and motivated persons to conduct the
research
3. Increase the size of the sample being tested.
4. Increase the variance by making the test more discriminating. Get rid of items
that everybody gets right as well as those everybody gets wrong. Since they are
not providing any power to discriminate. A 2-item test obviously cannot yield as
much as variation as 100-item test.

VALIDITY
Validity refers to the degree to which empirical evidences and theoretical
rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of interpretations and
actions based on test scores.
Validity of measurement can be viewed broadly in two ways: internal validity and
external validity.
Internal validity: seeks to answer whether a difference exists at all in any given
comparison. If one does not encounter contradictions in the data within a given
experiment, then the study is said to have internal validity.
External validity: is the problem of interpreting the difference, the problem of
generalization of the experimental research. Even if the internal validity is
present, the findings are not said to have external validity unless they are held to
be valid for additional (external) situations besides the original study that
generated the findings
Types of validity : c) Criterion-related validity: involves multiple measurement of
the same concept. It is also called concurrent-validity, pragmatic validity,
predictive validity. Predictive validity is concerned with how well a scale or
measuring instrument can forecast a future criterion and concurrent validity is
concerned with how well a measuring scale or measuring instrument can describe
a present on.
Examples of predictive validity: suppose an opinion questionnaire is designed to
forecast the results of a teacher’s association election, our concern is to assess
how correctly the questionnaire forecasts the results of the election. The more
the questionnaire accurately forecasts the results, the more predictive validity the
questionnaire possesses.
Example of concurrent validity: suppose an observational study is conducted to
classify families as having low, medium and high income. The degree, to which the
study can correctly classify these families, represents the concurrent validity.

Slide 10
(RESEARCH) REPORT WRITING
 PURPOSE OF A SCIENTIFIC REPORT WRITING
➢To add something to the existing knowledge of your field of
investigation
➢To produce “new knowledge”

➢Finally, to tell the readers the facts and findings in a simple

and logical fashion.

THESIS/DISSERTATION/JOURNAL ARTICLE
• Use Standard Format of a Report for Academic Degree purpose
(thesis/dissertation) or Project Output purpose
Or
• ‘Instructions to authors’ from a chosen journal’ for a journal article

IMRADS
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895- a French biologist invented vaccine for ‘anthrax’ and
‘rabies’.) first described the structured format of a scientific report – IMRADS
I: Introduction: Why did you start?
M: Methodology: What & how did you do?
R: Results: What did you find?
A: And
D: Discussion: What does it mean? what next? Compare your result
with other researchers
S: Summary: What are the brief accounts of activities.
 IMRAD
• Introduction: What was the question?
• Methods: How did the research(s) try to answer it?
• Results: What did the researchers find?
• And
• Discussion: What do the results mean?

COMPONENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC REPORT (DESIGN AND

STRUCTURE OF REPORT):
• Title or cover page
• Summary
• Acknowledgements (Optional)
• Table of contents, list of tables, list of figures (optional)
• Text:
✓Introduction

✓ Objectives

✓ Methodology

✓ Results

COMPONENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC REPORT (DESIGN AND STRUCTURE OF

REPORT)— (CONT..)
✓Discussion

✓Conclusion

✓ Recommendation
• References
• Appendices/Annexes (data collection tool, tables, consent form etc.) (optional)
 GOOD TITLE
Begin with a working title.
Refine the title after completion of the manuscript writing.
Is concise, informative & attractive - not too short nor too long.
A title should not be more than 160 characters & spaces.
Should reflect the whole content or major message of the article.

INTRODUCTION
Background information ( Global context, macro-level, community).
Relevant literature review should be done for the statement of the problem
that had been studied & eventually leads to identification of knowledge gap –
identification of unresolved problem.
▪ Develop
▪ Research questions
• Hypothesis, if any
• Rationale or justification.
• Formulation of objectives - general, specific.
❖ Write down like a review article.

❖ Use present & sometimes past tense.

❖ Length: Typically, a literature review comprises 20-40% of the

thesis, equating to around 20-40 pages
 METHODOLOGY
▪ Materials & methods, operational definition
▪ Target population, Sample, sampling, sample size determination.
▪ Formula Outlined, Equations of used methods.
▪ Outcome variables (dependent), Independent Variables
▪ Statistical techniques with reasoning (must supported by the assumptions of the
model or technique).

RESULTS
• It answers the research questions.
• It creates data, contributes new knowledge.
• Description & interpretation – not explanation- with a
limited number of tables & figures.
• Tables & Figures must have a legend, numbered by Roman
letter & Arabic numerals respectively.

CONTINUED...
• Description from text to table – not table to text.
• Statistical test.
• Repetition or verbose be avoided
• Results not relevant – be excluded
• Results contradict the hypothesis – Must not be suppressed.
• Use present tense or past tense, own words.
 DISCUSSION
Remember that ‘Discussion is an exchange of knowledge & Argument is an
exchange of ignorance’
• What does the result mean – Interpretation.
• Arguments, reasoning, comparison of results of other
studies
• Find out new questions for future study
• Discuss the limitations, constraints, bias or errors
• Discuss the study findings in a qualitative manner, try to describe
in languages.
• No quantitative data, tables or figs. – already mentioned.
• Avoid I, My, passive voice, excessive adjectives, verbose, results
& repetition – better to say this study, present study etc.
• Use present tense, past tense.

CONCLUSION
• Explore new knowledge
• Should be supported by the author’s data.
• Write a paragraph for each of the specific objectives.

RECOMMENDATION
Should follow logically from the discussion. If short, omit as a separate section.
Write within Conclusions. May be summarized according to the groups toward
which recommendations are directed to, e.g.
Policy makers Program managers Potential clients The community
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
List all contributors who do not meet authorship criteria.
Includes persons who provides:
• Technical help
• Funding
• Secretarial assistance
• General support.

SUMMARY
Unstructured = 150 words
Structured = 250 words
Should cover:
Background
Objectives
Methodology
Results
Conclusion
Recommendation, if any.

TYPES OF SUMMARY
• Abstract (Unstructured, brief, Key message only)
• Executive Summary (Structured, whole content, All
messages)
• Graphical Summary (Key message in Graphical view)
 REFERENCES
Choose either method:
Vancouver: • Number references consecutively in order they are first
mentioned in the text in superscript. For example, a study......1
• Give references in Arabic numbers.
Harvard: • List the author’s name in the text , followed by, year of
publication in bracket ( e.g. Hossain, 2005).
• In reference, publications are arranged in alphabetical order by
the principal author’s last name.