FALLACIES

GROUP MEMBERS:
1. Abdurasad, Sherlyn J.
2. Esmael, Irisz Nicole L.
3. Flores, Ckheriel Marc G.
4. Gonzales, Kristel Vince A.
5. Lizares, Jhon Collen B.
DEFINITION
OF A FALLACY
Irisz Nicole L. Esmael
WHAT ARE FALLACIES?
Flaws in arguments that distort ideas.
Deceitful statements that appear truthful but are
not.
"What we see is not always the truth."
IMPORTANCE OF RECOGNIZING
FALLACIES
Enables strong arguments and corrections of false ones.
Prevents misleading propaganda, rhetoric, and reports.
Avoids errors in decision-making.
INTENTIONAL AND
UNINTENTIONAL FALLACIES
(TYPES OF FALLACY USAGE)

Deliberate Use: To deceive or mislead.

Unintentional Use: Results in errors unknowingly.
TYPES OF FALLACY
 INTRODUCTION TO THE TYPES OF
FALLACIES
Fallacies can be formal or material.

Formal Fallacies: Issues in language, syntax, or word meaning.

Material Fallacies: Errors in content, like misuse of cause and effect.

Some arguments are so deceptive that they mislead hasty readers or

listeners.
FALLACIES OF
LANGUAGE
Sherlyn J. Abdurasad
1. EQUIVOCATION
This happens when someone uses a word that has multiple meanings in a
way that confuses the argument or statement.
Example:
"In case things get worse, and he continues to bug me with his mischief, I will
have to resort to some criminal action."

Does the speaker mean committing a crime or filing a criminal case in court?
 1. EQUIVOCATION
Example:
"Fine for parking." Mariz: The sign said 'fine for
parking,' so I thought it was fine
Can be interpreted as: to park here.”

FINE - okay (it’s fine)

FINE - as in penalty (a parking fine)
2. AMPHIBOLY
This happens when the entire sentence or statement is unclear because of
its structure or wording.

Example:
"It’s really easier said than done when you want to cure cough with phlegm."

Does it mean curing cough using phlegm or curing a cough that has phlegm?
 2. AMPHIBOLY
Example:
1. “The professor said on Monday he would give a lecture."
2. "Let’s eat, Grandma!" vs. "Let’s eat Grandma!"
3. "He promised to give me a ring tomorrow."
 3. ACCENT
The meaning of a statement changes based on which word or phrase is
emphasized.

Example:
"I resent her text message."

I RESENT here text message - it means sent again.

I re-SENT her text message - it means feeling dislike or hatred.
 3. ACCENT
Example:
"He only asked for help."

Emphasis on
He ONLY asked for help - that’s the sole thing he did.
He only ASKED for help - he didn’t demand or beg.
He only asked for HELP - he didn’t ask for money or anything else.
 4. COMPOSITION
This happens when someone assumes that what’s true for individual parts
is also true for the whole.

Example:
"Man is made up of cells; cells are microscopic; so I am microscopic."

The parts (cells) are microscopic, but this doesn’t mean the whole (man) is
microscopic.
 4. COMPOSITION
Example:
1. “Every player on the basketball team is excellent, so the team must
be excellent."
2. “All the ingredients in this dish taste amazing, so the dish must taste
amazing.”
 5. DIVISION
This is the reverse of composition. It happens when someone assumes that
what’s true for the whole is also true for the individual parts.
Example:
"Ateneo is a very good school; I graduated from the Ateneo; thus, I myself am very good."

Just because Ateneo as a whole is good doesn’t mean every graduate is good.
 5. DIVISION
Example:
1. "The basketball team won the championship, so every player must be
a champion.“
2. "This cake tastes great, so every ingredient must taste great."
3. "The company is successful, so every employee must be
successful."
 FALLACIES
NOT OF
LANGUAGE
REPORTER: FLORES, CKHERIEL MARC G.
 DEFINITION
These fallacies occur when reasoning is based on
irrelevant or faulty appeals, or when arguments
target individuals rather than addressing the issue.
1. APPEAL TO PITY (ARGUMENTUM AD
MISERICORDIAM)
This fallacy attempts to Example: "You should pass
evoke sympathy to me in this subject because
influence a decision or I’ve been going through a
accept a conclusion, lot lately."
regardless of its logical Why it’s Fallacious:
merit. Emotional appeals distract
from the logical evaluation
of the argument.
 2. APPEAL TO POPULARITY
(ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM)
This fallacy asserts that a Example: "Everyone says
claim is true or valid simply this brand is the best, so
because many people it must be true."
believe it. Why it’s Fallacious:
Popular opinion does not
determine truth or logical
validity.
3. APPEAL TO FORCE (ARGUMENTUM
AD BACULUM)
This fallacy uses the Example: "Agree with my
threat of force or proposal, or you’ll lose
undesirable consequences your job."
to coerce acceptance of a Why it’s Fallacious:
conclusion. Coercion undermines
rational discourse and
does not prove the
argument.
 4. APPEAL TO FALSE AUTHORITY

This occurs when an Example: "This celebrity

argument relies on the endorses the product, so it
opinion of someone who is must work."
not an expert in the Why it’s Fallacious:
subject matter. Credibility in one area
does not imply expertise in
another.
 5. ATTACKING THE PERSON (AD
HOMINEM)
This fallacy targets the Example: "You can’t trust
individual making the his opinion on politics; he
argument rather than didn’t even finish college."
addressing the argument Why it’s Fallacious:
itself. Personal attacks are
irrelevant to the validity
of an argument.
6. COMPLEX QUESTIONS
A single question is studded with other questions. This misleads the
original question, making a simple and definite answer impossible. To
counter this fallacy, an explanation is required and not just a mere
nod of the head.

EXAMPLE:
"Do you believe that all, regardless of gender, are equal, and that men
should no longer need to hold the door open for women, pay the bill on
dates, and be on the danger side of the road when in the company of
ladies?"
7. FACT SUPPRESSION (EXCLUSION)
Some significant proof which weakens an argument is hidden or
taken out from consideration. It is made to appear as part of the
overall or complete analysis of facts.

EXAMPLE:
A brand of skin whitening soap promises in its ad
"clear and fair skin after 3 weeks of use".
It fails however to disclose that it causes
severe skin rashes for some who may be allergic to it.
8. ANONYMOUS AUTHORITY
This is committed when an argument containing a claim fails to disclose its
source. Claims, especially unpopular ones, as well as those which are
technical and scientific, must be supported by the disclosure of the source
for better assessment of an argument's acceptability.

EXAMPLE:
"A well-known scientist and geologist discovered that Mt. Mayon is most
likely to erupt anytime soon."
9. BEGGING THE QUESTION (PETITIO PRINCIPII)
An argument begs the question if the subject of a proposition expresses the
same idea as the predicate, which could only have been a misleading
paraphrasing of the proposition or its synonym.

EXAMPLE:
"A bachelor is an unmarried man."
"All bodies are extended."
10. FALSE CAUSE
The precedent event is seen as the cause of the succeeding. Since X
precedes Y, X must be the cause of Y.

EXAMPLE:
"My German shepherd got sick after the thunderstorm. Thunder caused
my German shepherd to get sick."

;This is not acceptable. Just because one thing came before the
other does not necessarily mean that one caused the other.
 ACCIDENT
A General rule or imperative is applied when a situation
implies an exception. This occurs when a general rule
disregards exception. In effect, the situation is
construed as general rule.

‘”All men are born free. Therefore, I can kill whoever I want”

Apparently, The meaning of freedom here is generalized.

The moral limits of our will must be considered.
 Converse accident
An exception is applied in a situation where the
generalization should govern.

"Since I can kill in self-defense, I must likewise be allowed to

kill in all other instances."

Killing in self-defense is the exception. Taking

away just anyone's life cannot be the general rule.
 False Dilemma
A limited number of choices given, when in fact more are available, causes
a false dilemma. If all choices are completely laid out, a complete
assessment of all possibilities can be likely.

One classic example is George W. Bush's statement, when he spoke about the
war in Iraq, "Either you are with us, or against us." Certainly, countries can take
a neutral stance on the war.
Continuation....
Another example is: "Our economy will either rise or plummet
to its doom in the coming days." This is an example of the
omission of the consideration of all other possibilities, hence
creating a really false impression or predicament. The
economy need not rise nor fall. It can retain its present status
or level. Economic stability is always a third possibility.
 Non sequitur
Non sequitur literally means, "it does not follow." This fallacy
occurs when a conclusion is given on what does not logically
follow from the premises that preceded it.

For instance, "It was raining when my wife gave birth to our first child. Our child has
always been an honor student. So you must pray for rain on the day your child will be
born." Here, the conclusion is totally incongruent to the previous idea.
 Hasty Generalization
The quantity of the sample or the amount of information at hand is too small and
thus insufficient to make a valid conclusion. Most people make judgments
although they do not have enough evidence or basis.

For example, "The first year classes of this school are always misbehaving. I bet that all
the other classes from second to fourth year also have behavioral problems."
THANK YOU!