1.

THE PLANT CELL

(STRUCTURE-FUNCTION)
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles
• A plant cell has internal membranes that partition the
cell into organelles
 The endomembrane system
• Components of membrane Structure and
membranous Organelles:
– Plasma membrane
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Peroxisome
– Vacuoles
• These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
Oreview of the major membrane compartment
and the directions of membrane trafficking
between these compartments
 (a) Màng nguyên sinh chất
Ngoài tế bào dưới kính hiển vi truyền suốt

Trong tế bào
0.1 µm
Những chuổi Carbohydrate

Vùng ưa nước

Vùng kị nước

Vùng ưa nước Phospholipid Proteins

(b) Cấu trúc màng nguyên sinh chất

• The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows
sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to
service the volume of every cell
• The general structure of a biological membrane is a
double layer of phospholipids
 More rigid structure

More fluid structure

Saturated
(No double bonds) Unsaturated
(Double bonds)
Plant membrane lipids
Plant membrane sterols
 Polar Sterol
headgroup

Fatty acids

•Amphipathic nature of glycerolipids is essential for bilayer

formation; TAGs not suitable
•Plant can’t regulate their own temperature and live under
severe environmental conditions
•-fluidity of membrane affected by the degree of fatty acid
unsaturation, sterol content
 The lipid composition of plasma
membranes is highly variable (Non-
cold/cold acclimated species)
Lipid type* Barley Barley Arabid- Spinach
root leaf opsis leaf leaf
Phospholipids 26 44 47 64
Free sterols 57 35 38 7
Steryl glucosides 7 - 5 -
Acylated steryl - - 3 13
glycosides
Glucocerebrosides 9 16 7 14
* Non-cold-aclimated species (mole %)
Cold acclimated species
Plasma membrane proteins serve a
variety of functions
• Selective permeability of plasma membrane controls
movement of solutes into and out of the cell
– Passive transport – diffusion, no energy cost to cell
– Active transport – against gradient, costs energy
• Transport protein types
– Specific binding and transport
– Selective channels
 Both diffusion and facilitated diffusion are forms of passive transport of molecules down their
concentration gradient, while active transport requires an investment of energy to move molecules
against their concentration gradient.
Passive transport
 Active transport
• Energy stored in proton gradient and
membrane potential
 Cotransport
- Transport protein couples passage of one solute to
passage of another

– +
H+ H+
– +
– + Cell accumulates
H+
H+ anions ( NO3–, for
H+ example) by
coupling their
H+ transport to the
H+ inward diffusion
H+
of H+ through a
cotransporter.
– +
– + H+
H+ – + H+
H+

(b) Cotransport of anions

Nucleus center, stores genetic
= cell’s control
information, manufactures ribosomes
Structure of the nucleus
– Enclosed by double membrane (nuclear
envelope)
• Outer nuclear membrane is continuous with
rough ER
• Space between inner and outer membranes is
continuous with lumen of rough ER
– Pores connect cytoplasm to nucleoplasm
– Nucleolus within nucleus is where ribosomal
subunits are made
 NUCLEUS

Chromatin
Two membranes
of nuclear
Nucleolus envelope

Pore

ROUGH
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM

Ribosomes
 Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER
Pore
complex
Ribosome

Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
 Figure 6.9
1 µm
Nhân
Hạch nhân

Nhiễm sắc chất

Màng nhân
Màng bên trong
Màng bên ngoài
Lỗ nhân

Mạng nội chất

nhám
Phức hợp
lỗ nhân
Bề mặt của màng nhân
Ribosome

Close-up
0.25 µm

of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
1 µm

Pore complexes (TEM)

Nuclear lamina (TEM)

 Nucleolus
• Cluster of DNA with ribosomes and
proteins
• Ribosomal subunits constructed in the
nucleolus
– Subunits must pass through nuclear pores
to reach cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nuclear pore
Inner membrane

Nuclear envelope
Cytoplasm Outer membrane
 Nuclear Envelope
• Two outer membranes (lipid bilayers)
• Pores span bilayer
Model of nuclear pore (A is top view)
• Transport in and out of nucleus
– Proteins and other molecules needed to make RNA and copy DNA
must enter the nucleus from cytoplasm where they are made
– RNAs and ribosomal subunits made in nucleus must be transported
from nucleus to cytoplasm where they will function
– Large proteins transported through nuclear pores against
concentration gradient
– Messenger RNAs transported out of nucleus against concentration
gradient
– Movement of large molecules through nuclear pores requires
energy
• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA
and protein
• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations: - In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
- On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
• There are two, albeit
connected, regions of ER
that differ in structure
and function.
– Rough ER looks rough
because ribosomes
(bound ribosomes) are
attached to the outside,
including the outside of
the nuclear envelope.
– Smooth ER looks
smooth because it lacks
ribosomes
• The rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded
to carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
• The smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes carbohydrates
– Detoxifies drugs and poisons
– Stores calcium ions
Rough ER
• Rough ER is especially abundant in those cells that
secrete proteins.
– As a polypeptide is synthesized by the ribosome, it is
threaded into the cisternal space through a pore formed by
a protein in the ER membrane.
– Many of these polypeptides are glycoproteins, a
polypeptide to which an oligosaccharide (short sugar) is
attached.
• These secretory proteins are packaged in transport
vesicles that carry them to their next stage.
• Rough ER is also a membrane factory.
– Membrane bound proteins are synthesized directly into
the membrane.
– Enzymes in the rough ER also synthesize phospholipids
from precursors in the cytosol.
– As the ER membrane expands, parts can be transferred as
transport vesicles to other components of the
endomembrane system.
Smooth ER

(1) The smooth ER is rich in enzymes and plays a role in

a variety of metabolic processes.
(2) Enzymes of smooth ER synthesize lipids, including
oils, phospholipids, and steroids.
(3) The smooth ER also catalyzes a key step in the
mobilization of glucose from stored starch in the leave.
• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus
– Modifies products of the ER
– Manufactures certain macromolecules
– Sorts and packages materials into transport
vesicles
cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 µm
Golgi apparatus)
Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus)
 Figure 6.15-1

Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

Plasma
membrane
 Figure 6.15-2

Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
 Figure 6.15-3

Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened
membranous sacs - cisternae - looking like a
sac of pita bread.
– The membrane of each cisterna separates its internal
space from the cytosol

– One side of the Golgi, the cis side, receives material

by fusing with vesicles,

– while the other side, the trans side, buds off

vesicles that travel to other sites.
• During their transit from the cis to trans pole, products
from the ER are modified to reach their final state.
– This includes modifications of the oligosaccharide portion
of glycoproteins.

• During processing material is moved from cisterna to

cisterna, each with its own set of enzymes.

• Finally, the Golgi tags, sorts, and packages materials

into transport vesicles.
• Small molecules and water enter or leave the cell
through the lipid bilayer or by transport proteins.
• Large molecules, such as polysaccharides and
proteins, cross the membrane via vesicles.
• During exocytosis, a transport vesicle budded from
the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton
to the plasma membrane.
• When the two membranes come in contact, the
bilayers fuse and spill the contents to the outside.
• During endocytosis, a cell brings in
macromolecules and particulate matter by
forming new vesicles from the plasma
membrane.
• Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis.
– A small area of the palsma membrane sinks inward
to form a pocket
– As the pocket into the plasma membrane deepens, it
pinches in, forming a vesicle containing the material
that had been outside the cell
• The vacuoles of plant cell or fungal cell may
have one or several vacuoles, derived from
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant
cells, hold organic compounds and water
• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
• Contractile vacuoles, found in many
freshwater protists, pump excess water out
of central
• A cells vacuole containing a fluid
called cell sap and bounded by the
tonoplast; and a cell wall external to the
cell membrane.
 Cytosol

Màng không bào

(Tonoplast)
Không bào
Nhân trung tâm

Vách tế bào

Lục lạp

5 µm
 The Tonoplast

= single membrane surrounding the vacuole

• Transmembrane electrochemical gradient achieved

by proton-pumping ATPase

• special transport proteins facilitate transport across

Tonoplast
 Functions of Plant Vacuoles
• Storage: organic compounds incl. Proteins

• K+ and Cl-
• hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules

• Recycle molecular components from organelles

• metabolic by-products

• pigments in petals to attract pollinators

• substances to deter herbivores, poisons

• Involved in extension growth of plants

 Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular
respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen
to generate ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities
with bacteria
– Enveloped by a double membrane
– Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
– Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in
cells
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the
endomembrane system.

• Their proteins come primarily from free ribosomes in

the cytosol and a few from their own ribosomes.

• Both organelles have small quantities of DNA that

direct the synthesis of the polypeptides produced by
these internal ribosomes.

• Mitochondria and chloroplasts grow and reproduce as

semiautonomous organelles.
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

• They have a smooth outer membrane and an
inner membrane folded into cristae
• The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial
matrix
• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes
that synthesize ATP
Organisation of the plant mitochondrial electron transfer
chain (ETC) in the inner mitochondrial membrane
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment
chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other
molecules that function in photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae
• contains green pigment chlorophyll
• pigments of other colours (red, blue,
yellow/brown)
• pigments used in photosynthesis to produce
starch and sucrose(carbohydrates)
• Usually lens-shaped
• Surrounded by double membrane
• internal membrane system arranged into
flattened sacs (=thylakoids)
• thylakoids stacked forming grana (1 granum)
• 2 compartments: thylakoid space and
stroma
• needed for photosynthesis
• depending on light conditions, chloropasts can
move within the cells
• e.g. to surface to catch more light in low light
conditions
 Ribosomes
Stroma

Inner and outer

membranes
Granum

DNA
Thylakoid Intermembrane space 1 µm
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast
 Starch
• Amylose:
– Amylose consists of a straight chain of glucose units
linked together by α (1->4) bonds.
– The Molecular weight is in the range 1000 to 500,000.
– The chains arrange themselves in the form of a helix in
which Iodine can become trapped (blue-coloured
complex)
• Amylopectin:
– As well as α (1->4) linked chains this contains branch
points consisting of α (1->6) bonds.
– There is one branch for every 30 sugars approx. This is
a low degree of branching.
• Starch granules contain amylose + amylopectin
• Important source of energy in food
– Cereals (wheat, rice, maize, barley etc)
– Potatoes
• Physical properties of starch grains have
important impact on food quality
– Loss of water from starch grains causes starch
molecules to bond to one another – causes
staling of bread etc
– When boiled in water starch granules in
potatoes burst but those from cereals do not
• compare overcooked potatoes with overcooked
spaghetti
 Plastids
 Plastids: A group of plant and algal membrane-
bound organelles that include amyloplasts,
chromoplasts and chloroplasts.
 Amyloplasts : (Amylo= starch) colorless plastids that
store starch; found in roots and tubers.
 Chromoplasts : (chromo=color) plastids containing
pigments other than chlorophyll; responsible for the
orange and yellow color of fruits, flowers and autumn
leaves.
 Chloroplasts: (Chloro= green) Chlorophyll-containing
plastids which are the sites of photosynthesis . Found
in eukaryotic algae, leaves and other green plant
organs
Etioplasts
Chloroplasts
 Amyloplasts

• Site of accumulation of starch (a storage

polysaccharide)
– Main storage material in most plants eg in seeds
such as cereals and tubers eg potato.
– Also found as a temporary store in leaves
during photosynthesis.
• Accumulates during daylight (made faster than can
be exported from leaves)
• Declines during darkness - converted to sucrose
which moves via the phloem to other parts of the
plant – used for respiration and biosynthesis or
converted to starch in storage organs
Những hạt tinh bột trong Hạt tinh bột trong củ khoai tây
những tế bào thực vật
 Chromoplasts
• Chromoplasts contain pigments
– Usually red, orange or yellow
– Found in flower petals and fruits (eg red tomato
fruit colour)
– Help to attract pollinating insects etc
– In ripening fruits may develop from green
chloroplasts
Chromoplasts contain
red pigments in the petals
of this Begonia flower
 Microbodies

• single membrane-bound compartments for

specific metabolic pathways
Peroxisomes generate and degrade H2O2 in
performing various metabolic functions

• Peroxisomes contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen

from various substrates to oxygen
(1) An intermediate product of this process is hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), a poison, but the peroxisome has another
enzyme that converts H2O2 to water.

(2) Some peroxisomes break fatty acids down to smaller

molecules that are transported to mitochondria for fuel.

(3) Others detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds.

 1 µm
Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
 Photorespiration is initiated when RUBISCO
acts as an oxygenase instead of a carboxylase:

Calvin cycle

Photorespiration

The phosphoglycolate is
“recycled” to produce more
3PGA, consuming energy and releasing more CO2
 Glyoxysomes
=special type of peroxisome in plant cells
• Common in fat-storing tissue of
germinating seeds
• Contain enzymes that initiate conversion of
fat to sugar
• Seeds contain oils - sugar means energy!
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers
extending throughout the cytoplasm
• It organizes the cell’s structures and
activities, anchoring many organelles
• It is composed of three types of molecular
structures
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm
in diameter and about 200 nm to 25
microns long
• Functions of microtubules
– Shaping the cell
– Guiding movement of organelles
– Separating chromosomes during cell division
Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing
center”
 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in
diameter, built as a twisted double chain of actin
subunits
• The structural role of microfilaments is to bear
tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell
• They form a 3-D network called the cortex just inside
the plasma membrane to help support the cell’s shape
• Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells
• Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm
within cells
• This streaming speeds distribution of materials within
the cell
In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel
transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming
 Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments range in diameter from 8–12
nanometers, larger than microfilaments but smaller
than microtubules
• They support cell shape and fix organelles in place
• Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes
 Cell Walls of Plants
• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that
distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have
cell walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
wood is mostly cellulose plant cell with cell wall close-up of cell wall

1 micrometer 1 micrometer

CH2OH H OH CH2OH H OH
O O
H H H
H O OH H H O OH H H
O OH H H O OH H H O
H H H H
O O individual bundle of cellulose fiber
HH OH CH2OH H OH CH2OH cellulose cellulose
molecules molecules
• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers
– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and
flexible
– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary
walls of adjacent cells
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added
between the plasma membrane and the
primary cell wall
• The primary cell wall is secreted as the cell
grows.
• Some cells have secondary walls which
develop after a cell stops growing
 Formation
• Sugar: building blocks of the cell wall
- The monosaccharides in cell wall polymers
are derived from glucose
- Polymers of specific sugars are further
defined by their linkage type and the
configuration of the anomeric carbon
- Carbohydrate structures offer great
functional flexibility
 Formation
• Macromolecules of the cell wall

- Cellulose is the principal scaffolding component of all

plant cell walls
- Cross-linking glycans (hemicellulose) interlock the
cellulosic scaffold
- Pectin matrix polymers are rich in galacturonic acid.
- Structural proteins of the cell wall are encoded by large
multigene families.
- Aromatic substances are present in the nonlignified
walls of commelinoid species (bromeliads, palms,
gingers, cypresses, grasses)
Cellulose
Cellulose structures
Hemicellulose (cross-linking glycans)
Xyloglucans (XyG)
Hemicellulose (cross-linking glycans):
(Fucogalacto)Xyloglucans: fgXyG
Hemicellulose (cross-linking glycans):
(Arabino)xyloglucans: AXyG
Hemicellulose (cross-linking glycans):
Glucuronoarabinoxylans: GAX- Dicot
Hemicellulose (cross-linking glycans):
Glucuronoarabinoxylans: GAX-Commelinoid
Mixed-linkage glucan, important in cereals
(1->3),(1->4)β-D-glucans (β-glucans)
Pectin matrix polymers are rich in
galacturonic acid
More complex, RG-type pectins, RG I
More complex, RG-type pectins, RG II
Calcium
 Silicon C N
Si P

Fibrillar Silica deposits in cell wall in internodes of Equisetum

Bis (cytopentadienyl) titanium dichloride staining

Si forms single bonds—

OH OH OH
| | |
Silicate Si- O - Si – O – Si – O –
| | |
OH OH OH
Principal axis
Silicones are substituted with –CH3

Silicon is taken from the soil as silicic acid (Si(OH)4) and appears to be irreversibly immobilized.
In cell walls the form is as amorphous silica gel (opaline silica) SiO2 . nH2O

Grasses are particularly enriched in Si.

Plants contain 0.1 to 10% Si on a dry weight basis

Silicon is thought to be organically bound in silanolate (ester)- possible bridging polysaccharides – viz.

R’ – O – Si – O – R’’ or R’ – O – Si – O – Si – O – R’’
 Structural proteins of the cell wall are
encoded by large multigene families.

 Hydroxyl proline rich glycopeptides

(HRGP) -extensin
 Proline rich proteins (PRP)
 Glycine rich proteins (GRP) –lacks
significant glycosylation and Hyp.
 Also found are many chimeric proteins
that contain extensin domains with
domains of other wall proteins.
 wall

AGP

membrane
glycosylphosphatidylinositol
 Cell wall architecture
-The primary wall consists of structural
networks.
- Walls of angiosperms are arranged in two
distinct types of architecture.
- Polymers remain soluble until they can be
cross-linked at the cell surface.
 Major Primary Cell Wall Constituents
•Polysaccharides:
-Cellulose
-Matrix Polysaccharides
-hemicellulose (XyGs, GAXs)
-pectins
•Proteins
-Structural Proteins
-arabinogalactans
-extensins
-Enzymatic
-expansins
-pectin methylesterase
-XETs
 Type I vs. Type II walls
• Type I most common wall composition
– Monocot and dicot
– XyGs primary cross-linking polysaccharide
– Pectin rich
• Type II walls are only found in grasses (Poales)
– GAX and mixed-linkage (MG) (1-3),(1-4)βglucans
– Low in pectin
 Major Cross-linking glycans

• Xyloglucan
– Type I walls
• Glucuronoarabinoxylan (GAX)
– Type II walls
• “mixed-linkage” (1→3)(1→ 4)β-D-glucan
– Grasses
Plant cell walls consist of several distinct networks
Arabidopsis Cell Wall Composition -leaves
-Type I wall

• 14% Cellulose
• 20% Xyloglucan
• 4% Glucuroarabinoxylan (GAX)
• 23% Homo(poly)galacturonan
• 11% rhamnogalacturonan I (RGI)
• 8% rhamnogalacturonan II (RGII)
• 14% Protein

Zablackis E. et al (1995) Characterization of the cell wall polysaccharides of

Arabidopsis thaliana leaves. Plant Physiol 107, 1129-1138
 Cell wall biosynthesis and assembly
- Cell walls are born in the developing cell plate
- Golgi-localized enzymes interconvert the
nucleotide sugars, which serve as substrates for
polysaccharide synthesis.
- Membrane fractions enriched for Golgi
membranes can synthesize many noncellulosic
polysaccharides in vitro.
- Cellulose microfibrils are assembled at the
plasma membrane surface.
Sites of synthesis of cell wall components within plant cells
Biosynthesis of some cell wall polysaccharides occurs in
the Golgi
Topology of the plant Golgi apparatus

G.F. Zhang & L.A. Staehelin (1992) Plant Physiol. 99: 1070-1083
Synthesis of xyloglucan and pectic polysaccharides
in plant Golgi
XG RG
UDP-glucose can serve as a precursor for many of the activated sugars used in
synthesis of wall carbohydrates. These metabolic steps occur in the cytoplasm.
 Growth and Cell differentiation
- The cell wall is a dynamic structure.
- Most plant cells grow by uniform deposition of cell wall materials, whereas
some demonstrate tip growth.
- The multinet growth hypothesis has been developed to explain axial (truïc)
displacement of cellulose microfibrils during growth of the cell wall.
- The acid-growth hypothesis postulates that auxin-dependent acidification of
the cell wall promotes wall extensibility and cell growth.
- At present, two kinds of enzymes are being evaluated as having possible
wall-loosening activities.
- In Type I walls, cell growth is associated with subtle biochemical changes in
the pectin network.
- More obvious biochemical changes occur in growing Type II walls than in
Type I walls.
- Once growth has ceased, cell wall shape must be locked in place by wall
components.
 Wall synthesis and wall thickness the
inner cellulose microfibrils are displaced
longitudinally during the extension
process (Fig 2.33).

Hydrostatic force and tensile forces

Multinet growth hypothesis

Figure 2.35
Orientation of cellulose microfibrils constrains direction of
expansion of plant cells

“Slinky” model” Cell wall consists of

multiple layers of “slinkys”
Action of loosening enzyme(s) results
in increasing “slack” in the tethers that
cross-link cellulose microfibrils

Turgor pressure inside cell forces

microfibrils to separate

Expansion continues until the tethers

are again “stretched” to their fullest
extent
XET (Xyloglucan endotransglycosylase)
Plant cells can expand to a remarkable extent (~1000 X)

Cell expansion Fruit ripening

Rose & Bennett (1999) Trends Plant Sci. 4: 176-183

Hormonal regulation of cell wall expansion and modification

Rose & Bennett (1999) Trends Plant Sci. 4: 176-183

 Cell Wall - Functions
• Cell adhesion, protection and support
• barrier against pathogens and deters herbivores
• dynamic nature of cell wall allows expansion and
plant growth
• determines morphology
• communication between cells through
plasmodesmata
• exchange of selected molecules and fluids
• Secondary cell wall may contain lignin for
greater support
• unique cell wall adaptations: function and
environment
 Plasmodesmata
• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems
often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct
physical contact
• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell
walls
• The protoplasts of neighboring cells are generally
connected by plasmodesmata, cytoplasmic channels
that pass through pores in the walls.
– The endoplasmic reticulum is continuous through the
plasmodesmata in structures called desmotubules.
• Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and
sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell
 Plasmodesmata cont.
• Types of transport
– Symplastic
• Through the plasmodesmata
– Apoplastic
• Through the cell wall
• Size exclusion limits
• Symplastic domains
– Although all cells connected by plasmodesmata, some
closed
APOPLAST SYMPLAST
 Lignin
 Second most abundant biopolymer on earth (after cellulose)
 Deposition occurs only in secondary walls after growth ends
 Very rigid and highly insoluble
Structural and biochemical studies VERY difficult
 Composed of phenolic building blocks
 Composition depends on plant
Gymnosperms (coniferyl alcohol)
Angiosperms (coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols)
Crosslinked Lignin monomers
Putative partial structure of spruce lignin
Cell wall and lignin interaction
A comparison of prokaryotic, animal and plant cells
 1.PLANT CELL: APPLICATIONS

Plant organes Plant cell wall Plant cells

1A1.Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles
Comparison of extracellular vesicle secretion in
mammalian cells and plant cells.
-Mammalian EVs including apoptotic bodies,
microvesicles, and exosomes are secreted in the
extracellular medium.
-Plant-Derived Evs (PDEVs) are also secreted in the
extracellular medium (the apoplast). Exosomes are
secreted by fusion of MVBs with the PM, EXPO
vesicles are also secreted by fusion with the PM
while microvesicles and apoptotic bodies are
released through budding of the PM.
EE: Early Endosome; ER: Endoplasmic Reticulum; ILVs:
Intraluminal Vesicles; LE: Late Endosome; LPVC: Late Pre-vacuolar
Compartment; MVB: Multivesicular Body; PM: Plasma Membrane;
TGN: Trans Golgi Network; (proportions of organelle sizes not
conserved).
The physiological roles of plant-derived extracellular vesicles. The
main functions of PDEVs are (i) response to fungi infection; (ii) cell-
cell communication; (iii) cell wall remodeling. EV, extracellular
vesicle; MVB, multivesicular body; sRNA, short RNA, mRNA,
messenger RNA
Schematic representation of PDEVs content
Extracellular cellular (EVs) biogenesis in plant cells
 Schematic representation, composition, and biological roles of plant-derived
vesicles. Plant vesicles are roundshaped nano and microstructures containing a
vast array of proteins, nucleic acids (mRNAs, miRNAs, and other types of short
RNAs), and secondary metabolites surrounded by a lipid bilayer with membrane
proteins, channels, ligands, and receptors.
Overview structure and generalized composition of plant-
derived extracellular vesicles (P-EVs). P-Evs contain
various biomolecules in their lumen and surface
Isolation strategies and classification of plant-derived nano and microvesicles (PDVs).
Overview of isolation methods and main types of plant vesicles (general plant-derived
vesicles, apoplastic vesicles, and root-released vesicles) based on the plant source from which
they derive (fruits or rhizomes, seedlings or seeds, and roots). Plant vesicles could be is lated
trough differential ultracentrifugation steps and associated gradient purifications
APPLICATION OF PLANT-DERIVED EVs
Bioengineering approaches to increase efficacy of plant-derived vesicles for therapeutic
purposes. Schematic representation on current strategies and possible approaches for
surface-functionalization and loading of extracellular vesicles. (a) Potential receptor
binding ligands may target PDVs to specific cell population. (b) Electroporation to load
miRNA and siRNA in PDVs. (c) Passive loading of bioactive molecules in PDVs. N
indicates the nucleus
Plant-derived EVs and nanovectors made with their
lipids represent promising drug delivery systems
The biological properties of plant-derived EVs
Oral route of extracellular vesicle (EV) delivery
could induce local and distant biological effects
A schematic view for the uptake of plant-derived
extracellular vesicles into the human body
1A 2.Lignocellulosic biomass
Caterogies of biomass residue
Conversion of Lignocellulosic biomass
Conversion of biomass into value-added products
Lignocellulosic biomass: sources, extraction processes,
and cellulose structure
Hemicelluloses: Source from hardwoods, general structure,
extraction routes, and derivatives mechanisms
Lignin: structure and extraction processes at different scales
Conversion of biomass into bioactive oligosaccharides
Conversion of biomass into biomaterials
(Cellulose Nano Crystals:CNCs)
The process of cellulose nanocrystals extraction
1A 3.Plant cell culture
Options for production of molecular farming products
Overview of bioreactors used for cell cultivation
Tissue culture-organ culture and plant cell culture
Production of secondary metabolites using tissue culture
The effects of elicitors and stress signal on the cell wall and the subsequent
production of secondary metabolites in plant cell culture
Influence of Salinity on In Vitro Production of Terpene
Influence of MeJA on Production of secondary
metabolites in medicinal plants
Cultured plant cells application in food system
Oreview of artificial meat
Oreview in vitro meat production
Plant based growth medium for cell meat
Biomaterials used for scaffold formation and
their associated advantages