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Color
Color (American English) or colour (British and
Commonwealth English) is the visual perception
based on the electromagnetic spectrum. Though
color is not an inherent property of matter, color
perception is related to an object's light absorption,
reflection, emission spectra, and interference. For
most humans, colors are perceived in the visible
light spectrum with three types of cone cells
(trichromacy). Other animals may have a different
number of cone cell types or have eyes sensitive to
different wavelengths, such as bees that can Colored pencils
distinguish ultraviolet, and thus have a different
color sensitivity range. Animal perception of color
originates from different light wavelength or spectral sensitivity in cone cell types, which is then
processed by the brain.

Colors have perceived properties such as hue, colorfulness (saturation), and luminance. Colors can
also be additively mixed (commonly used for actual light) or subtractively mixed (commonly used
for materials). If the colors are mixed in the right proportions, because of metamerism, they may
look the same as a single-wavelength light. For convenience, colors can be organized in a color
space, which when being abstracted as a mathematical color model can assign each region of color
with a corresponding set of numbers. As such, color spaces are an essential tool for color
reproduction in print, photography, computer monitors, and television. The most well-known
color models are RGB, CMYK, YUV, HSL, and HSV.

Because the perception of color is an important aspect of human life, different colors have been
associated with emotions, activity, and nationality. Names of color regions in different cultures can
have different, sometimes overlapping areas. In visual arts, color theory is used to govern the use
of colors in an aesthetically pleasing and harmonious way. The theory of color includes the color
complements; color balance; and classification of primary colors (traditionally red, yellow, blue),
secondary colors (traditionally orange, green, purple), and tertiary colors. The study of colors in
general is called color science.

Physical properties

The visible spectrum perceived from 390 to 710 nm wavelength

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Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength (or frequency) and its intensity. When
the wavelength is within the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive,
approximately from 390 nm to 700 nm), it is known as "visible light".[1]

Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's spectrum is a distribution
giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a
given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, there are many more possible
spectral combinations than color sensations. In fact, one may formally define a color as a class of
spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes would vary widely among
different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species. In each such
class, the members are called metamers of the color in question. This effect can be visualized by
comparing the light sources' spectral power distributions and the resulting colors.

Spectral colors
The familiar colors of the rainbow in the spectrum—named using the Latin word for appearance or
apparition by Isaac Newton in 1671—include all those colors that can be produced by visible light
of a single wavelength only, the pure spectral or monochromatic colors. The spectrum above
shows approximate wavelengths (in nm) for spectral colors in the visible range. Spectral colors
have 100% purity, and are fully saturated. A complex mixture of spectral colors can be used to
describe any color, which is the definition of a light power spectrum.

The spectral colors form a continuous spectrum, and how it is divided into distinct colors
linguistically is a matter of culture and historical contingency.[2] Despite the ubiquitous ROYGBIV
mnemonic used to remember the spectral colors in English, the inclusion or exclusion of colors is
contentious, with disagreement often focused on indigo and cyan.[3] Even if the subset of color
terms is agreed, their wavelength ranges and borders between them may not be.

The intensity of a spectral color, relative to the context in which it is viewed, may alter its
perception considerably. For example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is brown, and a low-intensity
yellow-green is olive green. Additionally, hue shifts towards yellow or blue happen if the intensity
of a spectral light is increased; this is called Bezold–Brücke shift. In color models capable of
representing spectral colors,[4] such as CIELUV, a spectral color has the maximal saturation. In
Helmholtz coordinates, this is described as 100% purity.

Color of objects
The physical color of an object depends on how it absorbs and scatters light. Most objects scatter
light to some degree and do not reflect or transmit light specularly like glasses or mirrors. A
transparent object allows almost all light to transmit or pass through, thus transparent objects are
perceived as colorless. Conversely, an opaque object does not allow light to transmit through and

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instead absorbs or reflects the light it receives. Like transparent objects, translucent objects allow
light to transmit through, but translucent objects are seen colored because they scatter or absorb
certain wavelengths of light via internal scattering. The absorbed light is often dissipated as heat.[5]

Color vision

Development of theories of color vision

Although Aristotle and other ancient scientists had already
written on the nature of light and color vision, it was not
until Newton that light was identified as the source of the
color sensation. In 1810, Goethe published his
comprehensive Theory of Colors in which he provided a
rational description of color experience, which 'tells us how
it originates, not what it is'. (Schopenhauer)

In 1801 Thomas Young proposed his trichromatic theory,

based on the observation that any color could be matched
with a combination of three lights. This theory was later The upper disk and the lower disk have
exactly the same objective color, and are
refined by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von
in identical gray surroundings; based on
Helmholtz. As Helmholtz puts it, "the principles of context differences, humans perceive the
Newton's law of mixture were experimentally confirmed by squares as having different reflectances,
Maxwell in 1856. Young's theory of color sensations, like so and may interpret the colors as different
much else that this marvelous investigator achieved in color categories; see checker shadow
advance of his time, remained unnoticed until Maxwell illusion
directed attention to it."[6]

At the same time as Helmholtz, Ewald Hering developed the opponent process theory of color,
noting that color blindness and afterimages typically come in opponent pairs (red-green, blue-
orange, yellow-violet, and black-white). Ultimately these two theories were synthesized in 1957 by
Hurvich and Jameson, who showed that retinal processing corresponds to the trichromatic theory,
while processing at the level of the lateral geniculate nucleus corresponds to the opponent
theory.[7]

In 1931, an international group of experts known as the Commission internationale de l'éclairage

(CIE) developed a mathematical color model, which mapped out the space of observable colors and
assigned a set of three numbers to each.

Color in the eye

The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different
cells in the retina to light of different wavelengths. Humans are trichromatic—the retina contains
three types of color receptor cells, or cones. One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most
responsive to light that is perceived as blue or blue-violet, with wavelengths around 450 nm; cones
of this type are sometimes called short-wavelength cones or S cones (or misleadingly, blue cones).
The other two types are closely related genetically and chemically: middle-wavelength cones, M

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cones, or green cones are most sensitive to light perceived

as green, with wavelengths around 540 nm, while the
long-wavelength cones, L cones, or red cones, are most
sensitive to light that is perceived as greenish yellow, with
wavelengths around 570 nm.

Light, no matter how complex its composition of

wavelengths, is reduced to three color components by the
eye. Each cone type adheres to the principle of
univariance, which is that each cone's output is
determined by the amount of light that falls on it over all Normalized typical human cone cell
wavelengths. For each location in the visual field, the responses (S, M, and L types) to
three types of cones yield three signals based on the monochromatic spectral stimuli
extent to which each is stimulated. These amounts of
stimulation are sometimes called tristimulus values.[8]

The response curve as a function of wavelength varies for each type of cone. Because the curves
overlap, some tristimulus values do not occur for any incoming light combination. For example, it
is not possible to stimulate only the mid-wavelength (so-called "green") cones; the other cones will
inevitably be stimulated to some degree at the same time. The set of all possible tristimulus values
determines the human color space. It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10
million different colors.[9]

The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod, has a different response curve. In normal
situations, when light is bright enough to strongly stimulate the cones, rods play virtually no role in
vision at all.[10] On the other hand, in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the
signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response (furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive to
light in the "red" range). In certain conditions of intermediate illumination, the rod response and a
weak cone response can together result in color discriminations not accounted for by cone
responses alone. These effects, combined, are summarized also in the Kruithof curve, which
describes the change of color perception and pleasingness of light as a function of temperature and
intensity.

Color in the brain

While the mechanisms of color vision at the level of the retina are well-described in terms of
tristimulus values, color processing after that point is organized differently. A dominant theory of
color vision proposes that color information is transmitted out of the eye by three opponent
processes, or opponent channels, each constructed from the raw output of the cones: a red–green
channel, a blue–yellow channel, and a black–white "luminance" channel. This theory has been
supported by neurobiology, and accounts for the structure of our subjective color experience.
Specifically, it explains why humans cannot perceive a "reddish green" or "yellowish blue", and it
predicts the color wheel: it is the collection of colors for which at least one of the two color
channels measures a value at one of its extremes.

The exact nature of color perception beyond the processing already described, and indeed the
status of color as a feature of the perceived world or rather as a feature of our perception of the
world—a type of qualia—is a matter of complex and continuing philosophical dispute.

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From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in

the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are
most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin
stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme
cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are
interstripes and thick stripes, which seem to be
concerned with other visual information like motion
and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then
synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area
includes not only V4, but two other areas in the
posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral
the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and stream (purple) are shown; the ventral stream
posterior TEO. [11][12] Area V4 was initially suggested is responsible for color perception

by Semir Zeki to be exclusively dedicated to color,[13]

and he later showed that V4 can be subdivided into subregions with very high concentrations of
color cells separated from each other by zones with lower concentration of such cells though even
the latter cells respond better to some wavelengths than to others,[14] a finding confirmed by
subsequent studies.[11][15][16] The presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that
V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color[17] but it is worth noting
that the orientation selective cells within V4 are more broadly tuned than their counterparts in V1,
V2, and V3.[14] Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules
called globs.[11][12] This is the part of the brain in which color is first processed into the full range of
hues found in color space.[18][11][12]

Nonstandard color perception

Color vision deficiency

A color vision deficiency causes an individual to perceive a smaller gamut of colors than the
standard observer with normal color vision. The effect can be mild, having lower "color resolution"
(i.e. anomalous trichromacy), moderate, lacking an entire dimension or channel of color (e.g.
dichromacy), or complete, lacking all color perception (i.e. monochromacy). Most forms of color
blindness derive from one or more of the three classes of cone cells either being missing, having a
shifted spectral sensitivity or having lower responsiveness to incoming light. In addition, cerebral
achromatopsia is caused by neural anomalies in those parts of the brain where visual processing
takes place.

Some colors that appear distinct to an individual with normal color vision will appear metameric to
the color blind. The most common form of color blindness is congenital red–green color blindness,
affecting ~8% of males. Individuals with the strongest form of this condition (dichromacy) will
experience blue and purple, green and yellow, teal, and gray as colors of confusion, i.e.
metamers.[19]

Tetrachromacy
Outside of humans, which are mostly trichromatic (having three types of cones), most mammals
are dichromatic, possessing only two cones. However, outside of mammals, most vertebrates are
tetrachromatic, having four types of cones. This includes most birds,[20][21][22] reptiles,
amphibians, and bony fish.[23][24] An extra dimension of color vision means these vertebrates can
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see two distinct colors that a normal human would view as metamers. Some invertebrates, such as
the mantis shrimp, have an even higher number of cones (12) that could lead to a richer color
gamut than even imaginable by humans.

The existence of human tetrachromats is a contentious notion. As many as half of all human
females have 4 distinct cone classes, which could enable tetrachromacy.[25] However, a distinction
must be made between retinal (or weak) tetrachromats, which express four cone classes in the
retina, and functional (or strong) tetrachromats, which are able to make the enhanced color
discriminations expected of tetrachromats. In fact, there is only one peer-reviewed report of a
functional tetrachromat.[26] It is estimated that while the average person is able to see one million
colors, someone with functional tetrachromacy could see a hundred million colors.[27]

Synesthesia
In certain forms of synesthesia, perceiving letters and numbers (grapheme–color synesthesia) or
hearing sounds (chromesthesia) will evoke a perception of color. Behavioral and functional
neuroimaging experiments have demonstrated that these color experiences lead to changes in
behavioral tasks and lead to increased activation of brain regions involved in color perception, thus
demonstrating their reality, and similarity to real color percepts, albeit evoked through a non-
standard route. Synesthesia can occur genetically, with 4% of the population having variants
associated with the condition. Synesthesia has also been known to occur with brain damage, drugs,
and sensory deprivation.[28]

The philosopher Pythagoras experienced synesthesia and provided one of the first written accounts
of the condition in approximately 550 BCE. He created mathematical equations for musical notes
that could form part of a scale, such as an octave.[29]

Afterimages
After exposure to strong light in their sensitivity range, photoreceptors of a given type become
desensitized.[30][31] For a few seconds after the light ceases, they will continue to signal less
strongly than they otherwise would. Colors observed during that period will appear to lack the
color component detected by the desensitized photoreceptors. This effect is responsible for the
phenomenon of afterimages, in which the eye may continue to see a bright figure after looking
away from it, but in a complementary color. Afterimage effects have also been used by artists,
including Vincent van Gogh.

Color constancy
When an artist uses a limited color palette, the human visual system tends to compensate by seeing
any gray or neutral color as the color which is missing from the color wheel. For example, in a
limited palette consisting of red, yellow, black, and white, a mixture of yellow and black will appear
as a variety of green, a mixture of red and black will appear as a variety of purple, and pure gray
will appear bluish.[32]

The trichromatic theory is strictly true when the visual system is in a fixed state of adaptation.[33]
In reality, the visual system is constantly adapting to changes in the environment and compares
the various colors in a scene to reduce the effects of the illumination. If a scene is illuminated with

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one light, and then with another, as long as the difference between the light sources stays within a
reasonable range, the colors in the scene appear relatively constant to us. This was studied by
Edwin H. Land in the 1970s and led to his retinex theory of color constancy.[34][35]

Both phenomena are readily explained and mathematically modeled with modern theories of
chromatic adaptation and color appearance (e.g. CIECAM02, iCAM).[36] There is no need to
dismiss the trichromatic theory of vision, but rather it can be enhanced with an understanding of
how the visual system adapts to changes in the viewing environment.

Reproduction
Color reproduction is the science of creating colors for
the human eye that faithfully represent the desired
color. It focuses on how to construct a spectrum of
wavelengths that will best evoke a certain color in an
observer. Most colors are not spectral colors, meaning
they are mixtures of various wavelengths of light.
However, these non-spectral colors are often described
by their dominant wavelength, which identifies the
single wavelength of light that produces a sensation
most similar to the non-spectral color. Dominant
wavelength is roughly akin to hue.

There are many color perceptions that by definition

cannot be pure spectral colors due to desaturation or
because they are purples (mixtures of red and violet
light, from opposite ends of the spectrum). Some
The CIE 1931 color space xy chromaticity
examples of necessarily non-spectral colors are the diagram with the visual locus plotted using the
achromatic colors (black, gray, and white) and colors CIE (2006) physiologically relevant LMS
such as pink, tan, and magenta. fundamental color matching functions
transformed into the CIE 1931 xy color space
Two different light spectra that have the same effect on and converted into Adobe RGB; the triangle
the three color receptors in the human eye will be shows the gamut of Adobe RGB, the
perceived as the same color. They are metamers of that Planckian locus is shown with color
temperatures labeled in Kelvins, the outer
color. This is exemplified by the white light emitted by
curved boundary is the spectral (or
fluorescent lamps, which typically has a spectrum of a
monochromatic) locus, with wavelengths
few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous shown in nanometers, the colors in this file are
spectrum. The human eye cannot tell the difference being specified using Adobe RGB, areas
between such light spectra just by looking into the outside the triangle cannot be accurately
light source, although the color rendering index of rendered since they are outside the gamut of
each light source may affect the color of objects Adobe RGB, therefore they have been
illuminated by these metameric light sources. interpreted, the colors depicted depend on the
gamut and color accuracy of your display
Similarly, most human color perceptions can be
generated by a mixture of three colors called
primaries. This is used to reproduce color scenes in photography, printing, television, and other
media. There are a number of methods or color spaces for specifying a color in terms of three
particular primary colors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the
particular application.
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No mixture of colors, however, can produce a response truly identical to that of a spectral color,
although one can get close, especially for the longer wavelengths, where the CIE 1931 color space
chromaticity diagram has a nearly straight edge. For example, mixing green light (530 nm) and
blue light (460 nm) produces cyan light that is slightly desaturated, because response of the red
color receptor would be greater to the green and blue light in the mixture than it would be to a pure
cyan light at 485 nm that has the same intensity as the mixture of blue and green.

Because of this, and because the primaries in color printing systems generally are not pure
themselves, the colors reproduced are never perfectly saturated spectral colors, and so spectral
colors cannot be matched exactly. However, natural scenes rarely contain fully saturated colors,
thus such scenes can usually be approximated well by these systems. The range of colors that can
be reproduced with a given color reproduction system is called the gamut. The CIE chromaticity
diagram can be used to describe the gamut.

Another problem with color reproduction systems is connected with the initial measurement of
color, or colorimetry. The characteristics of the color sensors in measurement devices (e.g.
cameras, scanners) are often very far from the characteristics of the receptors in the human eye.

A color reproduction system "tuned" to a human with normal color vision may give very inaccurate
results for other observers, according to color vision deviations to the standard observer.

The different color response of different devices can be problematic if not properly managed. For
color information stored and transferred in digital form, color management techniques, such as
those based on ICC profiles, can help to avoid distortions of the reproduced colors. Color
management does not circumvent the gamut limitations of particular output devices, but can assist
in finding good mapping of input colors into the gamut that can be reproduced.

Additive coloring
Additive color is light created by mixing together light of two or
more different colors.[37][38] Red, green, and blue are the
additive primary colors normally used in additive color systems
such as projectors, televisions, and computer terminals.

Subtractive coloring
Subtractive coloring uses dyes, inks, pigments, or filters to
absorb some wavelengths of light and not others.[39] The color
that a surface displays comes from the parts of the visible
spectrum that are not absorbed and therefore remain visible.
Without pigments or dye, fabric fibers, paint base and paper Additive color mixing: combining red
and green yields yellow; combining
are usually made of particles that scatter white light (all colors)
all three primary colors together
well in all directions. When a pigment or ink is added, yields white
wavelengths are absorbed or "subtracted" from white light, so
light of another color reaches the eye.

If the light is not a pure white source (the case of nearly all forms of artificial lighting), the
resulting spectrum will appear a slightly different color. Red paint, viewed under blue light, may
appear black. Red paint is red because it scatters only the red components of the spectrum. If red

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paint is illuminated by blue light, it will be absorbed by the red

paint, creating the appearance of a black object.

The subtractive model also predicts the color resulting from a

mixture of paints, or similar medium such as fabric dye,
whether applied in layers or mixed together prior to
application. In the case of paint mixed before application,
incident light interacts with many different pigment particles at
various depths inside the paint layer before emerging.[40]

Structural color
Subtractive color mixing: combining
Structural colors are colors caused by interference effects yellow and magenta yields red;
rather than by pigments. Color effects are produced when a combining all three primary colors
material is scored with fine parallel lines, formed of one or together yields black
more parallel thin layers, or otherwise composed of
microstructures on the scale of the color's wavelength. If the
microstructures are spaced randomly, light of shorter
wavelengths will be scattered preferentially to produce Tyndall
effect colors: the blue of the sky (Rayleigh scattering, caused by
structures much smaller than the wavelength of light, in this
case, air molecules), the luster of opals, and the blue of human
irises. If the microstructures are aligned in arrays, for example,
the array of pits in a CD, they behave as a diffraction grating:
the grating reflects different wavelengths in different directions
due to interference phenomena, separating mixed "white" light
into light of different wavelengths. If the structure is one or
more thin layers then it will reflect some wavelengths and Twelve main pigment colors
transmit others, depending on the layers' thickness.

Structural color is studied in the field of thin-film optics. The most ordered or the most changeable
structural colors are iridescent. Structural color is responsible for the blues and greens of the
feathers of many birds (the blue jay, for example), as well as certain butterfly wings and beetle
shells. Variations in the pattern's spacing often give rise to an iridescent effect, as seen in peacock
feathers, soap bubbles, films of oil, and mother of pearl, because the reflected color depends upon
the viewing angle. Numerous scientists have carried out research in butterfly wings and beetle
shells, including Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke. Since 1942, electron micrography has been
used, advancing the development of products that exploit structural color, such as "photonic"
cosmetics.[41]

Optimal colors
The gamut of the human color vision is bounded by optimal colors. They are the most chromatic
colors that humans are able to see.

The emission or reflectance spectrum of a color is the amount of light of each wavelength that it
emits or reflects, in proportion to a given maximum, which has the value of 1 (100%). If the
emission or reflectance spectrum of a color is either 0 (0%) or 1 (100%) across the entire visible

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spectrum, and it has no more than two transitions between 0 and 1, or 1 and 0, then it is an optimal
color. With the current state of technology, we are unable to produce any material or pigment with
these properties.[42]

Thus, four types of "optimal color" spectra are possible: In the first, the transition goes from 0 at
both ends of the spectrum to 1 in the middle, as shown in the image at right. In the second, it goes
from 1 at the ends to 0 in the middle. In the third type, it starts at 1 at the red end of the spectrum,
and it changes to 0 at a given wavelength. In the fourth type, it starts at 0 in the red end of the
spectrum, and it changes to 1 at a given wavelength. The first type produces colors that are similar
to the spectral colors and follow roughly the horseshoe-shaped portion of the CIE xy chromaticity
diagram (the spectral locus), but are generally more chromatic, although less spectrally pure. The
second type produces colors that are similar to (but generally more chromatic and less spectrally
pure than) the colors on the straight line in the CIE xy chromaticity diagram (the "line of purples"),
leading to magenta or purple-like colors. The third type produces the colors located in the "warm"
sharp edge of the optimal color solid (this will be explained later in the article). The fourth type
produces the colors located in the "cold" sharp edge of the optimal color solid.

The optimal color solid, Rösch–MacAdam color solid, or

simply visible gamut, is a type of color solid that
contains all the colors that humans are able to see. The
optimal color solid is bounded by the set of all optimal
colors.[44]
Spectrum of a color-optimal reflective
In optimal color solids, the colors of the visible spectrum
material. There is no known material with
are theoretically black, because their emission or these properties, they are, for what we
reflection spectrum is 1 (100%) in only one wavelength, know, only theoretical[43]
and 0 in all of the other infinite visible wavelengths that
there are, meaning that they have a lightness of 0 with
respect to white, and will also have 0 chroma, but, of course, 100% of spectral purity. In short: In
optimal color solids, spectral colors are equivalent to black (0% lightness, 0 chroma), but have full
spectral purity (they are located in the horseshoe-shaped spectral locus of the chromaticiy
diagram).[43]

In linear color spaces that contain all colors visible by humans, such as LMS or CIE 1931 XYZ, the
set of half-lines that start at the origin (black, (0, 0, 0)) and pass through all the points that
represent the colors of the visible spectrum, and the portion of a plane that passes through the
violet half-line and the red half-line (both ends of the visible spectrum), generate the "spectrum
cone". The black point (coordinates (0, 0, 0)) of the optimal color solid (and only the black point) is
tangent to the "spectrum cone", and the white point (1, 1, 1) (only the white point) is tangent to the
"inverted spectrum cone", with the "inverted spectrum cone" being symmetrical to the "spectrum
cone" with respect to the middle gray point (0.5, 0.5, 0.5). This means that, in linear color spaces,
the optimal color solid is centrally symmetric.[43]

In most color spaces, the surface of the optimal color solid is smooth, except for two points (black
and white); and two sharp edges: the "warm" edge, which goes from black, to red, to orange, to
yellow, to white; and the "cold" edge, which goes from black, to deep violet, to blue, to cyan, to
white. This is due to the following: If the portion of the emission or reflection spectrum of a color is
spectral red (which is located at one end of the spectrum), it will be seen as black. If the size of the
portion of total emission or reflectance is increased, now covering from the red end of the
spectrum to the yellow wavelengths, it will be seen as red or orange. If the portion is expanded
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more, covering the green wavelengths, it will be seen as yellow. If it is expanded even more, it will
cover more wavelengths than the yellow semichrome does, approaching white, until it is reached
when the full spectrum is emitted or reflected. The described process is called "cumulation".
Cumulation can be started at either end of the visible spectrum (we just described cumulation
starting from the red end of the spectrum, generating the "warm" sharp edge), cumulation starting
at the violet end of the spectrum will generate the "cold" sharp edge.[43]

Maximum chroma colors, semichromes, or full

colors
Each hue has a maximum chroma color, also known as maximum
chroma point, semichrome, or full color; there are no colors of
that hue with a higher chroma. They are the most chromatic,
vibrant optimal colors (and thus the most vibrant colors that we
are able to see). Although we are, for now, unable to produce
them, these are the colors that would be located in an ideal color 0:08
wheel. They were called semichromes or full colors by the
Color solid of the entire human
German chemist and philosopher Wilhelm Ostwald in the early
eye color vision gamut (the
20th century.[43][45] optimal color solid) plotted within
the CIE L* u* v* color space, with
If B is the complementary wavelength of wavelength A, then the D65 white point; because it is
straight line that connects A and B passes through the achromatic approximately perceptually
axis in a linear color space, such as LMS or CIE 1931 XYZ. If the uniform, it has an irregular, not
emission or reflection spectrum of a color is 1 (100%) for all the spherical, shape, notice that it
wavelengths between A and B, and 0 for all the wavelengths in the has two sharp edges, one with
warm colors, and the other one
other half of the color space, then that color is a maximum
with cold colors
chroma color, semichrome, or full color (this is the explanation to
why they were called semichromes). So maximum chroma colors
are a type of optimal colors.[43][45]

As explained, full colors are physically (not perceptually) far from being spectral colors. If the
spectral purity of a maximum chroma color is increased, its chroma will decrease, because it will
approach the visible spectrum, ergo, it will approach black.[43]

In perceptually uniform color spaces, the lightness of the full colors varies from around 30% in the
violetish blue hues, to around 90% in the yellowish hues. The chroma of each maximum chroma
point also varies depending on the hue; in optimal color solids plotted in perceptually uniform
color spaces, semichromes like red, green, blue, violet, and magenta have a high chroma, while
semichromes like yellow, orange, and cyan have a slightly lower chroma.

In color spaces such as the HSL color space, the maximum chroma colors are located around the
equator at the periphery of the color solid. This makes color solids with a spherical shape
inherently non-perceptually uniform, since they imply that all full colors have a lightness of 50%,
when, as humans perceive them, there are full colors with a lightness from around 30% to around
90%. A perceptually uniform color solid has an irregular shape.[46][47]

Cultural perspective

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The meanings and associations of colors can play a major role in

works of art, including literature.[48]

Associations
Individual colors have a variety of cultural associations such as
national colors (in general described in individual color articles
and color symbolism). The field of color psychology attempts to
identify the effects of color on human emotion and activity.
Chromotherapy is a form of alternative medicine attributed to Slice of the Munsell color space
various Eastern traditions. Colors have different associations in in the hues of 5PB and 5Y; the
different countries and cultures.[49] point farthest from the
achromatic axis in each of these
Different colors have been demonstrated to have effects on two hue slices is the maximum
chroma color, semichrome, or
cognition. For example, researchers at the University of Linz in
full color of that hue
Austria demonstrated that the color red significantly decreases
cognitive functioning in men.[50] The combination of the colors
red and yellow together can induce hunger, which has been capitalized on by a number of chain
restaurants.[51]

Color plays a role in memory development too. A photograph that is in black and white is slightly
less memorable than one in color.[52] Studies also show that wearing bright colors makes you more
memorable to people you meet.

Terminology
Colors vary in several different ways, including hue (shades of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and
violet, etc.), saturation, brightness. Some color words are derived from the name of an object of
that color, such as "orange" or "salmon", while others are abstract, like "red".

In the 1969 study Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay
describe a pattern in naming "basic" colors (like "red" but not "red-orange" or "dark red" or "blood
red", which are "shades" of red). All languages that have two "basic" color names distinguish
dark/cool colors from bright/warm colors. The next colors to be distinguished are usually red and
then yellow or green. All languages with six "basic" colors include black, white, red, green, blue,
and yellow. The pattern holds up to a set of twelve: black, gray, white, pink, red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, purple, brown, and azure (distinct from blue in Russian and Italian, but not English).

Unusual colors

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Some colors are objectively unusual or special. For example orpiment was a pigment used by
painters in the 16th century, but is now considered dangerous due to arsenic. Sonoluminescence is
a blue-purple created by the energy of sound waves from tiny bubbles in extreme experimental
conditions, and was discovered in 1934. [53]

See also
Chromophore
Color analysis
Color in Chinese culture
Color mapping
Complementary colors
Impossible color
International Color Consortium
International Commission on Illumination
Lists of colors (compact version)
Neutral color
Pearlescent coating including Metal effect pigments
Pseudocolor
Primary, secondary and tertiary colors

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External links
Color (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/126658) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Maund, Barry. "Color" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/color/). In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Color" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/color). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color&oldid=1251094232"

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