tpls0707

Theory and Practice in Language Studies
ISSN 1799-2591
Volume 7, Number 7, July 2017
Contents
REGULAR PAPERS
What is EAP? — From Multiple Literacies to a Humanistic Paradigm Shift 497

Yulong Li
Quest to Freedom: Reclaiming Individuality through Sado-Masochism in Faggots by Larry Kramer 506
Tay Lai Kit and Kamelia Talebian Sedehi
Integrating Thinking into L2 Learning: What do We Learn from Students’ Learning Experience 512
Mei-Hui Chen
Metacognitive Knowledge and Metacognitive Control of Writing Strategy between High- and Low- 523
performing Chinese EFL Writers
Zehua Wang and Feifei Han
Iranian Intermediate EFL Learners' Vocabulary Inferencing Strategies: A Qualitative Study 533
Mohammad Hossein Yousefi and Maryam Ahadzadeh
George Eliot’s Feminine Assertion in Middlemarch 540

Liang Zhang and Lingqin Zeng
The Exploring Practice of Grading Model in College English Teaching 546

Liu Peng, Chunrong Wu, and Fang Xie
Translation of Persian Mystic Terms into English: A Case Study of Conference of the Birds by Attar 552
Sadaf Khosroshahi and Ahmad Sedighi
Struggling between Tradition and Modernity: A Feminist Interpretation of Yu Opera China Women 558
Songcun Zhang
Application of Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle in Class Question-answer Process 563
Lulu Liu
An Investigation into the Effect of Individual Differences on Iranian EFL Teachers’ Perceptions 570
Concerning Professional Development Obstacles
Sara Rahimi
A Study on Chinese EFL Learning of English Pronunciation from the Perspective of Aesthetic 579
Fanghui Hu
The Application of Vague Language in International Business Negotiations from a Cross-cultural 585
Perspective
Jing Zhang and Yeli Shi
Reading Comprehension Questions in EFL Textbooks and Learners’ Levels 590

Nayer Adli and Asgar Mahmoudi
ISSN 1799-2591
Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 7, No. 7, pp. 497-505, July 2017
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0707.01
What is EAP? — From Multiple Literacies to a

Humanistic Paradigm Shift
Yulong Li
Department of Linguistics and Modern Foreign Language Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong SAR, China
Abstract—EAP researchers have proffered definitions of EAP; however, some of these are contradictory.
Therefore, effectively defining the scope, aims, and pedagogy of EAP can prove problematic. This essay will
extract the shared aspects from popular EAP approaches and then place them into the broader context of EAP
development, language teaching and literacy history, and the changing history of the educational landscape.
This will make it possible to thematise current EAP theories critically, to further defined the nature of EAP as
a combination of multiple literacies, including academic literacy, disciplinary cultural literacy, critical literacy,
and digital literacy. Without opportunities to experience the research process directly, the multiple literacies of
EAP remain in the domain of classroom knowledge, failing to include preparation for the realities students will
encounter when doing research. However, if EAP students, future academics, are well equipped with
techniques for doing research and writing papers, but perform research to benefit themselves only, who will
speak out for the needs of society? Therefore, in a Neo-liberalism influenced higher education society, EAP
should not only be viewed as a utility but should stress the humanistic goals of academic research and the
moral responsibilities of those who become academics. Current study suggests a theoretical and pedagogical
shift bending towards humanistic EAP.
Index Terms—EAP, English for academic purposes, multiple literacies, humanistic paradigm shift
I. INTRODUCTION
Since its development as a variant of ESP, EAP has been influenced by the language theories of general language
teaching and literacy movements. However, its concepts and approaches can, at times, appear too diverse for learners
and practitioners to identify. This literature review aims to extract shared features of popular EAP approaches to then
locate them into the broader context of EAP development, language teaching and literacy history, and the changing
history of the educational landscape. It will also critically thematise current EAP theories and aims, in order to examine
the nature of EAP’s multiple literacies further, which include academic literacy, disciplinary cultural literacy, critical
literacy and digital literacy.
II. PROFFERED DEFINITIONS OF EAP

Theories in the field of EAP are chaotic, not only because there are (1) quarrels over defining EAP, (2) battles
between schools, (3) mixed use of jargon, and (4) debate over instructions, but also because a wide range of concepts
have been associated with EAP. In addition to ELT theories, it has, since its creation, been influenced by diverse
theories, including: “linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, communicative language teaching, writing across
the curriculum, learning theories” (Benesch, 2008, p.4), register analysis, genre analysis, systematic functional
linguistics, writing in discipline (WID), American second-language composition, critical theory, and new literacies
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001; Chazal, 2014).
In terms of the problems encountered when defining EAP, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998, p.34) define EAP as
“any English teaching that relates to a study purpose”. Meanwhile, Gillett (2004, p.11) describes EAP as “the language
and associated skills that students need to undertake study in higher education through the medium of English”. It has
also been defined as having “the aim of assisting learners’ study or research in that language” (Flowerdew and Peacock,
2001, p.8). Considering all these definitions inadequate, Hyland (2006, p.2) characterised EAP as a “specialised English
language teaching grounded in the social, cognitive and linguistics demands of academic target situations, providing
focused instruction informed by an understanding of texts and constraints of academic contexts.” However, this
interpretation fails to satisfy Gunning (2009, p.16), who argues “all tertiary English education should fall under the
rubric of ESP/EAP”. Sometime later, Hadley (2015, p.23) described EAP as “tertiary level English instructional training
that enables learners to improve their language proficiency within higher educational institutions, irrespective of the

The sections regarding definitions of EAP and the multiple literacies is an adaptation from the same author’s publication with a title English for
Academic Purposes A New Perspective from Multiple Literacies in World Journal of English Language (WJEL), Vol. 6, No. 2; 2016,
doi:10.5430/wjel.v6n2p10. WJEL is an open access journal under the license of CC BY 4.0. The copy right of the publication is retained by the author.
The author retains the right to republication, reuse, and distribution after the first publication.
© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

498 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES
country within which that instruction takes place”. The literature review portion of this study aims to reorganise the
definitions of EAP listed, whilst also recognising that they are not exhaustive, as EAP researchers rarely agree.
In terms of the arguments that have arisen between schools, some EAP concepts completely contradict others. For
example, Benesch (2008, p.60) signposted critical EAP as the protection of the “interests of greater equity and
democratic participation (of students) in and out of educational institutions”, arguing that without criticality the EAP
teachers practiced would be diminished: “EAP is at the point in history where it is ready to consider its ethics… Are
they (EAP teachers) to be trainers, carrying out target aims uncritically, or educators… imaging students a more just
world?” (Benesch, 2008, p.130). However, this view was later challenged by Deane and O’Neil (2011, p.32), who
suggest that, “WID, from this perspective (of critical EAP), be critiqued as being naïve, or even as complicit in
disciplinary power and dominance and in silencing alternative voices and ways of doing… but we argue that they may
be misplaced.”
Arising from the mixed use of jargon associated with EAP, is the term academic literacies. The terminologies ‘EAP’
and ‘academic literacies’ have been used interchangeably, and sometimes to refer to different concepts, as a result of the
plethora of contributions from researchers with different backgrounds and standpoints, as evidenced in the following
examples. (1) In New Zealand and Australia, McWilliams and Allan (2014) use the term ‘embedding academic
literacies’, rather than EAP, to refer to approached towards training students in academic English; (2) Wingate and
Tribble (2012) and Lillis and Scott (2007) separate EAP and academic literacies, using the former in reference to text
and the latter when describing practice; (3) Lea and Street (1998) consider academic literacies rather than EAP the
broadest concept, claiming it brings together all other elements of academic English; (4) Hyland (2006) opines that EAP
is an overall concept, and that academic literacies form only one approach. Academic literacies have been referred to as
a plural form of literacy, encapsulating disciplinary socialisation and study skills (Hyland, 2006), an approach that has
come under attack not only for its impracticality (Lillis, 2010) but also for its focus on ideology (Deane and O’Neil,
2011), which arises from its critical pedagogy orientation. However, it is argued that these commentators have forgotten
the very nature of Lea and Street’s (1999, 2000) academic literacies, which refer to any system comprising more than
mere critical pedagogy approaches.
On the topic of the debate arising as a component of EAP instruction, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) define EAP
as essential to teach the four macro skills of speaking, listening, interacting, and literacy (namely reading and writing),
with the addition of micro skills taught within each macro skill (e.g. being able to use discourse markers when writing),
and EGAP (e.g. generic skills transferrable through disciplines). This thereby imports the concept of ESAP (the
teaching of language related to a specific disciplinary discourse) (Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998). Lea and Streat
(1999, 2000) introduced the notion of the significance of the critical approach and disciplinary cultural socialisation of
EAP, in addition to EAP’s focus on skills. Deane and O’Neill (2011), as proponents of WID (Writing in Discipline),
confirm that the language related to disciplines is an appropriate skill of academic writing, similar to the view of ESAP
held by Dudley-Evans and St John (1998). However, they dispute the affordance of generic skills and academic
literacies. Bearing in mind the conflicts inherent in approaches to EAP instruction, Wingate (2015) suggested an
integrated model of EAP, one that would absorb all the advantages derived from previous approaches. However, with
the development of ICT, Wingate’s integrated model appears to neglect the affordances and new meanings created by
new digital ICT, which Chun (2015) further argues should be included in EAP.
III. REDEFINITION OF EAP AS MULTIPLE LITERACIES

In the absence of efforts to integrate EAP concepts and approaches, it can be difficult for learners and practitioners to
decide upon what course of action to follow, particularly when the inexperienced face a ‘jungle of jargon’. This section
therefore extracts the common features of popular EAP approaches, before placing them into the broader contexts of
EAP development, language teaching and literacy history, and the changing history of the educational landscape. Stern
(1983, p.76) states that, “Knowing the historical context is helpful to an understanding of language teaching theories”.
This study thus aims to organise schools and strands in EAP. The following four subsections are listed under the
educational trends of traditionalism, progressivism, criticalism, and digitalism, aiming to demonstrate the landscape of
EAP as combining multiple literacies.
A. Under Traditionalism: Language as a System and EAP as Academic Literacy
From Ranciere’s perspective, modern education underwent three theoretical stages: traditionalism, progressivism,
and criticalism (cited in Biesta & Bingham, 2010). Traditionalism viewed education as the dissemination of the
necessary common sense and knowledge required for people to live in society. However, this knowledge is generally
regarded as authoritative and objective and not usually associated directly with learners’ experiences (Biesta &
Bingham, 2010). In such circumstances, from the early 20th century onwards, language was defined as and believed to
be a system of structures, firstly as stated by Saussure (Stern, 1983) and later as defined by Chomsky (Kumaravadivelu,
2009), both of whom argued that “a language is a highly integrated system” (Langacker, 1972, p.18) with mutually
connected and supportive structural components (Stern, 1983). By following such a systematic structure, people could
“combine phonemes to form words, words to form phrases, phrases to form sentences, and sentences to form spoken or
written texts” (Kumaravadivelu, 2006, p.5). From this perspective, learning a language was viewed as mastering

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 499
autonomous and objective knowledge, or codes containing meaning, as produced by writers or speakers (Stern, 1983;
Hyland, 2002). Kumaravadivelu (2006) thereby categorises this spectrum of language as a system.
Such a model suggests beliefs with considerable similarity between language use across disciplines (Hutchinson and
Waters, 1987), and advocates English language skills as generic and transferable (Hyland, 2006) in EAP. For example,
register analysis involves teaching sentence grammar through subjects (Halliday, McIntosh, and Streven, 1964); rhetoric
analysis analyses how sentences are connected into paragraphs to provide meaning (Allen and Widdowson, 1974).
While the broader view of EAP purports that similar academic English strategies could usefully be taught across
disciplines (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001); EGAP emphasises the need to learn general English before moving on to
learn English for specific purposes (Dudley-Evan and St John, 1998), as does generic skills EAP or skill-based EAP
(Lea and Street, 2000; Hyland, 2006). The enhancement of such approaches has been accompanied by an increase in the
number of non-traditional and international students studying at universities in the UK and in the US (Flowerdew and
Peacock, 2001; Hyland, 2006). These students reportedly encounter difficulties with both the English language and the
academic context, which is unfamiliar to them, thus requiring an EAP programme that delivers a range of academic
skills in addition to linguistic systems.
Therefore, in general, in the context of EAP, under the guise of traditionalism, students not only learn English as a
code and set of systems, but also practice generic academic skills likely to be required in order to complete assignments
and dissertations at university. This description reflects Henderson and Hirst’s (2007, p.26) traditional and neutral
definition of academic literacy: “Academic literacy is just a set of skills that students must master in order to perform
successfully as ‘scholar’… its norms and conventions are considered unitary and monolithic”.
B. Under Progressivism: Language as Discourse and EAP as Disciplinary Cultural Literacy
The second wave of the education model was defined by Ranciere and is cited by Biesta and Bingham (2010, p.110)
as progressivism; an approach concerning the relationship between learners’ private experiences and those of wider
society: “the progressive orientation shares the desire to create a common body of knowledge that will enable the
communication of citizens in the public sphere”. Regarding acceptance of knowledge as the mode of communication
between particular people in specific contexts has changed how people perceive language.
Contrary to the Chomskyan systematic structure of language, Halliday (1973) argued that language is not a fixed and
autonomous code, but rather has optional meanings subject to the interlocutors present in specified contexts. The
process of communication is not a process of communicating meaning-containing codes but rather the interaction of
locution (literal meaning of language), illocution (connotation of language), and perlocution (anticipated results of
language use in context) (Austin, 1962). Therefore, language in context not only concerns grammatical competence, but
also, most importantly, sociolinguistic competence (Hymes, 1972).
A large body of evidence has identified components of textual difference between the genres in a number of different
disciplines (Bracken and Oughton, 2006; Hyland, 2008, 2009). Different disciplines have also developed their own
professional discourse, making it challenging for those working outside the discipline to understand (Hyland, 2006).
Wingate (2015) indicates that the use of English by members of different disciplines is designed for the purposes of
intra-disciplinary communication. The phenomenon of specialised knowledge for special institutions expresses
Foucault’s idea of discipline as discourse (1979). Kumaravadivelu (2006) categorises this spectrum of language as
discourse.
As with EAP, in order to be proficient in the discourse, being able to communicate with peers requires genuine
immersion and interaction (Wingate, 2015). In other words, it is necessary to become a participant member (Norton,
2003). Moreover, proficiency in disciplinary discourse not only concerns whether new members are clear about the
English language’s use of expert members, but also involves “an understanding of the disciplines’ epistemology”, “an
understanding of the sociocultural context”, and “a command of the conventions and norms that regulate these
interactions” (Wingate, 2015, p.13).
In practice, Hyland (2006) encourages the attainment of discourse membership by learning about specificity in
relation to the targeting of individual disciplines in EAP. A representative of this school of thought is disciplinary
socialisation, which encourages students to adopt roles as novice members of the discourse community, members who
are guided, modelled, and educated by more mature members (Lea and Street, 2000; Hyland, 2006). In addition to
disciplinary socialisation, researchers also described writing in disciplines (WID) (Deane and O’Neil, 2011); genre
analysis (Swale, 1990; Thompson & Diani, 2015); English for specific academic purposes (ESAP) (Dudley-Evan and St
John, 1998); and the relatively narrow scope of EAP (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001). However, Benesch (2008) has
criticised such approaches for assuming an academic hierarchy of mature members with authority over the novice.
Many scholars also advocate methods requiring that membership be attained via pedagogic discourse and
participation in EAP instruction. For instance, many EAP scholars insist on the authenticity of their disciplinary
discourse; some having begun to use authentic research articles to teach EAP in a number of different disciplines, and
others suggesting that subject teachers should join forces with language teachers to deliver specificity to the EAP class
(Dudley-Evans, 2001; Deane and O’Neill, 2011; Wingate, 2015). However, this refers to discourse participation in
pedagogical discourse (Woodward-Kron, 2002), and the potential results in terms of students’ written work might differ
from their writing in genuine mature discourse (Freedman and Adam, 1996). As Widdowson (1998, p.707-712) stated:
“The classroom context serves a learning community, and the purpose of any discourse enacted therein is a pedagogic

one. So whatever pragmatic activity goes on has to lead to the internalisation of the language as a semantic resource.”
These criticisms have led other schools of EAP to emerge, with regard to membership in a mature discourse
(Woodward-Kron, 2002). According to Wingate (2015, p.15), students’ understanding of the epistemology of the
discipline should take place through “interaction between experts and novice in the relevant social situation”.
Recognising its usefulness, Benesch (2008, p.60) organised an EAP course for those studying anthropology, to help
them become involved with and “organise themselves to create a more conducive environment for engaged learning”.
Similarly, Breen and Littlejohn (2000), Canagarajah (2002), and Purser (2011) all suggested increasing students’
participation in learning by relating course content to their disciplines in a number of different ways, albeit with a
concrete pedagogy.
A disciplinary discourse, from the perspective of Giroux and McLaren (1994), could be a subculture group, as the
members of the discourse might share similar norms and forms of behaviour valued by the discourse (Hyland 2009,
2012). Moll and Arnot-Hopffer (2005, p.33) stated “Culture provided particular rules for behaviours”. Thus, members
of the same culture are expected to share genre, register, and language. Due to his sociological background, Hyland
(2012) later added that the identity of a person is not something that proceeds from him/herself, but is instead
formulated in confirmation by others, and whether a person is established as a member of a disciplinary discourse
community depends on whether he/she is recognised by other members of that community. One aspect of recognition
proceeds from understanding of whether the person shares a genre and language register with others.
Hyland’s (2012) description of disciplinary identity is influenced by cultural literacy theory, in which identity is seen
as a by-product of culture: “the development of identity is a result of interactions in social settings… how one engages
with cultural symbols and tools, such as texts, how one interacts with others … (lead to) who one becomes” (Clark and
Flores, 2007, p.10). Therefore, learners need to obtain knowledge about the culture of the disciplinary discourse
community to which they belong or are preparing to enter; in other words, they must acquire disciplinary cultural
literacy. However, as Giroux and McLaren (1994) have claimed such perspectives on culture are stereotypical and static,
as all members of a culture differ, and people in different subcultural groups are likely to have overlapping
memberships.
C. Under Criticalism: Language as Ideology and EAP as Critical Literacy
The third wave of the educational paradigm shift is criticalism, which derived from modernism and post-modernism
(Biesta & Bingham, 2010). It exists as a critical reflection on previous traditionalism and progressivism, revealing both
as creating some degree of inequality in education. Education creates hierarchies of knowledge (traditionalism) and for
people (progressivism). The previous two educational models are, according to Ranciere, making “truth … to be found
in the ideological and structural inequality that privilege some people and oppress others” (Biesta & Bingham, 2010,
p.111). They further assert that the guiding principle of criticalism in education is the aim of unveiling the ideological
obfuscation before students obtain a truth.
Simultaneous with criticialism, a critical revolution has begun in the field of language education, described as
postmethod in relation to ELT (Kumaravadivelu, 2003; 2006), critical literacy (Wray, 2007), and critical discourse
analysis (Hammersley, 1997). These movements, which are based on criticalism, examine language as ideology
(Kumaravadivelu, 2009). Thompson (1990, p.56) describes ideology as a means to “study the ways in which meaning
serves to establish and sustain relations of domination”. Literally speaking, language ideology aims to examine
dominance and inequality in and/or produced by language. Similarly, according to Kroskrity (2000, p.8-18), learning a
language as ideology requires students to have “the perception of language and discourse that is constructed in the
interests of a specific social or cultural group… (to have) varying degrees of awareness of local language ideologies.”
In the domain of EAP, Lea and Street (2000) observe the dangers inherent in treating and teaching disciplinary
discourse as static, and those that arise when viewing students as passive learners to be socialised (Woodward-Kron,
2002). Similarly, Ivanic (1997) uses a large body of evidence to show how learners’ heritage, identity, and context can
be neglected and become voiceless in the face of learning a new target discourse, and how students’ heritage, identity,
and personal contexts are reciprocated in their EAP learning. Furthermore, a critical component in academic literacies
(Lea and Street, 2000; Wingate and Tribble, 2012), and critical EAP (Benesch, 2008) is the intent to compensate for the
limitations of the previous EAP stages and to uncover the “mystifying epistemology and practices of disciplines, which
may not be clear to students” (Deane and O’Neil, 2011, p.32). This can involve helping students to gain a critical
understanding of their discipline (Hyland, 2006), and giving them the skills to question the academic status quo
(Cherryholmes, 1998; Benesch, 2006, 2008). Because the practices and values of EAP are not innate, but are instead
formed in response to sociocultural and historical factors, the tradition of a disciplinary discourse should not be deemed
sacred, but should rather be subject to challenge, regardless of whether it is part of a coercive following free from
disputes (Benesch, 2008).
Critical approaches in EAP are framed by Morgan and Ramanathan (2005) as critical literacy. However, Wray’s
(2007) definition of critical literacy makes this description more understandable. Wray (2007, p.2) argued: (1) critical
literacy encourages students to investigate and question the “relationships between language and social practices that
advantage some social groups over others”; (2) it admits that texts in whatever form are inseparable from “the cultural
and social practices in which and by which they are constructed… the way we use language … is never neutral or
value-free”; (3) critical literacy encourages students to be more willing to analyse and evaluate phenomena; and (4) it

helps students become more attuned to social justice.

The critical approach in EAP interrogates the established hierarchy, which prioritises experience and demeans
newcomers (Lea and Streat, 2000). This is well reflected by Wray’s (2007) first point; i.e. that the critical approach
confirms EAP has arisen as a product of history and social economic development (Benesch, 2008). The second point,
which urges students not to act as passive recipients of knowledge, but instead to connect with broader social realities
(Chun, 2015), also addresses the third point; which describes the benefits of critical literacy to students and society as
described by Wray (2007). As outlined by Benesch (2008, p.130): “EAP is at the point in history where it is ready to
consider its ethics… Are they (EAP teachers) to be trainers, carrying out target aims uncritically, or educators…
imaging students a more just world?” Therefore, EAP programmes should also endeavour to teach critical literacy.
However, criticalism has been criticised for a lack of pedagogy (Wingate and Tribble, 2012), it is arguably
misguidedly spreading ideology (Deane and O’Neill, 2011) and twisting the true meaning of academic literacy, as
students learn by participating in discourse activities (Wingate, 2015), yet it seeks to deconstruct the discourse they
have yet to enter or become established within (Haque, 2007). The conceptualisation of EAP in terms of language as
ideology emphasises its function in raising students’ awareness of the formation of and fitting into disciplinary
discourse (Norton and Toohey, 2004; Hyland, 2012). In particular, Chun (2015) notes its affordance in linking discourse
and learning with a broader context and the wider world, stressing the necessity of criticalism to protect students’ rights
to information.
In the broader macro context, as English becomes the lingua-franca of the world (Graddol, 1997; Hyland, 2006),
scholars in countries with no historical relationship to English are now commonly expected to publish in English to
guarantee promotion (Hamp-Lyons, 2011). English is thereby implicitly taking over the cultural identity of its non-inner
circle users, as learning English ideologically maintains learners’ criticality as local-global citizens (Kumaravadivelu,
2003; 2012).
D. Under Digitalism: New Meanings of Language and EAP as Digital Literacy
Along with the popularity of ICT and mobile devices, the Internet and mobile digitalism have become ubiquitous,
rendering learning portable, affordable, accessible, situated, immediate, connected, individualised, and personalised
(Melhuish and Falloon, 2010). Language and language teaching have also been influenced by this. Walker (2014, p.581)
states that “digital technologies are becoming part of the way that people communicate and part of the context in which
language is used”, resulting in a “decline in more linear approaches to reading or more reflective approaches to writing”
(Dudeney, Hocky, and Pegrum, 2013, p.14).
Aside from the practical changes, meaning making in language has also been transformed by the ubiquity of digital
data: (1) people now have to manage and understand language printed using electronic materials; (2) they are exposed
to more written language because of the increasing volume of material available online; and (3) they can also contribute
themselves to sites such as blogs and Wikipedia (Walker, 2014). Conversely, the form of language has also changed,
due to the existence and structure of presentation skills, such as Powerpoint and Prezi, which require language
consistent with the format of software (Walker, 2014).
In reference to the growing abundance of digital resources, Cope and Kalantzis (2009, p.175) suggested redesigning
EAP pedagogies to nurture learners as “fully makers and remakers of signs and transformers of meaning” of the
“multimodal discourses in textbooks, websites and classrooms” (Chun, 2015, p.29). As early as 2002, Hyland and
Hamp-Lyon (2002, p.8) argued that the domain of EAP includes not only the skills for textual production, but also the
ability to produce visual materials, stating: “the ability to produce and understand text-visual interrelations is now an
essential component of an academic literacy, and the EAP research is to understand and detail these meanings”. For
example, students not only have to learn to produce the oral academic language required in the form of Powerpoint or
Prezi, but also to submit assignments or ideas in the form of either an online discussion forum or e-portfolio (Walker,
2014), and using multi-media tools such as YouTube videos (Jewitt and Kress, 2010). Moreover, the widespread
availability of digitalised materials and digital resources requires that EAP teachers should assist their students on how
to select, manage, and understand those resources; for example this includes determining how to add links or footnotes
to e-materials, how to search for materials from digital databases, and how to quote and reference e-materials (Walker,
2014). Hyland and Hamp-Lyon also failed to mention the dangers of online plagiarism, the possibility of purchasing
assignments and collusion (Walker, 2014). It is critical, therefore, that EAP teachers teach students about how to use
software like Turnitin and further emphasise the importance of maintaining their academic integrity in a digital world
(Walker, 2014).
The aim of introducing new components to EAP pedagogy is, Cope and Kalantzis (2009) argue, to keeping abreast of
methods for communicating meaning and knowledge. Indeed, Chun (2015) opines that it is essential to provide students
the skills to keep well informed about the ongoing changes in academic language formation. Either way, it is necessary
to level up the nature of literacy, because according to Dudeney, Hocky, and Pegrum (2013, p.16), literacy is partially
“grounded in language” and partially “connected with the communication of meaning.” To be specific, this involves
levelling up digital literacy, which is defined by White (2015, p.24) as literacy involving “all aspects of developing the
knowledge, skills, competencies, confidence … capabilities … to make use of digital technologies in a productive,
creative, critical, safe, and ethical way”. These features of digital literacy are consistent with what EAP policy makers
suggest should be taught under the auspices of digitalism.

However, some EAP teachers are themselves lacking in the ability to use the available technology proficiently. Thus,
they are obliged to learn how to (1) prepare students to study in ubiquitous technology environments, and (2) enhance
their teaching using the Internet and associated technology (Walker, 2014). Some researchers dispute the supposed
significance of the role of the Internet in changing the landscape of learning. For example, Bowen (2012) claims the
Internet and new technology have simply added new tools for learning that are no different from those offered by paper
and pens. However, it is apparent that today, generally speaking, EAP involves teaching a variety of literacies; e.g.
academic literacy, disciplianry cultural literacy, critical literacy and digital literacy. Understanding EAP as
communicating multiple literacies reduces the demand on readers’ cognitive processing of the meaning of EAP overall,
by classifying it according to its separate components.
IV. CALLING FOR A HUMANISTIC PARADIGM SHIFT IN EAP

EAP has long been viewed as a rehearsal tool for novice researchers, before their entrance proper into the arena of
academic discourse. However, regardless of the fact that its focus is on knowledge (whether academic, disciplinary
cultural, critical or digital literacy), the crucial aspects of how to ‘do’ research have been largely untouched; i.e. how to
interact with research participants, how to conduct experiments, how to locate flaws within complex phenomena, how
to filter arguments from different layers of bias, how to evaluate the opportunities and limitations embodied in one’s
own research, and how to make ethical decisions.
In other words, contemporary EAP theories fail to include preparation for the realities students will encounter when
doing research. Thus, without opportunities to experience the research process directly, the multiple literacies of EAP
remain in the domain of classroom knowledge. Even though scholars like Hyland (2006), and Lea and Street (2000)
have recommended disciplinary socialisation be taught within EAP, from their description, their aim appears to have
been merely to encourage students to interact with the discipline through reading and writing materials. However,
academic research contains more than simply writing up research, considerable additional work is necessitate both
before and after this step.
Being responsible academics and changing society to benefit humanity appears to describe an unspoken goal of
teaching EAP. Although this might not appear to relate to current trends descried in reference to EAP literacies, in the
context of China for example, it could be considered risky to teach students multiple literacies without emphasising the
ethical and moral components associated with humanity. Indeed, accusations of a lack of academic ethics have
previously been targeted at the academic community in China (Douglass, 2012; Beach, 2013). Historic examples from
China of academic misconduct are diverse, ranging from copyright offences, to plagiarism, commissioning ghost
writers, buying other people’s products, faking transcripts, and faking degrees (Beach, 2013).
The problems above are exacerbated by competition. China has one of the largest populations in the world, and is
home to more than 2000 tertiary institutions, with estimates suggesting that by 2020 there will be 195 million graduates
surging towards the job market (Bradsher, 2013). Thus, the job market is fiercely competitive, and jobseekers with
undergraduate degrees, and even postgraduate degrees are not rare. At the end of the 20 th century, China’s government
enlarged their university enrolment rate by 470% (Jacques, 2009), leading some to doubt the quality of higher education
output. These factors contribute to students having utilitarian attitudes towards education and learning (Beach, 2013).
This leads to the question: If EAP students, future academics, are well equipped with techniques for doing research and
writing papers, but perform research to benefit themselves only, who will speak out for the needs of society? Therefore,
EAP as a tool to hone academic research is potentially beneficial to all humanity.
On a more philosophical basis, the aforementioned academic misconduct and enlarged students enrollment is a by-
product of the dissemination of neoliberalism throughout higher education. Neoliberalism, sometimes termed social
Darwinism, conveys the view of “see(ing) competition as the defining characteristic of human relations. It redefines
citizens as consumers, whose democratic choices are best exercised by buying and selling, a process that rewards merits
and punishes inefficiency” (Monbiot, 2016, n.p.). Higher education is inevitably influenced by neoliberalism (Steger
and Roy, 2010), seeking to offer vocational training for students, by equipping them with cookie-cutter knowledge, so
they can perform in different posts after graduation. This phenomenon is particularly apparent among low ranking
universities, who use students’ hopes that a degree will assist their job hunting as bait to attract student enrolments
(Hadley, 2015). Therefore, it is necessary to consider that teaching students practical EAP as multiple literacies will
help students with their job hunting, and that this is perhaps the logic of the most EAP theories producers.
In humanism, knowledge resulting from the human experience multiplies sensitivity, the latter meaning the reflection
and realisation of experience (Harari, 2016). Human experience counts as the foundation of learning: “learning is
facilitated when the learner participates in the learning process responsibly. When the learner choose their goals,
discovers learning resources, formulates problems, decides on a course of action, and lives with the consequences of
each of these choices, then significant learning occurs” (Rogers, 1969, p.157-164, cited in Gould, 2012, p.83). Thus,
humanistic philosopher Carl Rogers (1995) pointed out that universities pay too much attention to rational knowledge
delivered by professors or other disciplinary experts, often ignoring the significance of students’ authentic experience
and reflections upon learning. Without such processes, in Rogers et al’ words (1989), the self-actualisation of students’
potentiality cannot be guaranteed. An important characteristic of researchers being self-actualised is an active concern
for the “welfare of humanity” (Maslow, 1967, cited in Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2009, p.487). Just as those who use their

academic knowledge to produce fake essays and those who used their academic writing skills to get paid as “ghost-
writers, or those who engage on other academic misconduct are not actualising themselves as true researchers and are
not concerned with the welfare of humanity.
However, to date, almost all EAP pedagogy, even that stressing disciplinary socialisation, remains a classroom based
method involving reading and learning from selected materials, even though the classroom environment and materials
are simulating they do not guarantee the same learning effect as authentic contexts (Freedman & Adam, 1996).
Furthermore, reading literature and writing up research papers is just one component of the academic research process;
researchers need to either experiment, enter the field, or conduct interviews to address real world problems. Isolating
students into classrooms would lead to learning without participation in students’ experiences; in other words, the
curriculum lacks humanity (Rogers, 1995). Echoing with calls from Grasso and Martinelli (2010), King, Miller, and
Klawe (2010) report that today’s professional education should not only incorporate subject knowledge, but also
affordances for wider society; thus, EAP as initial training for future researchers should extend beyond the classroom
and paper work.
From a linguistic perspective, Widdowson (1998) suggested students learn English through experience. English
language studied in the classroom, no matter how similar to real world contexts, it is not as authentic as that acquired
naturally, because the classroom environment is not localised. Classroom English teaching emphasises the semantic
meaning over the pragmatic meaning of language; however, in localised or authentic contexts, people just “pay only as
much attention to the language as it is necessary to make this connection and no more…for it is only when listeners
connect language up to contextual conditions of one kind or another that they can do things with it” (Widdowson, 1998,
p.707-709). Similarly, if students are able to learn EAP while conducting their own academic research, the research
contexts and processes could then afford greater support for their writing, rendering it more purposeful.
Widdowson’s (1998) opinions regarding learning English through experience echo ideas put forward by Carl Rogers
(1967), the humanistic philosopher. EAP’s aim has always been to prepare students for a future as academics; however,
from the perspective of humanistic education, former EAP experts have failed to address the importance of students’
context related experience (Rogers, 1967). In the example of China, where many students are demotivated to learn, and
when academic misconduct in China is severe, EAP should not only be viewed as a utility but should stress the
humanistic goals of academic research and the moral responsibilities of those who become academics.
V. CONCLUSION
EAP has become popularised by the acceptance of English as the global language of academia, the workplace, and
higher education. Historically, EAP has, since its creation, been influenced by language theories drawn from both
general language teaching and literacy movements. However, its concepts and approaches at times appear to be too
diverse for learners and practitioners to identify readily which course of action to follow, particularly those who are
inexperienced. This essay therefore reorganized EAP as a combination of multiple literacies, including academic
literacy, disciplinary cultural literacy, critical literacy, and digital literacy. Furthermore, contemporary EAP theories
including the EAP as multiple literacies fail to include preparation for the realities students will encounter when doing
research. Thus, without opportunities to experience the research process directly, the multiple literacies of EAP remain
in the domain of classroom knowledge. EAP as initial training for future researchers should extend beyond the
classroom and paper work, and it should be concerned with the welfare of human. Therefore, this essay suggests a
humanistic paradigm shift in EAP theories and pedagogies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank Dr Lixun Wang, from The Education University of Hong Kong, for his suggestions.
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Yulong Li holds a PhD in linguistics from The Education University of Hong Kong. He also holds an MA in
Educational Studies (Distinction) from The University of Warwick, UK, and a PG diploma in TESOL from
The University of Edinburgh, UK. He has many international publications (including referred journals and a
monograph), of which some are indexed in SCOPUS. He also serves as a reviewer for some academic units
(including journal and conference). He started his career as a language teacher since 2006. His research
interests include EAP, TESOL, educational studies, and ethnography.

ISSN 1799-2591
Quest to Freedom: Reclaiming Individuality

through Sado-Masochism in Faggots by Larry
Kramer
Tay Lai Kit
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Kamelia Talebian Sedehi

Payam Noor of Isfahan, Iran
Abstract—Individuality is the quality or character of a particular person that distinguishes them from others
of the same kind. In other words, it is the mark which separates its existence from the rest of the group.
According to Fromm, the process of individuality begins at infancy level when the child is separated from the
mother. This then takes an emotional toll on the child as he suffers from loneliness and anxiety which stem
from the prior separation. The child will henceforth acquire his individuality through the process of
socialization which requires constant interaction with people in his life. For this paper, we have selected a
novel, Faggots, authored by Larry Kramer, to be the main text for our research. This article argues that the
characters in the text are conflicted with feelings of anxiety and loneliness as they embark on respective quest
to eradicate the feeling of loneliness by looking for a potential life partner. However, these characters go
through a series of promiscuous relationships by living an active sexual lifestyle on the ground that they are in
search of the “right” one. Therefore, this paper will look into the sadistic and masochistic (sometimes both;
otherwise known as sadomasochistic) tendency practiced by the characters in the novel in their quest to
reclaim their lost individuality. This research draws in the concept of freedom, sadism, and masochism as
proposed by Erich Fromm to further consolidate the findings.
Index Terms—Faggots, freedom, individuality, masochism, sadism, socialization
I. INTRODUCTION
In its broadest sense, individuality is the quality or character of a particular person that distinguishes them from
others of the same kind. In other words, it is the mark which separates its existence from the rest of the group.
According to Fromm, individuation is a process which starts from childhood. Initially, the child believes that he and his
mother are one, sharing the same body. However, after a while, he slowly notices that he is a completely separate entity,
a brand new being on his own. The child perceives that the outside world and his body are separate and at this point the
process of individuation starts. As a result of this process, the child gains maturity in the sense of mentality, physicality
and emotion. However, there is a negative effect which derived from this process. As stated by Fromm, the process of
individuation leads to the child to a state of loneliness. When the child recognizes that he is separated from others and
that he is “different”, he becomes aware of being his being “alone”. As such, the sense of loneliness renders the child
anxious and powerless. In order to overcome this loneliness and its negative feelings, the child attempts to submerge
himself with outside world by interacting with other humans.
When the child submits to the process of socialization, he loses the original individuality that he initially had, due to
various influences by other individuals. Therefore, one can notice that despite people are constantly in search of
freedom throughout history, they ultimately choose to be with someone and remain grounded. This is because when it
comes to the process of individuation, they feel alone and thus seeks to escape the freedom which brings them the
negative feeling of loneliness. As Fromm mentions
The battles for freedom were fought by the oppressed, those who wanted new liberties, against those who had
privileges to defend. While a class was against those who had privileges to defend. While a class was fighting for its
own liberation from domination, it believes itself to be fighting for human freedom as such and thus was able to appeal
to an ideal, to the longing for freedom rooted in all who are oppressed. (1942, p. 1)
As far as history can date, humans from across the world have constantly strived to attain freedom; be it personally,
sexually, or even on a bigger scale, such as nation-level. On a global scale, battles are fought and blood shed – all for
the purpose of gaining freedom. However, on a smaller scale, in which this case refers to individuals, they seek to
renounce their “freedom”, which according to Fromm, essentially means the state of being by oneself. This freedom
usually leads the child to state of loneliness, whereby he will look for alternatives to eradicate the feeling through social
interaction. “The individual was left alone; everything depended on his own effort” (Kariel, 1957, p. 645). Knight
emphasizes that all sorts of responsibilities and problems that each individual faces alone leads to a feeling of

inadequacy, confusion, and helplessness (1942, p. 299). As a result from bearing the burden alone, it would be easier for
the child to shape and mold himself to a person or character which belongs in the society. The social bonds fostered
through interaction form ties which, in return will bind them from his prior quest, which is to regain his individuality.
By submitting themselves, not only do they lose their individuality but also freedom. The submerging and forced
attachment with other individuals can happen in various ways, and this paper will focus on the concepts sadism and
masochism.
In general, sadism refers to the tendency to derive pleasure, especially sexual gratification, from inflicting pain,
suffering, or humiliation on others. Sadists intend to let people to be dependent on them which, in return, gives them the
power over them. In this sense, sadists might exploit, use or manipulate the other person, which sometimes leads the
person to physical or mental suffering. They hurt, humiliate and embarrass the other person with their maniac treatment.
By possessing power and control, a sadist feels powerful as he gains satisfaction and gratification from his devious act.
As Fromm notes, “the sadist needs the person over whom he rules, he needs him very badly, since his own feeling of
strength is rooted in the fact that he is the master over someone” (1942, p. 125). This then leads to the subject on the
other side of the situation – who would willingly submit themselves to such torturous and humiliating act inflicted upon
them?
As probed earlier in the previous line, it is the masochist who enjoys being subjected to acts of torture. Masochism
generally refers to the tendency of deriving sexual gratification from one's own pain or humiliation .He sometimes
inflicts pain on himself to gain the attention of others. Fromm asserts that “there are people who indulge in self-
accusation and self-criticism which even their worst enemies would scarcely being against them” (p. 123). Tay and
Sedehi mention that “masochism indicates the deviant behavior or psychological illness whereby one takes pleasure in
suffering” (2016, p. 242). Hence, this paper intends to focus on the concepts of sadism and masochism by Eric Fromm
and apply them to Larry Krammer’s Faggots. Findings will illustrate how characters deal with one another in their quest
to regain their individuality by getting involved in promiscuous relationships, which the paper argues for its sadistic and
masochistic elements.
II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

For the purpose of this study, the researchers employed a novel written by Larry Kramer entitled Faggots (1978).
Further, the paper utilizes the concepts of sadism and masochism as proposed by Erich Fromm in his book, Fear of
Freedom (1942), focusing on various homosexual characters in the novel in regards to their quest of regaining their
individuality which they lost after the separation from their mothers. It is important to note that the relationship between
a sadist and a masochist in most cases is referred to as master-slave.
Richard Von Krafft-Ebing developed the neologisms sadism and masochism, stated in 1890 that “masochism and
sadism appear as the fundamental forms of psycho-sexual perversion, which may make their appearance at any point in
the domain of sexual aberration” (1965, p. 217-218). According to Fromm, humans are social beings who need to be in
contact with others. They do not want to be alone because individuality scares the characters; “when one has become an
individual, one stands alone and faces the world in all its perilous and overpowering aspects” (Fromm, 1942, p. 24). As
a result, the characters indulge themselves in a series of promiscuous relationships solely because they cannot stand the
price of freedom which is the feeling of loneliness. As such, their decisions are seen as acts of sadism and masochism
due to the violent nature of their relationships. It is imperative to note that one character can sometimes inhibit both
tendencies and is addressed as sadomasochism. In this case, the character takes pleasure in either inflicting pain on
someone else, or being the subject of torture himself. But for those who are distinctly either one or another, they
develop a codependent relationship with one another because both parties need each other for the fulfillment of their
twisted desire. Consequently, both the sadist and masochist lose their individuality as they submit themselves to the will
of the other party. This attempt to reclaim their lost individuality proves to be ironic as it contradicts the initial motive
which is to find a steady and loving relationship.
The novel is written in a fragmented manner which stylistically highlights the distorted reality for the characters in
the novel. The overall plot includes a highly complicated and complex string of relationships between all characters in
one way or another but one thing they share in common is that they constantly bound to a chain of miserable lifestyle
due to poor decisions. This justifies the reason as to why this paper contains only several characters as the main focus
for the analysis. On that note, there is one particular character who stand out above rest, which the researchers deem to
be the protagonist, Fred Lemish, who also seeks his lost individuality in the story. All in all, the current article focuses
on the how the characters: 1) regain their individuality by attaching themselves to people through sadomasochistic
tendency; and 2) realizes that the only way they could reclaim their individuality is through self-love.
III. ANALYSIS
The novel starts with various characters who are in promiscuous relationships. They are looking for potential
relationships everywhere as their main concern is to find love. During this process, they gradually turn into characters
who practice masochism and sadism, in which it becomes a habit and then a lifestyle later on. The sexual slave should
keep silence and be obedient whenever the master asks him to. “Yet here Fred was, viewing the Slave on the bed. He

wondered, too, what it was like to be a Slave. The Slave remained prone and silent, up- ended, as any good slave must
obviously remain” (Kramer, 2000, p. 6). Whatever the master suggests, the slave does and acts upon it without question
and hesitation. Palazzolo mentions that “the desire to dominate the will of other people can be viewed as a depravity of
a genuine sense of potency borne out of helplessness, powerlessness and inferiority” (2007, p. 154). This notion highly
resonates with Freud’s idea of projection whereby the perpetrator is projecting his own insecurity unto the partner as an
outlet and coping mechanism to his own flaws. To be specific, Freud parallels masochism as a destructive dynamic that
inclines towards self-destruction (ibid. 170).
At the beginning, the protagonist Fred Lemish is seen to be experimenting with his sexuality and loneliness by
cruising around night clubs where people are conducting perverse sexual actions. He is simultaneously revolted and
excited by the scene because of his curiosity and fear. He isolates himself from the action but continues to observe other
people. He thinks that he can overcome the loneliness by mere observation but sinks into depression gradually
throughout the story. This reflects his masochistic tendency in his attempt to overcome his loneliness because he suffers
by not participating in the social process. As Fromm puts it:
Alienation, however, does not lead our hero out of society, but deeper into it, for he is impelled by a curiosity to
known, down to the smallest detail, the corrupt world that he wishes to escape. Concealing his opposition, he takes part
in the intrigue of his day with the secret aim of proving to himself, by the very falseness of his conduct, the distance that
separates him from his contemporaries. (1942, p. 9)
The excerpt above stresses on the ironic effect of alienation in a sense that the curiosity of a person will eventually
triumph over the physical isolation because one will always look for alternatives to be in the social circle. It sums up
Fred’s life as well as his decision to remain detached. He proves to be masochistic as he imposed loneliness onto
himself.
For these characters, sexual intercourse is just a way for them to be together as they are scared to be alone. Even
though the relationship is that of sadomasochistic nature, they do not seem to mind it because they are temporarily
content with having someone to be intimate with. “I haven’t sucked you out yet!” the Master/Pisser pleaded. Fred ran
out of the cubicle, not listening as the Master apologized to Slave: ‘it’s all right, honey, I’ll find you another time’”
(Kramer, 2000, p. 12). They satisfy their needs and complexities by becoming as sadists and masochists. On one hand,
being punished can be sexually gratifying while the other one enjoys dominating the other person. Loneliness is a
constant struggle for these characters because it highlights the detachment and sorrow of the process of individuation.
Therefore, the instant solution which they settle on is meaningless hookups which ultimately results in failure and
disappointment. “I repeat: what love? Are you not confusing sex and love?” (Kramer, 2000, p. 29). There is no sense of
love or any form of emotional bond between the characters at all. In this sense, physical intimacy is seen as an
immediate release for them which highlights the severe sadomasochistic tendency in them. They deal with the inner
loneliness by having promiscuous relationships which eventually grow into self-hatred. For instance, Fred says “[b]ut
when I look around me, all I see is fucking, all we do is fuck. With dildos and gallows and in the bushes and on the
streets” (Kramer, 2000, p. 31). Promiscuity is rampant among these gay characters as they are in search of love in
various relationships, but they cannot find it anywhere.
Richard is another masochistic character which is introduced in the novel. He kidnapped himself as he needed
attention from others. By inflicting pain on himself, he attracts the attention. “His own self-inflicted kidnapping”
indicates how far the masochists can go when they need attention (Kramer, 2000, p. 22). Moreover, he hated his mother
because of the way she treated him, but still he played the news of him being kidnapped in which the mother reports to
police. He “knew he would cry when he saw his mother on the news”, but still he watches it as he is a masochist and
finds pleasure in torturing himself (Kramer, 2000, p. 22).
On the contrary to masochists who accept other people’s order, and enjoy being tortured and enjoy the suffering,
some people are sadists. They enjoy ordering others and impose suffering on them. In this novel, Fred is a
sadomasochist character. Based on Fromm, “sadomasochistic love is born out of the inability to stand alone and bear
solitude” (Palazzolo, 2007, p. 144). The fear of being alone, lead these characters to perverted kind of love. The true
love will not hurt the other person; however, in their cases, they take pleasure by imposing pain on others. For instance,
in some cases Fred shows his sadist side and in others in indicates his masochist side. When he is a sadist he thinks that
he has ownership of other characters. “Fred was glorifying in the knowledge of true ownership: this Perfection is Mine!
I love it!” (Kramer, 2000, p. 20). He claims that he loves those who are in relationship with him, but at the same time,
he considered himself as the master. He owns those humans like a master owns a slave.
The characters are aware of their dependence on each other; however, when they have the freedom to choose, they
are so petrified that it stifles them. One of the characters in the novel who is also in search of his subjectivity is Abe.
“He does not know it, but the horrors he is to confront in this latest chapter of his search for Meaning, Enlightenment,
Where Is the Rational?, on which the emancipated Jew so prides himself, will be such as to make him… what? A Job?
A Hitler? An Abe?” (Kramer, 2000, p. 41). As indicated, his lack of self-identification in terms of his prospect in life
has made him an unsure individual. He does not have a stable stance on who he is as a Jew and therefore, hulls himself
into the world of promiscuous relationships whereby he sticks to the ways of the other person. In return, he gets
superficial assurance of his life for once and does not have to trouble himself by the overbearing thoughts.

Similarly to Abe, Fred too, goes through a series of uncertainty in his life as an adult man. While he is described as a
perfectly good looking and functional man with good physique, he struggles with his own subjectivity as well. Although
he is single and looking, he cannot seem to engage himself in the social interaction with other characters. In fact, he is
horrified with the world and how it has reached to such decadence in morality; thus, he is scared of exploring new
things. His freedom in being an individual proves to be too extreme for him; listing out the many fears he suffers from.
1: Algonqua smothered me to death with her “Love”; 2: Lester hated me; 3: I want to be Hurt; 4: I don’t want to be
Hurt; 5: I want to Hurt somebody else; 6; I seek the tensions of my shitty childhood; 7: I seek as lovers only those who
embody the identical responses that Algonqua and Lester, those cocked- up fronts from whence all patterns flow,
programmed into me; 8: I refuse to compete in anyway with ultra- straight brother Ben; 9: I’m still trying to be accepted
as “one of the boys” I never was in youth, 10: I have a bad relationship with my body and need constant re-affirmation
by a bevy of parading beauties that I Am Hot… (Kramer, 2000, p. 105)
Fred lists down all the reasons in order not to search for his individuality as freedom of choice is threatening.
Palazzolo states that “[i]t is a fleeing from aloneness that generates the desire to submerge the self with others and/ or
with the things of the world so that we can be relieved from the unbearability of anxiety and panic that is set off by each
person’s sense of isolation (2007, p. 149). The characters in the novels have an intense codependency with each other
because of their respective fear of being alone. Their quest in reclaiming individuality is juxtaposed with a negative
lifestyle filled with social vices. As mentioned before, Fred is a masochist who takes pleasure in rejection of others and
by living in denial. This is highlighted in a scene where he does not have the courage to be firm with his “boyfriend” on
fixing a date night. He is constantly rejected and rescheduled, to a point where the two scarcely meet, and yet he
remains stagnant where he is, content with the situation. In fact, Fred is so accustomed to this habit that he has
experienced the same thing with other men previously in his life;
Recalling a night in London when a handsome French man he’d picked up in Piccadily Circus had threatened him
with knives, recalling how First Love Feffer had one mysterious evening in New Orleans tried to tie him up and whip
him with a belt, recalling how Feffer ever thereafter claimed Fred to be a true masochist, sending vibrations out to all
the world’s true sadists that he was just begging to be punished- all of these nocturnal emissions prompted Fred to
immediately jump into his clothes, leave this one at the tubs. (Kramer, 2000, p. 170)
Accordingly, Fromm notes that the masochists enjoy making themselves insignificant and being belittled (1942, p.
133). The sadomasochists are extremely dependent on each other solely because of the perverted nature of their sense of
self and relationship. Fred
found a thick membership directory to Inter-Chain, a worldwide organization of leather and slavery and bondage
and Master- Slave with its information under Adams, D., that he was he was interested only in supervising bondage and
light whipping and punishment and Master-only rites, together with twenty further copies of that photograph, his Dinky
standing tall, cold, immobile, the whipping Master just waiting to be summoned to command, all in those leather items.
(Kramer, 2000, p. 191)
The society is a complex mechanism, complicated with various social, political, and economic factor but one thing
which persists through all societies is that – it functions on a binary plane. For as long as there is men, there will be
women. For as long as there is masculinity, there will be femininity. For as long as there is wealth, there is poverty. The
same applies to the twisted relationships of these gay characters in the novel – for as long as there are people who enjoy
torturing, there will be people who takes pleasure in being the subject of torture. That then solidifies the codependency
amongst the characters but thus, losing their individuality which they so seek for at the very beginning of the process of
individuation.
Masochism can be broken down to few levels depending on the extremity of the action. Some of the more intense
masochists enjoy being sexually inferior and punished physically. Paulie enjoys being punished and Timothy is
gratified sexually by being harsh to Paulie as Timothy is sadist. As mentioned before, the sadist and masochist satisfy
each other’s needs and at the same time they lose their individuality. “Paulie said: ‘I want you to punish me harder
hardest hardingest!’ to which young Timothy replied: ‘this is the most wicked awfulest most punishing pole stick I ever
seen I am going to punish you so good you will never forget it’” (Kramer, 2000, p. 232). They both enjoy punishing and
being punished as their mentality works this way. Power, according to Krafft-Ebing, is one of the central defining
factors of sadomasochism, more fundamental to than the pleasure-pain complex usually assigned to sadomasochistic
erotics (Davis, 2012, p. 50).
Eventually, the characters realize that their constant living in denial and seeking for temporary affection prove to do
more harm than good. Their codependency amongst each other has changed them into someone that they are not. Their
willingness to change in the process is forged by the sense of isolation and loneliness that they felt when they were
alone. As such, they rather mold their characters according to the desire of their respective partners, betraying their true
self.
I’ve been looking, seeking, demanding, the love of Lester all my life. As if… as if… as if a dinky Lester’s love
would make me whole and everything all right. As if wrestling Lester’s love from Dinky’s stone would make
everything all right. Lester would have loved me. I chose another Lester and tried to make him love me. So I could be
lovable. (Kramer, 2000, p. 358)

Originally, the characters set out on a quest to find themselves, going through the process of individuation because of
their fear of freedom. The solitary freedom which they had from being alone proves to be overwhelming and thus,
seeking partners to fill that gap. However, it is observed repeatedly in the novel that the characters find themselves
being involved in wrong relationships and ultimately ends up having a sense of loathsome and depreciation for their
dignity. They do it nonetheless because of the destitution faced when being alone. Therefore, their situation can be
equaled to that of a double-edged sword, for the result of their attempt is just as malicious as compared to when they
were lonely. On one hand, the characters lost their individuality from the separation at birth, and on the other; they
suffer loss of identity. Despite everything, they managed to come to their senses concerning their situation. They
emphasize the fact that all this while they played the roles to fit in with everybody else and not being true to themselves.
At this point tears turn to anger. Anger finally arrives. How dare we have treated ourselves and each other so badly?
Anger. For love unrealized. For settling for so little. For humiliation and its pleasure. For foolishness revealed. For
having loved half a person. And therefore having hoped only half fully. For being putty. For cowardice and being
Lester’s sissy. For selfishness. For playing the petty game of dangler and dangle. For life still undefined. For lies. To
self and others. For the lack of courage to be faithful. To self and love. You and Me, Dinky. We’ve been both the same.
I fell in love with a role player, not a role model, and I’ve been just the same. It was my fault. (Kramer, 2000, p. 359)
They acted all this while and they did not show their true nature as they were scared their true self might scare the
other person away. At this point of time, the characters sense of individuation which is “the process by which an
individual emerges” (McLaughlin, 1996, p. 245). They were oblivious to the fact that being ignorant to themselves
leads to self-hatred. The newfound awareness brings about another perspective of appreciation and fresh start. With
much hope and conviction, they finally come to terms with their personal individuality by acknowledging their sense of
worth, dignity, and self-love.
IV. CONCLUSION
To recapitulate, a child starts to undergo the process of individuation upon his realization that he is separated from
his mother and that he is his own being. That is when the feeling of loneliness comes in due to the loss of attachment
with his mother figure previously. As such, in order for the child to overcome the feeling of loneliness, he goes out
attempting to look for similar bond which will secure his feeling again as a person – whole, as though his individuality
is attained and in perfect harmony as before. In this paper, the characters go through a series of rough and unpredictable
relationships; all of which possesses hints of sadism and masochism. The grotesque nature of those relationships do not
seem to faze the characters as they face it boldly, claiming that it is part and parcel of “life” that they have to endure in
order to regain their individuality again. However, it is observed repeatedly in the case of the characters in this paper
that their quest not only proves to be futile but contradictory to the aim of their quest of identity. As the findings show,
the characters ultimately learn to accept themselves as a lone being and that it is only through self-love that they get to
slowly and gradually regain what was lost in the first place – their individuality.
REFERENCES
[1] Davis, Mary Ann. (2012). "Useful Dangers: The Erotics of Forms, Sadomasochism, Victorian Narratives." Diss. U of Southern
California, 2012. ProQuest,: 1-246. Print.
[2] Freud, Sigmund. (1995). The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. 24 vols. Ed. by James
Strachey, Anna Freud, Alix Strachey, Alan Tyson, and Angela Richards. London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-
analysis, 1995.
[3] Fromm, E. (1942). Fear of freedom. London: Routledge.
[4] Kariel, H. S. (1957). The Normative Pattern of Erich Fromm's Escape from Freedom. The Journal of Politics 19 (4): 640-654.
[5] Knight, F. H. (1942). Review: Escape from Freedom. by Erich Fromm. American Journal of Sociology 48 (2): 299.
[6] Krafft-Ebing, Richard von. (1965). Psychopathia Sexualis: A Medico-Forensic Study, Ernest van den Haag, intro. Harry D.
Wedeck, trans. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 217-8.
[7] Kramer, L. (2000). Faggots. New York: Grove Press.
[8] McLaughlin, N. (1996). Nazism, Nationalism, and the Sociology of Emotions: Escape from Freedom Revisited. Sociological
Theory 14 (3): 241- 261.
[9] Palazzolo, S. A. (2007). Demystifying Sexual Perversion: An Existential Reading of Sadomasochism and Erich Fromm’s Call
to Love. PhD Thesis. Pennsylvania: Duquesne University.
[10] Tay, L. K., Sedehi, K. T. (2016). Normalizing Masochism: Subversion and Reification of Hegemony in Larry Karemer’s The
Normal Heart. Journal of Language and Communication, 3(2): 241- 248.

Tay Lai Kit is currently pursuing his Master’s degree in English Literature in the Department of English,
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia. A summa cum laude graduate
in similar institution for Bachelor’s degree, his field of interest includes gender studies and psychoanalytic
cogitation. His ardent spirit and undying passion in the performing arts scene has crafted him into an
individual who thrives in an environment of infinite creative possibilities. Due to personal affiliation, he is
interested in literary works which deals directly with gender queer experience and psychosocial cogitation.
Kamelia Talebian Sedehi is PhD of English Literature. She received her doctorate from Universiti Putra
Malaysia in 2016. She received her B.A. (2009) and M.A. (2011) in English Literature from University of
Isfahan. Her research interests are melancholia, trauma, sexuality, gender studies and interdisciplinary topics.
She has presented at various national and international conferences and is an experienced university lecturer
and teacher. Currently, she is working at Payam Noor University (Isfahan branch), Iran.

ISSN 1799-2591
Integrating Thinking into L2 Learning: What do

We Learn from Students’ Learning Experience
Mei-Hui Chen
Shih Chien University, Kaohsiung Campus, Taiwan
Abstract—This study conducted a higher-order thinking approach in the L2 classroom and examined students’
attitudes towards and perceptions of learning with high cognitive thinking. Teaching higher-order thinking is
essential for learning and teachers are encouraged by education authorities to integrate high cognitive thinking
into teaching. Yet, little is known about the extent to which students who are used to learning with lower-order
thinking skills like reciting and comprehension in the L2 classroom can adapt to learning using higher-order
thinking. This paper addresses this issue by exploring students’ attitudes towards and perceptions of the
importance of thinking in L2 learning and how it impacts on learning through the analysis of data collected
from a case study design, including 40 self-completed questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with 16
students. This study shows that three-quarters of the students hold positive attitudes towards learning using
higher-order thinking, and such learning facilitated their learning performance and learning behavior, while
one quarter resisted. The findings of the study reflect on teaching higher-order thinking, and provide
recommendations for integrating thinking skills into L2 teaching.
Index Terms—higher-order thinking, L2 learning, attitudes & perceptions
I. INTRODUCTION
Teaching thinking has been strongly advocated by educators and researchers to raise educational standards and to
prepare learners for lifelong learning and has become a desirable goal in higher education worldwide (Halx & Reybold,
2006). The teaching of thinking is also important in terms of cultivating learners’ competitiveness in a global job market
(Au, 2006), and strengthening economic growth (World Bank, 2011). Thus, it is argued that the language learning
should go beyond the acquisition of basic literacy skills, and it is now essential to equip learners with the ability to think
critically by integrating thinking skills into L2 teaching. A number of researchers (e.g., Atkinson, 1997) postulated that
it is difficult for non-native English-speaking students, in particular, Asian students, to learn to think critically because
of their collective and hierarchical cultural backgrounds where students rarely challenge what they learned from the
teacher. However, empirical studies (e.g., Author, 2015; Yang & Gamble, 2013) have shown that students who possess
hierarchical cultural background can be trained with activities to foster a thinking-skills approach, resulting in an
enhancement of L2 proficiency and cognitive ability.
Though it has been proven that the teaching of thinking benefits L2 learners, the implementation of integrating
thinking into L2 instruction has been peripheral (Li, 2011). The learning of thinking has been included in L2 curricula
around the world like Taiwan (Ministry of Education, 2008). To allow this part of the curricula to be implemented more
effectively in the L2 classroom, an exploration of L2 teachers’ conceptions of and practice in teaching thinking shows
that teacher training to develop both content and pedagogical knowledge of teaching thinking is essential (Li, 2016). In
addition to an enhancement of teachers’ professional knowledge of teaching thinking, the present study argues that it is
also crucial to understand students’ attitudes towards the learning of thinking and to what extent the teaching of thinking
impacts on their learning process, so that the design of thinking-based curricula can be more effective for student
learning in general. As Brown (1989) argues, to improve the effectiveness of a language program, students’ learning
situations and attitudes within the context involved should be taken into account. Students’ attitudes affect their
willingness to participate in learning activities (Fushino, 2010). Yet, there is little research reporting students’ attitudes
towards and perception of the role of thinking in L2 learning and to what extent the teaching of thinking affects student
learning. Identifying this gap in the literature, this study attempts to make the first contribution to the comprehending
students’ attitudes towards and perceptions of learning thinking skills. The findings are of interest to educators and
researchers interested in the teaching and learning of higher-order thinking.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Thinking Skills & L2 Learning
Thinking skills is interpreted differently by researchers. In the present study they are referred to the mental processes
of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation by Bloom (1956). Knowledge,
comprehension and application are classified as lower-order thinking skills. In L2 classrooms lower-order thinking
skills are fundamental and used to acquire the linguistic competence like memorizing, understanding the text and
imitating (Ding, 2007). Lower-order thinking is often utilized for rote learning and answering lower-order or

comprehension-check questions which require students to recall facts, explain, and apply the vocabulary or grammar
rules learned in class tests. Analysis, synthesis and evaluation are categorized as higher-order thinking (HOT) skills.
This type of thinking is mainly used for active learning where students need to think critically and creatively such as
reasoning, solving problems, forming concepts, considering opinions, making decisions and judgments, and generating
new perspectives. It is important to note that in the process of using higher-order thinking, lower-order thinking is also
operated as a pre-requisite of higher-order thinking. As Bloom (1956) suggests that value or judgment cannot be applied
until one knows the facts, understand the facts, can apply the facts, is able to take the facts apart and put the facts back
together. Thinking skills can be seen as a learning strategy and, importantly, it is a strategy that enhances learner
autonomy (Wenden, 1991).
Thinking skills can be developed through experience, education, and training (Fisher, 1998) and taught at all levels to
improve learners’ achievement (Lipman, 2003). Research (Author, 2016) suggests that thinking skills can be promoted
through the use of higher-order questions, sufficient wait-time, communication skills, collaboration, and social
interaction (e.g., small group interaction). Vygotsky (1978) and Swain (2000) stated that social interaction is a key
mechanism for cognition and language development. It allows for the occurrence of socio-cognitive conflicts (Mugny &
Doise, 1978) where different perceptions arise and are readjusted and this process contributes greatly to cognitive and
language development. Social interaction promotes active learning (Watson, 2001; Vygotsky, 1978), transferring, and
boost self-confidence (Watson, 2000).
B. Thinking Skills Used in Taiwanese L2 Learning Context
English is the most commonly studied foreign language in Taiwan. Yet, exposure to English use outside the language
classroom is rather limited. Two main teaching approaches are commonly used in English language teaching in higher
education in Taiwan, namely the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) and the Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) Approach (Liu, 2005). GTM mainly focuses on teachers explaining the grammar rules and vocabulary use and
students utilizing mainly lower-order thinking skills like understanding the grammar rules, remembering the vocabulary,
and applying the grammar rules and vocabulary learned in some form of test. CLT emphasizes the active
communication which provides more opportunities for students to speak and use higher-order thinking skills like
reasoning, solving problems and making judgments. However, it may be questioned as to whether this approach has
been fully implemented in the way promised. As Coyle (2002) argues, this so-called ‘communicative approach’ in most
L2 classrooms, with its prescribed syllabus topics based on transactional language, unintentionally promotes a reactive
rather interactive role for learners. Most Taiwanese non-English major students arguably have lower motivation to learn
English and higher anxiety when required to respond to teacher questions or engage in speaking activities (Liao, 2008).
Nunan (2003) also points out that a lack of teacher training indicates CLT has not been fully put into operation in
Taiwan. These teaching approaches mainly focus on the gain of linguistic competence and do not offer many
opportunities for students to think critically and independently and to speak authentically. From a pedagogical
perspective, the teaching methods applied in Taiwan provide learning opportunities mainly with lower-order thinking
skills.
Taiwanese students have a collective and hierarchical cultural background where they are used to sitting quietly to
listen in class, respond passively to comprehension-check questions, and practice speaking with mainly written
dialogues (Liu, 2005); they tend to be inactive about L2 learning and rarely challenge what they learn from the teacher.
Students’ learning styles indicate that lower-order thinking skills like recalling linguistic knowledge and understanding
the text are mainly used and higher-order thinking skills are rarely utilized. While students are used to learning with
lower-order thinking skills, the extent to which higher-order thinking skills are considered important in L2 learning
needs to be explored.
C. Thinking Skills & L2 Studies
Empirical studies have utilized a variety of thinking activities like critical thinking activities and higher-order
questions to improve students’ L2 and cognitive performance (Alcón, 1993; Author, 2015; Godfrey, 2001; Mehta &
Al-Mahrooqi, 2015; Yang & Gamble, 2013; Zhang, Anderson, & Nguyen-Jahiel, 2013). On affective aspects, it was
found that university students have negative attitudes towards answering higher-order questions in a teacher-led setting
since they lack the confidence to speak English and it can be difficult for them to thinking critically in front of the class
(Tan, 2007). Yet, research has shown that integrating thinking into L2 instruction can motivate students to take risks
(Shahini & Riazi, 2011), enhance students’ attitudes towards learning and decrease their language-use anxiety (Zhang,
Anderson, & Nguyen-Jahiel, 2013), and arouse interest in learning with better interaction (Yang & Gamble, 2013). In
particular, students with high positive attitudes towards the thinking tasks improve their L2 oral production (Dörnyei &
Kormos, 2000). In addition to the benefit of the improvement of L2 and thinking performance, it is believed that a
pedagogy mixing thinking skills and language learning promotes language transfer (Jones et al., 1987).
III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The present study aimed to conduct a higher-order thinking (HOT) approach (see below) in a L2 classroom and
explore how students perceive the importance of thinking in L2 learning, their attitudes towards the approach, and the

extent to which the approach affects student learning. Research questions are as follows:
1. What are students’ perceptions of the importance of lower-order and higher-order thinking in L2 learning?
2. What are students’ attitudes towards and perceptions of the HOT approach?
3. What are students’ perceived impacts of the HOT approach on their learning?
IV. METHODS
The present study was designed as a case study of an intervention. Yin (2003) asserts that an empirical inquiry
investigates a current phenomenon within its real-life context and a case study is one means that researchers can use. A
case study method allowed the researcher to explore students’ attitudes towards and perceptions of the impact of the
HOT approach on student learning in depth.
A. Participants
One EFL class of non-English major freshmen students (N = 40) at a university in Taiwan participated in this study.
They were aged between 18 and 19 years. The research purpose and procedures were explained to participants and
informed consent was obtained.
B. The HOT Approach
The present study aimed to conduct a HOT approach, based on social constructivist perspective, to motivate students
to think and speak by engaging them in thinking-task group discussion. This approach consisted of thinking tasks
designed with higher-order questions (Morgan & Saxton, 1994), including a use of wait-time (Tobin, 1987), probing
(Wu, 1993), and communication skills (Long, 1996). The procedure had two steps (for a HOT lesson plan, see
Appendix A). First, the teacher modeled the thinking tasks for students in a teacher-fronted setting, concentrating on
activating students’ background knowledge and demonstrating how to respond to higher-order questions,
communication strategies and language use. Second, thinking tasks were implemented in small groups. Students were
first required to present their opinions on the questions listed in the thinking-task handout and then encouraged to think
critically about their group members’ contributions to the discussion and interact by commenting on one another’s
opinions. Students were required to reach a consensus within a group through discussion. At this stage students applied
the skills learned in the first step.
Four types of thinking tasks (an example of a thinking task, see Appendix B), including 5Ws, Odd One Out,
Make-Up-A-Story, and Guess What I Say, were used. Each task provided opportunities to exercise particular skills of
higher cognition. Three different topics were developed for each task type, totaling 12 tasks in all. The topics used in
the thinking tasks were related to the textbook contents and life experiences of the learners and links to related
vocabulary and sentence patterns were provided to facilitate the discussion. A summary of the tasks is as follows.
5Ws (Butterworth & O’Conner, 2005) activates students’ analysis, synthesis, and evaluation thinking, mainly asking
questions such as “why,” “how,” and ‘which is better….”
Odd One Out (Leat, 1998) fosters classification skills, and requires students to classify three objects and pinpoint
which one differs from the others.
Make-Up-A-Story develops synthesis thinking, requiring learners to create a story based on provided pictures.
Guess What I Say requires students to arrive at an answer (e.g., an idiom) using analytical thinking.
The intervention was conducted for 12 weeks. This class had 2-hour lesson per week. The students received a
50-minute lecture in the first lesson focusing on vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension. In the second lesson
the HOT approach was implemented.
C. Data Collection
The questionnaire exploring the students’ perceptions of the importance of thinking in L2 learning (see appendix C)
was designed based on Bloom’s six thinking levels with three questions for each thinking level, with a total of 18 items
based on six-point Likert scales (from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’) and was distributed to the 40 participants
before the pre-test and after the post-test. Some of the concepts associated with thinking levels might be rather abstract
for the respondents to understand. To make the questions more concrete for the respondents, an additional example was
included. The questionnaire was piloted in Chinese version with a convenience sample of 30 university students in a
college in Southern Taiwan. Some wordings and examples which were found inappropriate for the students were
modified based on informants’ feedback. A Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliability was calculated and
achieved the satisfactory level of .94.
This study adopted a semi-structured interview to find out how different students view the HOT approach. The
interview was conducted one to one with 16 students who volunteered to be interviewed after the post-test. Interview
questions mainly related to participants’ attitudes towards and perceptions of the HOT approach and the impact on their
learning. Questions included whether they liked the thinking approach, and whether they perceived any impact of the
thinking approach on their English speaking, thinking, and learning in general. Interviewees were required to provide
reasons and examples when responding to the questions. The students were interviewed in Chinese and all the
interviews were audio recorded.

D. Data Analysis
Eighteen questions in the questionnaire regarding students’ perceptions of the importance of thinking in L2 learning
were classified into lower-order thinking (knowledge, comprehension, application) and higher-order thinking (analysis,
synthesis, evaluation) and were analyzed using paired-samples t test. The transcripts of the interview data were first
analyzed using ‘open coding’ (Merriam, 2009). I discussed the coding remarks with a trained researcher using a sample
of the interview data. We then individually marked the data. The coding units were tallied. The interrater reliability
reached a satisfactory agreement of 92.5%. The discrepancies in the initial coding results were discussed and a mutual
agreement was reached. We then looked through the remarks, attempting to identify the themes through an iterative
process to examine commonalities and differences in the remarks. Having identified the themes, we then categorized the
remarks into the themes individually. The interrater reliability for the theme classification reached 97.3%.
V. RESULTS
A. The Perceived Importance of Thinking in L2 Learning
There was a significant difference in the perceived importance of using lower-order thinking in L2 learning after the
intervention (p = .028, p < .05) while students’ perception of using higher-order thinking did not change (p = .878, p
> .05), as shown in Table 1. The mean score of perceived importance of using lower-order thinking at pre-test was 1.88
and 2.14 at post-test, meaning that students considered the use of lower-order thinking in English language learning
important; however, they perceived it as significantly less important after the intervention. This can be explained by the
fact that students used to enhance their English proficiency by reciting vocabulary and understanding grammar, yet
through the training of higher-order thinking students realized that their speaking improved (see below) by using
higher-order thinking skills. Thus, students decreased the perceived importance of lower-order thinking in L2 learning.
Students were of the opinion that higher-order thinking played an important role in L2 learning (mean = 2.42 at
pre-test, 2.43 at post-test) and their attitudes remained the same after the intervention. However, it is interesting to see
that students did not consider the use of higher-order thinking more important after they had perceived an improvement
of their speaking and thinking performances. It seems possible that the result is due to the pressure and high cognitive
demand required by the thinking tasks (see below).
Comparing the perceived importance of lower-order thinking to higher-order thinking, students considered
lower-order thinking was more important than higher-order thinking. This can be explained by the facts that the
exam-oriented education system has deeply influenced students’ learning style. Students needed to recite vocabulary
and understand the grammar rules, so they could apply the linguistic knowledge while taking a test. They also
considered reciting more vocabulary essential while expressing opinions because they sometimes encountered a lack of
vocabulary during discussions (see below).
TABLE 1.
PAIRED-SAMPLES T TEST ON THE PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF LOWER-ORDER AND HIGHER -ORDER THINKING
Paired Differences t df Sig.
(2-tailed)
Thinking Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval of Mean Std. Std. Error
Mean the Difference Deviation Mean
Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper
Lower-order -.25556 .70954 .11219 -.48248 -.02863 -2.278 39 .028
Higher-order -.02339 .93219 .15122 -.32979 .28301 -.155 37 .878
B. Attitudes towards the HOT Approach

1. Enjoyment
The majority of students had positive attitudes towards the HOT approach. They considered the learning process to
be interesting and motivating. Sample responses are as follows.
“I could express any opinion I wanted. I felt good.”
“I really practiced English authentically. Speaking is very important because the main aim of learning English is to
communicate with others, not to take exams.”
2. Pressure and anxiety
Higher-order questions requires more effort and challenge in the use of the target language and as such was not
universally popular. Around half of the student comments were related to pressure and anxiety. Responses showed that
this attitude was due to low speaking proficiency, unfamiliar topics, and cognitive demands. Samples responses are as
follows.
“I suffered a lot of pressure from it [the HOT approach]. I prefer the previous teaching method [a method similar to
the grammar-translation method].”
“It was cognitively demanding when translating Chinese answers into English…It was tiring…Then I felt down.”
To complicate the findings, half of the students who felt pressure held a positive attitude toward this pressure. They
appreciated the pressure they were under because it supported their learning. Sample comments include:

“I improve with that pressure.”

“I felt very afraid in the beginning. It seemed there was always pressure in class…I didn’t pay any attention to the
pressure. I just kept discussing and discussing. Later on I had the courage to speak, so the pressure was relieved.”
3. Resistance
A quarter of the students resisted this approach and preferred the teaching method which was similar to
grammar-translation. Sample reasons are as follows.
“I learned more with the old method. I didn’t learn more vocabularies with this approach.”
“I don’t like this thinking approach. I felt pressured, yet I didn’t learn more.”
C. Perceived Impacts on Student Learning
The results also revealed the HOT approach had a wide impact on student learning, ranging from immediate effects
on student learning to a wider impact on long-term learning. Figure 1 reveals a summary of the overall perceived
impacts found.
Figure 1. Perceptions of the effect of the HOTS approach on student performance
1. Psychology
The HOT approach was perceived by students to have an effect on psychology. As mentioned above, students felt
pressure and expressed a reluctance to speaking English due to a fear of making mistakes. It was not easy to conquer
such a psychological barrier. However, students argued that they gained more confidence and were more willing to
speak and were able to take risks in language use. The majority of students rationalized that their confidence towards
speaking English increased because they had gotten used to expressing ideas in English. Sample responses include:
“I have more courage to speak and to take risks.”
“I have more confidence and feel that I am improving.”
2. Thinking
More than half of the students claimed that the thinking tasks were intellectually challenging and they had to think
hard, which they rarely did before. Sample responses are as follows.
“My brain would go blank with the previous teaching method. Now I force myself to think in class.”
“It was cognitively demanding the first time we played Odd One Out.”
Socio-cognitive conflicts occurred in the process of arguing and reasoning. As a result, students noticed that their
concept had been shaped; their viewpoints and values had changed, as commented below by a student.
“I sometimes noticed that my group members had different viewpoints and values from mine. I listened to their
reasons. If their reasons and evidence could convince me of their viewpoints and values, I would agree with them. For
example, once I considered appearance important when choosing an ideal mate. However, my group members disagreed
with me and argument ensued. Finally, I was persuaded and agreed that appearance should not be seen as an important
feature.”
The majority of students believed that their higher-order thinking developed and they could express their ideas more
logically, providing reasons and evidence. The findings indicate that most students had benefited from the thinking
approach in terms of their thinking performance. Sample comments include:
“I can use evidence, examples, and my viewpoints in my argument. My reasoning skill has become more logical.”
“I would analyse others’ viewpoints and evidence and evaluate whether what they said made sense to me. I also
compared their thoughts with my ideas.”
A quarter of students perceived their thinking speed to have accelerated. They claimed that at the beginning it took

them much longer to think and to express their ideas. That means students could process information and respond faster.
Sample comments are as follows.
“At the beginning I thought in Chinese, translated Chinese answers into English and then elaborated. Now I think in
Chinese and elaborate immediately in English.”
“My CPU [brain] used to run slowly and sometimes it froze…Now I feel that my CPU has upgraded.”
3. Speaking
The thinking tasks required student to express their thoughts and comment on others’ opinions, resulting in plenty of
speaking opportunities provided. While most of the students considered they talked more, less than half of students
believed that their speaking fluency improved. Although the number of the students holding positive belief about
fluency was not high, it does indicate a greater opportunity for students to speak fluently was provided by this thinking
approach. The impact on speaking performance also reflects on the use of vocabulary items which students had rarely
used previously. It stretched the speakers in terms of lexical processing due to the need to express their ideas and
opinions. Sample responses include:
“I do not clearly know how much I improve, but I am sure I talk more.”
“The fluency really improves…That means I can speak more fluently.”
“[Now I often use words which] I wouldn’t use before.”
Students also claimed that their language communicative skills improved. They were able to use substitute words or
paraphrase when lacking lexical items. Also, they perceived that their ability to extend the topic was enhanced. Sample
responses include:
“I can use other words to substitute. For example, I don’t know the word ‘humble’, I would explain it as don’t tell
others I am good.”
“When we played Guess What I Say, I used alternative words to explain without mentioning the idiom.”
“I could extend the topic for further discussion.”
4. Skills
The effect of the HOT approach on skills, such as writing, listening, and reading was also commented on by a quarter
of respondents. They realized that they could compose English writing much faster than before and were aware of the
improvement in listening and reading. Most significantly, the reasoning skills were applied to other subject areas.
Sample responses are as follows:
“It used to take me a long time to compose one email in English. Now I can write one very quickly. I can do it more
directly and do not need to think for a long time.”
“I used to feel that a little piece of information was missing [when listening to others]…just like playing jigsaw; I
sometimes missed one piece, so I did not quite understand what it meant. Now I feel ‘oh, oh, oh, I see’… My listening
and reading comprehension is improving.”
“I can talk more about art work in art class. I used to be quiet but now I start to express my views and apply the
thinking skills to justify and evaluate the imposition of values on a piece of artwork, including mine and others’ work.”
5. Learning
It was also very surprising that a quarter of students perceived that the HOT approach had influenced their learning
styles. They were more aware of the autonomous learning and gained the courage to chat in English online. They felt
this was due to the intervention. Sample comments include:
“The aim for me to learn English used to be passing exams. I was interested in learning English, but I would not
study if there was no exam. Now I become more like an autonomous learner. I sometimes read English articles and
advertisements which I would not do before.”
“I met a foreign net pal recently. I didn’t dare to talk to foreigners before because I did not know what to say and how
to say it in English. This time I did it on purpose in order to give myself a chance to use English.”
VI. DISCUSSION
A. Practicability
The practicability of introducing higher-order thinking skills into an L2 classroom mainly depends on students’
perceived importance of thinking in L2 learning and attitudes towards the thinking tasks. The results reveal that students
considered both higher-order and lower-order thinking important in L2 learning and they hold positive attitudes towards
the HOT approach, indicating that students are able to adapt to high cognitive training in the L2 classroom. This finding
is in contrast to the results of Tan (2007) who investigated students’ attitudes towards higher-order questions in a
teacher-led setting and encountered student resistance to higher-order questions. The present study found that students
came to like the approach adopted in the current study, participated fully, and articulated their thoughts increasingly in
English over time, as shown in the interview data. This positive attitude may be explained by student perceptions of an
improvement in their own L2 speaking and thinking performance, as well as in that of other group members. A further
explanation is the fact that in small group discussions pressure and anxiety can be alleviated, so students feel more at
ease and confident to speak and conduct deeper thinking (Tsui, 1996).
The HOT approach however was not universally popular. The interview data revealed that one-quarter of the students
resisted this approach and preferred the teaching method which was similar to grammar-translation. This resistance can

be explained by the following reasons. Firstly, the HOT approach is cognitively challenging and requires more effort.
Secondly, students may not benefit or learn more than using the old methods; it could be that their learning styles enable
them to benefit more from the more didactic teaching approach similar to grammar-translation (Coffield et al., 2004). A
third reason is that the 12-week intervention was not long enough for these students to adapt to or fully benefit from it,
which could be corroborated by the work of Eisenman and Payne (1997).
The problem of a negative attitude could be solved by two means. One is to include other types of thinking tasks,
such as problem solving tasks so as to increase the variety and the likelihood of a match with students’ preferences. The
other possible solution could be offering a mixture of pedagogies. It can be argued that there is no ‘one size fits all’
pedagogy. As Nakatani (2005) stresses, training does not always improve learning for all students. Thus, to meet the
demand of different learning styles, applying different types of pedagogy can be considered.
B. The Importance of Higher-order Thinking
It should be noted that it is through the use of high cognitive thinking more learning opportunities occur. In L2
learning, some commentators argue that lower-order thinking skills are the fundamental skills required. For example,
Ding (2007) explored the learning strategies used in L2 learning by successful learners and found that memorization
and imitation were the fundamental skills used for acquiring linguistic competence. Learners, according to Bloom
(1956), need to use lower-order thinking skills to recall from their memory and to activate their schemata, so high
cognitive skills can be operated. However, lower-order thinking does not facilitate creating more learning opportunities.
Lower-order thinking can be seen to be a prerequisite for activating higher-order thinking. Overall, it is higher-order
thinking that provides L2 learners with more language learning opportunities, leading to better student learning.
C. Transfer
The authentic scenarios created by thinking tasks impacts on L2 transfer. Students claimed that they were able to
apply the target language learned to other fields like online communication. James (2006) states that the notion of
authenticity is fundamental in learning transfer. When it matches with instructional materials and tasks in L2 classrooms,
then students are more likely to see the relationship with the world outside the classroom and this may stimulate
learning transfer. This finding supports Jones et al.’s (1987) proposition that a pedagogy mixing thinking skills and
language learning promotes language transfer. This evidence suggests that L2 transfer could occur through the use of
the HOT approach. However, the validity of this finding needs to be considered due to the limited number of cases
reported. Overall, this finding indicates that the thinking approach may provide a greater possibility for L2 transfer, but
further research is essential to explore the generalizability of this phenomenon.
The learning of higher-order thinking in the L2 also impacts on the transfer of thinking skills. Some students claimed
that they could apply higher-order thinking skills learned to other subjects and online communication. For instance, they
were able to critically comment on the art work presented in art class which they had rarely done before and elaborate
their thoughts more logically with reasons in online chatting. Though the reported cases are limited, this finding is
encouraging because it indicates that the teaching of a HOT approach facilitates the transfer of higher-order thinking
skills. To the author’s knowledge, the empirical research has not reported the transfer of thinking skills through thinking
activities. Future research can focus on the extent to which thinking skills can be transferred to other subjects.
D. Learning Behavior
Evidence from the interview data reveal that students’ disposition towards risk taking was developed. The thinking
tasks were designed to require students to articulate their own thoughts and reach a consensus. When the desire to
express thoughts occurs, it stimulates students to speak. In the present study students overcame a psychological barrier
in terms of speaking in the target language and intellectual barriers when they started to think out loud and take on
board the challenge involved. The change in observed behavior, breaking through these barriers, as found Shahini and
Riazi (2011), enhanced risk taking. Arguably, the environment created by the use of group work produced less anxiety
and facilitated this action. The participants in the current study claimed that at the beginning of the intervention they
were afraid of making mistakes and did not have the confidence to speak. The finding of the present study supports
Chen’s (2002) study, which observed that Taiwanese students feel great stress when faced with oral activities in L2
classrooms. It is through the HOT approach training and the nature of thinking tasks they started to give it a try. This
can be seen as a milestone in the learning process of L2 speaking. This result implies that the thinking approach
encourages students to change, take risks and step into the real realm of L2 speaking, even though the utterances
produced may be segmented and lack fluency.
The finding obtained from the interview data further showed there was an additional impact on students with low
listening comprehension. A couple of students reported that they were not able to understand the questions or to follow
the group discussion. As Godfrey (2001) found, students’ English proficiency can hinder students from participating
fully and also limit the degree to which they benefit from higher-order questions. This appears to be the case here.
Therefore, any teacher considering a HOT approach needs to take this issue into account. This problem might be solved
by employing questioning strategies, such as rephrasing, simplification, repetition and decomposition (Wu, 1993), both
by the teacher or students. With further explanation, these students will still have the chance to voice their opinions.
The findings also show that students became autonomous learners in which they would proactively read English

articles and chat with online English speaking communities, which they rarely did before. The result of the present
study supports Wenden’s (1991) statement that thinking skills can be seen as a learning strategy and that such strategies
fosters learner autonomy. This can be explained by a reduction in student anxiety levels when speaking English and a
gain in the willingness to take risks. This finding also supports Zhou’s (2016) study which investigated the roles of
social anxiety, autonomy, and learning orientation in L2 learning, and found that students who experienced social
anxiety in language learning were less autonomous; that is, students with less anxiety can be more autonomous.
VII. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The present study found that the majority of students hold positive attitudes towards the HOT approach and the
importance of using higher-order thinking in L2 learning and perceived an improvement in their L2 speaking, thinking
performance and their learning behavior. This study has indicated that incorporating the use of higher-order questions
and a variety of thinking tasks offers a greater opportunity for students to adapt to the thinking approach and the hard
work associated with it. This study provides some recommendations for teachers who intend to encourage the
development of higher-order thinking in their students through a use of the HOT approach in the L2 classroom. First,
some essential strategies (e.g., communication strategies and probing) to facilitate provoking higher-order thinking need
to be applied while implementing the thinking tasks, and the means to manipulate these strategies can be found in
Author’s (2016) framework for incorporating thinking skills into L2 teaching. Second, teachers can use a variety of
thinking tasks to encourage higher-order thinking, so students will not feel fatigue and therefore a negative attitude.
Third, a mixture of pedagogies can better meet the demands of different learning styles. Fourth, when designing
instruction material to promote the transfer of learning, some techniques for maximizing the potential of teaching for
transfer in general education (James, 2006) could be applied. Last, instruction in appropriate questioning strategies (Wu,
1993) is necessary to facilitate a comprehension of higher-order questions. Finally, further research is essential within
the L2 context to explore the extent to which language and thinking skills can be transferred through a use of thinking
tasks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to all the students who participated in this study for their cooperation.
APPENDIX A. AN E XAMPLE OF A HOT LESSON PLAN
I. Objective: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
⬤ evaluate the best traveling package for freshmen;
⬤ take other’s opinions into account;
⬤ reason with examples and evidence;
⬤ conduct higher-order thinking including evaluation, analysis, and synthesis.
II. Thinking task: Travel packages. Students are required to assess the six travel packages and choose the best one for them to explore life and
culture abroad. The six travel packages include building homes for street children in Peru, Hiking in Himalayas, learning to surf, community work
with children in Kenya, wild animal safari in South Africa, and sightseeing in Europe.
Material: Thinking task handouts and ppt.
Values: Develop higher-order thinking; develop the ability to assess the best travel package for students to explore other cultures, taking factors
like the value of the travel package, budget, and enjoyment into account.
Means: Teacher modeling & group discussion
III. Procedure
A. Teacher modeling (15 min)
Aiming to activate students’ schemata, and demonstrating how to respond to higher-order questions, communication strategies and language use.
The teacher asks questions related to traveling as follows:
“Do you like traveling?”, “Have you been abroad?”, “Do you like to experience lifestyle of different culture?”, “What do you expect to see or to
learn while travelling abroad?”, “Do you like to help others? Why or why not?”, “Would you spend your holidays building homes for street
children?”, “After studying for a semester, do you thinking it is a good idea to spend your holidays helping other s?”
The teacher can choose one student to answer the question and make comments on the response by saying, “I agree/disagree with you because…”,
or “That’s a good idea, but I would...” Then the teacher invites other students to comment on the thoughts expr essed to foster interaction among
students. At this stage it is important to provide sufficient wait-time for students to come up with an answer. Also, the teacher can demonstrate
communication skills like asking for clarification by saying “Could you please say that again?”, “Do you mean…?”, “Could you please explain
what is meant by…?”, etc.
B. Thinking-task group discussion (30 min)
The teacher gives students thinking task handouts and explains what students need to do.
C. Wrap up (5 min)
Have each group present their answers. Then the teacher invites the class to comment on the answers.
IV. Assignment
Writing
Students write down the best travel package for them with reasons provided. Also, they need to justify why the other travel packages are less
suitable for them.

APPENDIX B. AN E XAMPLE OF A THINKING TASK

Topic: What do you consider the best travel package to explore other cultures? Task Type: 5Ws
Higher-order thinking: Evaluation, analysis Task: Select the best travel package to explore other cultures. You are
required to elaborate the best travel package you consider and then persuade others of your opinions with reasons,
evidence and examples, reaching a group consensus.
Travel package 1: Build homes for street children in Peru

Who can volunteer? If you are 18 or over, you can be involved
in this exciting project. Length: 17 days. Fee: NT$55,800.
Activity: 1. Spend two weeks to build homes for children
there. 2. Spend 3 days to visit Machu Picchu.
Travel package 2: Hiking in Himalayas

This trip is physically demanding. Location: India Length:
12 days Fee: NT$39,800 Activity: Hiking in Himalayas for 7
days, see magnificent rivers and mountain range Accom.: Wild
camping x 7 nights, Hotel x 2 nights, night train x 2 nights
Travel package 3: Learning to surf

Location: Golden Cost in Australia. Length: 7 days. Fee:
NT$68,200 Activity: 1.Learn to ride a wave within a day. 2.Surf
instructors will progress you through the basics of standing up,
paddling, wave selection and ocean knowledge. You learn to turn
and take the drop. Accom.: Cabin x 5 nights, Camping x 1 night
Travel package 4: Community work with children in Kenya

You can learn the different culture. Length: 2 weeks. Fee:
NT$34,000 Activity: 1. Help those children with AIDS virus in
Kenya. 2.You can provide some basic skills and companionship,
e.g. cooking meals, teaching English, art work, playing sports.
Travel package 5: Wild animal safari in South Africa

Length: 7 days Fee: NT$52,100
Activity: Riding in a jeep to see wild animals and experience the
nature.
Accom.: Wild camping x 4 nights (no water for shower), Safari
Lodge x 2 nights
Travel package 6: Sightseeing in Europe

Length: 15 days Fee: NT$133,800 Accom.: 4 star hotels x 13 nights.
Activity: bicycle-riding in Holland, cruising on River Rhine, visiting
castles, German beer tasting, Opera night in Vienna, Jungfrau
(mountain), the beach in Nice, shopping in Paris
APPENDIX C. QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

1. It is important to memorize what I have learned in English class.
2. It is important to recite English passages to practise English.
3. It is important to be able to recall what I have learned in English class.
4. It is important to understand the learning materials in English class.
5. Being able to summarize what we have read or listened to is important in English class.
6. Being able to retell what we have read or listened to is important in English class.
7. It is important to apply what we have learned in English class, e.g. to use the reading strategies learned in class to
read English newspaper after class.
8. Being able to think what I would do as a character in a novel is important in English class.
9. It is important to be able to think ‘alternative ways’ to explain when people do not understand me in English class.
10. It is important to be able to give reasons in English class, e.g. to justify a decision I have made.
11. It is important to use comparison and contrast skills in English class, e.g. to tell similarities and differences of the
two characters in a novel.

12. It is important to be able to analyse articles in English class, e.g. to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of a
plan.
13. Being able to solve problems is important in English class, e.g. to think about a solution to save money.
14. Creativity is important is English class, e.g. to make a new ending for a story.
15. It is important to be able to design things in English class, e.g. to design an itinerary for a two-week holiday.
16. Being able to assess is important in English class, e.g. to assess which travelling package is better for students
and provide reasons and evidence.
17. It is important to be able to make a good argument supported with reasons or evidence in English class, e.g. to
argue for not having dress code on campus and provide with reasons or evidence.
18. It is important to be able to make judgment based on evidence or reasons in English class, e.g. to show my
position, agree or disagree, and give reasons or evidence.
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Mei-Hui Chen is an assistant professor at Shih Chien University Kaohsiung Campus. She received her Ph.D in Education and
Applied Linguistics At Newcastle University, UK. Her Ph.D thesis, Infusing Thinking Skills into an L2 Classroom: a case study of an
innovation in a Taiwanese university, was shortlisted for Chirstopher Brumfit PhD Thesis Award in 2013. This award is sponsored by
Cambridge University Press, UK, and promoted by Language Teaching. Her specialty is TEFL Methodology, infusing higher-order
thinking into L2 classroom, and higher-order thinking activity design.

ISSN 1799-2591
Metacognitive Knowledge and Metacognitive

Control of Writing Strategy between High- and
Low-performing Chinese EFL Writers
Zehua Wang
Department of English, Shaanxi Xueqian Normal University, Xi’an, China
Feifei Han
Centre for Research on Learning and Innovation, Sydney School of Education and Social Work, The University of
Sydney, Australia
Abstract—This study investigated metacognitive knowledge and control of writing strategy in English among
65 Chinese EFL learners in two argumentative writing tasks. Metacognitive knowledge was measured using a
questionnaire written in simple present tense. Metacognitive control required writers to respond to a
questionnaire written in simple past tense immediately following completion of each writing task according to
the actual strategy use in the writing tasks. Students were grouped into high- and low-performing EFL writers
using one standard error above or below the Mean scores of the writing tasks. One-way ANOVA was
conducted on the four kinds of writing strategies (i.e., planning, cognitive, monitor-control, and evaluating).
We found that while there were no differences on any type of the writing strategies for metacognitive
knowledge, the two groups differed in the actual writing strategy use on each occasion. For the more familiar
and easier writing topic, high- and low-performing students differed only in cognitive writing strategies. For
the less familiar and more challenging writing task, high-achievers adopted significantly more planning,
cognitive, and evaluating strategies than low-achievers. This research supported for distinction between
metacognitive knowledge and control in EFL writing.
Index Terms—metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive control, writing strategy, Chinese EFL writers
I. INTRODUCTION
It has long been acknowledged that writing in a foreign language (FL) is highly complex because it involves multiple
interactions between internal factors (e.g., language proficiency, age, first language (L1) writing abilities, and
knowledge of the writing topics) and external factors (e.g., guidance of writing tasks, audience, and time pressure; see
Hyland, 2003 for an overview). In these highly complicated processes, writers’ metacognition plays a key role (e.g.,
Stevenson Schoonen, & de Glopper, 2006). Metacognition is different from cognition as the former helps an individual
understand and regulate how to perform the task, whereas the latter helps a person perform a task (Hacker, 1998;
Schraw, 1998).
Metacognition consists of two components: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive control. Metacognitive
knowledge, located in the long-term memory, is what a person knows about his/her own cognitive process, whereas
metacognitive control, functioning in individuals’ working memory, is reflected as one’s ability to use metacognitive
knowledge to achieve certain goals through various cognitive activities, such as planning, making decisions, and
monitoring (Batha & Carroll, 2007; Westby, 2004; You & Joe, 2001).
One of the problems in the FL writing strategy research is that researchers rarely make distinction between
metacogntive knowledge (i.e., knowledge about writing strategy use in general) and metacognitive control (i.e., the
actual writing strategy use in a specific writing task) (e.g., Alnufaie & Grenfell, 2012; Gupta & Woldemariam, 2011).
The distinction between metacognitive knowledge and control is important because having metacognitive knowledge
does not ensure that writers are able to execute metacognitive control during writing processes (Han, 2012, 2013; Han
& Stevenson, 2008). In order to fill the gap, our study investigates metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive control
of writing strategy in two argumentative writing tasks among a cohort of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL)
at university level in China. Our specific focus is on to what extent high- and low-performing EFL writers differ in
metacognitive knowledge and control of writing strategy. By making proper distinction between metacognitive
knowledge and control in FL writing strategy research will allow EFL writing instructors to identify whether levels of
writing quality are affected by EFL writers’ lack of writing strategy knowledge repertoire or by their inability to execute
knowledge in actual writing processes (or a combination of both), so that corresponding interventions can be designed
and carried out.

The writing processes

In the research of writing, researchers have made attempts to represent writing in a wide range of models: such as
Flower and Hayes’ (1981) cognitive processes of writing model, Hayes’ (2000) revised cognitive processes of writing
model, and Zimmermann’s (2000) FL writing formulation model, just to name a few. Among these models, Chenoweth
and Hayes’ model (2001) is a commonly adopted one, because it is a comprehensive description of sub-processes
involved in writing (see Figure 1 for a visualization of the model). From Figure 1, we can see that there are three levels
involved in the writing processes proposed in the model, namely the resource level, the process level, and the control
level. The resource level is the cognitive elements which are used in the writing, including working memory, long term
memory, and reading processes, such as reading task instruction, reading source materials to generate ideas for writing,
as well as reading one’s own draft for revising (Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001).
The process level has two sub-levels: one is concerned with internal aspect of writing and the other is associated with
the writing task, which is an external aspect. The internal sub-level is comprised of four parts: a Proposer, a Translator, a
Transcriber, and a Reviser. The Proposer is the “pre-linguistic source that produces ideas to be expressed” (Chenoweth
& Hayes, 2001, p. 84). The Proposer is responsible for ideas and thoughts to be generated and organized according to
some kinds of logic order so that the information is ready to be arranged into structured scripts. The Proposer is closely
related to the sub-process of planning in writing. The Translator, which associates with formulation processes in the
writing whereby ideas and thoughts are converted into linguistic elements, serves as bridges for “pre-linguistic ideas
into strings of language with appropriate word order and grammar” (Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001, p. 84). The linguistic
elements are then transcribed into the written forms either as hand-written scripts or as computer-processed scripts by
the Transcriber. The Translator and the Transcriber are jointly involved in the sub-processes of the actual writing. The
Reviser is mainly used in the sub-process of revising, which modifies and improves what has been translated and
transcribed in order to ensure the quality of information flow. The third level in this model is the control level, which
operates between the task schema and the other two levels.
Using the Chenoweth and Hayes’ model as a departing point for researching writing strategy has two advantages.
First, the writing strategies can be examined in the three sub-processes of writing from planning, writing, to revising.
Second, the resource level including both long-term and working memory provides an additional theoretical
justification for the distinction between metacognitive knowledge and control as the former is located in one’s
long-term memory while the latter is operated in one’s working memory.
Figure 1. Chenoweth and Hayes’ (2001) model of the writing process (adapted from Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001)
Metacognition and FL writing

Metacognition is defined as “a person’s knowledge and beliefs about the human mind and its doings”, which includes
“one’s conscious knowledge, cognitive process and states such as memory, attention, knowledge, conjecture and
illusion” (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2002, p. 106). In simple words, metacognition is essentially an individual’s
cognition about cognition, thinking about thinking, and knowing about knowing (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2002;
Phakiti, 2006), as reflected by their knowledge on thoughts and ability to regulating thoughts and behaviors (Flavell,
2016; Hacker, 1998).
As has been mentioned, metacognition comprises of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive control (Schraw,
1998, 2001). The former refers to as knowledge about cognitive processes during an activity and can be classified into
three types, namely knowledge about things (i.e., declarative knowledge), knowledge about how to do things (i.e.,
procedural knowledge), and knowledge about when and why to do things (i.e., conditional knowledge) (Dart,
Boulton-Lewis, Brownlee & McCrindle, 1998; Olivares-Cuhat, 2002).
In the FL writing, for instance, declarative knowledge may include knowing the structure of an argumentative essay
and knowing the differences between readers’ expectation of different text types. Procedural knowledge in FL writing
may include how to construct a grammatically correct sentence in the target language and how to select appropriate

lexical items according to the level of formality of the texts. With regard to the conditional knowledge in FL writing,
this may be realized by an understanding of what kind of writing strategies to use in a particular writing situation. For
instance, when a writer do not know how to spell a word, they may consider looking the word up in a bilingual
dictionary, or they may think of using a sentence to explain the meaning of that lexical item when the situation does not
allow them to consult dictionaries, such as in a testing situation.
The researchers agree that both procedural and conditional knowledge is hard to capture, because such knowledge is
most likely to be reflected in the actual writing processes through undertaking a specific writing task (Schraw &
Graham, 1997; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Robert & Feurer, 2016). As a result, most of the research on metacognitive
knowledge is primarily restricted to the declarative knowledge, which is often measured through using a self-reported
questionnaire (Sénéchal, LeFevre, Smith-Chant, & Colton, 2001).
The distinction between declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge seems to be able to explain differences
between writing strategies and writing skills. Oxford (2011) argues that “when strategy use is developed into an
automatic operation (proceduralized) through repeated practice, it is no longer a strategy but an unconscious habit”
(Oxford, 2011, p. 51). Similarly, Cohen (1998, 2007) concurs with this operationalization of writing strategy and
maintains that intentionality and consciousness are essential characteristics of strategy use. The automatic and
unconscious operations of cognitive activities in writing are often regarded as writing skills (Petric & Czarl, 2003).
Writing skills or unconscious operations of strategic behaviors in writing are hard to be measured because writers are
simply unaware of using them. For our research, we are concerned with writing strategies rather than writing skills, and
correspondingly we operationalized metacognitive knowledge as declarative knowledge about FL writing.
The other component of metacognition – metacognitive control, or regulation or cognition, is one’s ability to use
metacognitive knowledge to monitor and regulate one’s thinking processes during cognitive activities and performance
according to context-specific situations to achieve certain goals (Han, 2012; Han & Stevenson, 2008; Schraw &
Graham, 1997; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Phakiti, 2006; Westby, 2004). Having metacognitive knowledge is a
necessary but not a sufficient condition for metacognitive control to be executed, and one of the important elements for
successful operation of metacognitive control depends on individual’s working memory (Han, 2012, 2013; Han &
Stevenson, 2008; Phakiti, 2006). In FL writing, writers’ working memory may be occupied largely by their slow and
effortful processing of linguistic codes, such as retrieval of lexical items, construction of sentences, and coordinating
conceptual ideas into semantically related units. This means that it is especially important for a distinction to be made
between metacognitive knowledge and control in FL writing.
Empirical studies of metacognition in FL writing
The majority of studies of metacognition in FL writing predominantly focused on metacognitive knowledge rather
than metacognitive control (e.g., Olinghouse & Graham, 2009; Schoonen et al., 2002, 2003; Wong & Storey, 2006). In
general, a wide range of metacognitive knowledge in writing has been explored and writers with two languages are
found to have a wide range of metacognitive knowledge, including knowledge of discourse, text structure, the purposes
of writing, and the audience of the written texts (e.g., Olinghouse & Graham, 2009; Ruan, 2004; You & Joe, 2001). The
research has also shown that there is positive association between writers’ metacognitive knowledge and the quality of
written texts (e.g., Kasper, 1997; Olinghouse & Graham; Polio & Friedman, 2017; Schoonen et al., 2002, 2003; Sasaki
& Hirose, 1996; Schoonen, Snellings, Stevenson, & van Gelderen, 2009). Compared to metacognitive knowledge in
writing, metacognitive control has been studied to a lesser extent, and the research has shown that good FL writers are
more skilful and have better ability to monitor and regulate their cognition in the writing processes than poor FL writers
(e.g., Baker, 2002; Ruan, 2004; Wong & Storey, 2006).
Little research, however, has been carried out to examine both metacognitive knowledge and control in FL writing
between good and poor FL writers (Farahian, 2015; Victori, 1999). In other skills of FL learning, there are a few studies
which made an initial attempt to study both metacognitive knowledge and control. For instance, In FL listening, Goh
(1998) compared the 16 high-ability and low-ability EFL learners’ use of metacognitive and cognitive listening
strategies using retrospective interviews immediately after the participants completed listening to short English texts.
The results showed that while high-ability listeners were able to use a much wider range of strategies and tactics,
low-ability listeners were only applied a few listening strategies and in particular they exhibited a lack of using
metacognitive strategies in planning, monitoring, and evaluating.
In FL reading, Phakiti (2007) examined the relationship between trait and state strategy use, which resembles
metacognitive knowledge and control of strategy use, even though the context of the study was in a reading test. With
Thai EFL learners, the metacognitive knowledge of FL reading, the actual use of reading strategies, and the reading test
performance, were examined on two occasions: in the mid-term and final examinations. Phakiti required the participants
to answer a questionnaire probing into the knowledge of reading strategy (written in the simple present tense), and a
questionnaire measuring what reading strategies learners had used in the tests immediately following the reading tests
(written in the simple past tense). The results showed that (1) knowledge of metacognitive strategy directly and strongly
affects knowledge of cognitive strategy; (2) knowledge of metacognitive strategy directly affected control of
metacognitive strategy and indirectly affected control of cognitive strategy in the reading tests; (3) knowledge of
cognitive strategy did not have much impact on cognitive strategy use in the reading tests; and (4) cognitive strategy use
directly affected reading test performance.

In the FL writing research, there is a lack of study exploring both metacognitive knowledge and control (Farahian,
2015; Victori, 1999). To our knowledge, Victori (1999) conducted a case study, which examined both metacognitive
knowledge and control between two good and two poor advanced EFL writers. The result indicated that: (1) the good
and poor writers differed in their metacognitive knowledge about person, task, and writing strategies. The two good
writers had a much broader repertoire of metacognitive knowledge in all the three aspects and also held a more flexible
view towards writing, than the two poor writers. (2) The metacognitive knowledge only partially affected the actual
writing strategy use during composing. (3) However, metacognitive knowledge could not fully account for differences
in the metacognitive control, other factors, such as the attitude towards FL writing, also played an important role on
how the writers approached the writing task. Viewed together, this study seemed to indicate that the deployment of
metacognitive control was not always affected by metacognitive knowledge. Although illuminating, the case study
design and the small number of the participants did not permit the generalization of the results. Therefore, our study
continued to pursue this line of research on metacognitive knowledge and control in FL writing by adopting a
quantitative approach.
The present study
Our study focused on investigating metacognitive knowledge and control of writing strategy in FL between high- and
low-performing EFL writers. We examined metacognitive control of writing strategy use on two occasions using two
writing tasks. We used a questionnaire through retrospective reporting to gather information of metacognitive control,
which is considered more suitable than using time-consuming think-aloud method, because we had a relatively large
number of participants and we collected writers’ writing strategy use on two occasions following each writing task. For
the reliability of the retrospection, the interval between retrospection and the tasks should be kept to minimal
(Yamashita, 2002). Therefore, the administration of the metacognitive control questionnaires immediately followed the
completion of the writing tasks.
Our study sought to address the following research questions:
1. To what extent does metacognitive control of writing strategy differ between high- and low-performing Chinese
EFL writers in two writing tasks?
2. To what extent does metacognitive knowledge of writing strategy differ between high- and low-performing
Chinese EFL writers?
III. METHOD
Setting and participants
Our research was carried out at a national university in a northern province of China. The participants were 65
students, who majored in English language education. The study program required students to study English language
skills intensively and to participate in an internship of teaching English in primary or middle schools. The participants
aged between 19 and 23 with a mean (M) age being 21. By the time of participation in the study, the students had been
studying English for approximately seven years.
Instruments
The writing tasks. We used two writing tasks to measure students’ writing performance. The two tasks were also used
for learners to report their metacognitive control of writing strategy use in the processes of completing the writing. In
order to make sure that the use of writing strategies was not affected by different text types, both of the writing tasks
were argumentative tasks, as the participants’ English teachers revealed that argumentative writing was more familiar to
the students than any other text types. In order to make sure that the participants’ background knowledge would not
affect their use of writing strategies, the chosen topics were related to the participants’ life experience. However, the
topics differed in terms of the familiarity: the first topic was more closely related to personal life than the second topic.
Below are the detailed descriptions of the two writing tasks:
Writing task one. Write an argumentative essay on the following topic: Do you prefer to have friends who are similar
to you or different from you? Why or why not? You should use your own ideas, knowledge, and experience to support
your arguments. You have 50 minutes to complete this writing task and you need to write at least 250 words.
Writing task two. Write an argumentative essay on the following topic: Some people believe that one cannot learn
everything in schools and that experience is the best teacher. Others argue that formal education is a more effective way
to learn. Which is more important for you: things learned through real life experiences or learned at school? You should
use your own ideas, knowledge, and experience to support your arguments. You have 50 minutes to complete this
writing task and you need to write at least 250 words.
Measures of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive control of writing strategy. Two questionnaires were used
to measure students’ knowledge of writing strategy in English argumentative writing and metacognitive control of
strategy use in the two argumentative writing tasks. The items in the questionnaires were mainly based on Petric and
Czarl’s (2003) writing strategy questionnaire because of two reasons: (1) the questionnaire was consisted of writing
strategies in different processes of writing, including planning, writing, and revising; (2) the questionnaire was properly
validated with detailed description of validating processes and had good reliability.
Both questionnaires had 30 items measuring four kinds of writing strategies: planning (6 items), cognitive strategies
(5 items), monitor-control (7 items), and evaluating (12 items). The questionnaire evaluating metacognitive knowledge

was written in the simple present tense, which reflected writers’ knowledge about writing in English irrespective to
specific writing tasks. The questionnaire measuring metacognitive control, on the other hand, used the simple past tense
and required students to retrospect what strategies they had used and to respond to the questionnaire immediately after
completion of each writing task. Both questionnaires were on a 5-point Likert Scale, with 1 suggesting “totally agree”
to 5 meaning “totally disagree”. To ensure that the participants understand the items fully, the questionnaires were
translated into Chinese. The reliability of each strategy was calculated and reported in Table 1, which shows all the
values of the Cronbach’s alpha was above .70, a commonly agreed acceptable level of reliability.
TABLE 1.
CRONBACH’S ALPHA RELIABILITY OF THE METACOGNITIVE CONTROL AND METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONNAIRES
Strategies metacognitive control 1 metacognitive control 2 metacognitive knowledge
Planning .75 .70 .72
Cognitive .76 .87 .80
Monitor-control .79 .76 .79
Evaluating .84 .90 .86
Marking rubrics and scoring of the writing tasks. We followed Weir’s (2005) suggestions on scoring written
production and adopted analytical scoring processes to create analytical marking rubrics, which considered four main
dimensions: (1) structure and organization, (2) content, (3) argumentation, and (4) language use and mechanics. Under
each main dimension, there were a number of sub-dimensions and each sub-dimension was judged separately and was
assigned a score from 1 to 5 representing “very poor” and “very good” respectively. The average of the sub-dimensions
represented the score for each main dimension (the detailed scoring rubrics are presented in the Appendix). The each
dimension was then converted to 100 and each dimension was assigned with a percentage accounting for different
proportions in the total writing score. As the content and argumentation were more important than structure and
organization and language and mechanisms, the former two dimensions were given 30% each, and the latter two
dimensions were given 20% each. In order to ensure the reliability of scoring, two raters scored the written texts
separately and the inter-rater reliability was calculated for each dimension in each test. The inter-rater reliability was
reported in Table 2, which showed that all the values were above .70, indicating good inter-rater reliability.
TABLE 2.
INTER -RATER RELIABILITY OF WRITING TASKS ONE AND TWO
Structure and organisation Content Argument Language and mechanics
writing 1 .83 .90 .90 .85
writing 2 .76 .80 .75 .80
Data collection procedure

Ethics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the researchers’ university before the implementation of
the study. The participants were informed the voluntary nature of the participation and they were assured that all
identifiable personal information would be kept strictly confidential and that no names would be mentioned in the
dissemination of the research results. The data collection took place outside the normal class time and the research was
conducted in three phases: phase one collected data about the participants’ metacognitive knowledge. One week later,
students were required to complete the first writing task. Immediately following the completion of writing task one, the
metacognitive control questionnaire was administered. On another occasion, the same procedure was repeated for
completion of the second writing task and the metacognitive control questionnaire in relation to writing task two.
Data analysis
In order to answer the first research question, we conducted two separate sets of analyses for the two writing tasks.
The analyses were exactly the same. We first grouped students into high- and low-performing EFL writers using one
standard error above or below the M scores of the writing tasks. We then performed a series of one-way ANOVA in
order to find out if the two groups of students differed in metacognitive control. To answer the second research question,
we grouped students into high- and low-performing EFL writers using the average scores of the two writing tasks
followed by performing one-way ANOVA on writers’ metacognitive knowledge.
IV. RESULTS
Metacognitive control of writing strategy use for writing task one
For the first writing task, 30 students were classified as high-performing EFL writers and 31 students were as
low-performing EFL writers. The results of a t-test confirmed our grouping (t = 15.12, p < .01), that high-performing
EFL writers (M = 77.99, SD = 4.12) obtained significantly higher marks for the writing task one than the
low-performing EFL writers (M = 59.70, SD = 6.03). The results of one-way ANOVA were presented in Table 3, which
shows that there were no significant differences on use of planning strategies, F (1, 59) = 0.00, p = .96; use of
monitor-control strategies, F (1, 59) = 0.35, p = .56; and use of evaluating strategies, F (1, 59) = 3.09, p = .09, between
the high- and low-performing EFL writers. The only significant difference was use of cognitive strategies, F (1, 59) =
4.73, p < .05, d = 0.65. The high-performing EFL writers adopted significantly more cognitive strategies (M = 4.10, SD
= 0.72) than low-performing EFL writers (M = 3.73, SD = 0.62) when completing the first writing task.

TABLE 3.
ONE-WAY ANOVA OF METACOGNITIVE CONTROL OF WRITING STRATEGY BETWEEN HIGH- AND LOW-PERFORMING WRITERS FOR WRITING TASK ONE
Strategies Groups M SD F p
Planning high (N = 30) 2.94 0.65 0.00 .96
low (N = 31) 2.94 0.78
cognitive high (N = 30) 4.10 0.72 4.73 .03*
low (N = 31) 3.73 0.62
monitor-control high (N = 30) 3.58 0.47 0.35 .56
low (N = 31) 3.51 0.71
evaluating high (N = 30) 3.46 0.60 3.09 .09
low (N = 31) 3.32 0.66
Metacognitive control of writing strategy use for writing task two

As students’ writing performance in the two writing tasks differed, students in the high- and low-performing groups
were not necessary the same. For the second writing task, 33 students were grouped as the high-achievers whereas 32
students were as low-achievers. The t-test showed that the writing scores of the two groups significantly differed from
each other (t = 13.25, p < .01). The scores of the high-achieving EFL writers (M = 79.05, SD = 3.09) were significantly
higher than those of the low-achieving writers (M = 65.56, SD = 6.48). The ANOVA results of metacognitive control
were presented in Table 4, which shows that high- and low-performing EFL writers differed significantly in terms of
three types of strategy use: namely planning strategy, F (1, 63) = 4.46, p < .05, d = 0.55; cognitive strategy, F (1, 63) =
4.23, p < .05, d = 0.55; and evaluating strategy, F (1, 63) = 6.71, p < .05; d = 0.65. We found that the high-performing
EFL writers used more planning strategies (M = 3.79, SD = 0.55), more cognitive strategies (M = 4.23, SD = 0.67), as
well as more evaluating strategies (M = 3.80, SD = 0.72), than those low-performing counterparts (planning: M = 3.48,
SD = 0.58; cognitive: M = 3.88, SD = 0.71; and evaluating: M = 3.33, SD = 0.72). However, no statistically significant
difference was observed on the use of monitor-control strategies between the two groups, F (1, 63) = 0.10, p = .76.
TABLE 4.
ONE-WAY ANOVA OF METACOGNITIVE CONTROL OF WRITING STRATEGY BETWEEN HIGH- AND LOW-PERFORMING WRITERS FOR WRITING TASK TWO
Planning high (N = 33) 3.79 0.55 4.46 .04*
low (N = 32) 3.48 0.58
cognitive high (N = 33) 4.23 0.67 4.23 .04*
low (N = 32) 3.88 0.71
monitor-control high (N = 33) 3.53 0.78 0.10 .76
low (N = 32) 3.47 0.81
evaluating high (N = 33) 3.80 0.72 6.71 .01*
low (N = 32) 3.33 0.72
Metacognitive knowledge of writing strategy

To find out if the high- and low-performing EFL writers had different metacognitive knowledge of writing strategy,
we first grouped students using the average scores of their two writing tasks. The t-test (t = 17.94, p < .01) showed that
on average, the high-achieving group (M = 79.94, SD = 3.24) was significantly better than the low-achieving group (M
= 63.82, SD = 3.81) in writing performance. The ANOVA results on the metacognitive knowledge of the four types of
the strategy are presented in Table 5, which showed that none of the strategy differed significantly between the high-
and low-performing students: planning strategy, F (1, 63) = 1.10, p = .30; cognitive strategy, F (1, 63) = 0.13, p = .72;
monitor-control strategy, F (1, 63) = 0.06, p = .82; and evaluating strategy, F (1, 63) = 0.63, p = .43. These results
suggested that students with different levels of writing performance had similar metacognitive knowledge in FL writing.
TABLE 5.
ONE-WAY ANOVA OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE OF WRITING STRATEGY BETWEEN HIGH- AND LOW-PERFORMING WRITERS
Planning high (N = 33) 3.23 0.91 1.10 0.30
low (N = 32) 3.01 0.79
cognitive high (N = 33) 4.04 0.62 0.13 0.72
low (N = 32) 3.99 0.58
monitor-control high (N = 33) 3.52 0.89 0.06 0.82
low (N = 32) 3.47 0.85
evaluating high (N = 33) 3.33 0.65 0.63 0.43
low (N = 32) 3.21 0.61
V. DISCUSSION
Our findings indicated that the EFL writers with different levels of writing performance did not differ on the
metacognitive knowledge about writing strategy use in the whole writing processes from planning to revising, despite
differences in their FL writing performance. However, the two groups of students differed in terms of metacognitive
control in the two writing tasks. This finding was consistent with the argument that it is necessary to distinguish
between metacognitive knowledge in general and metacognitive control for specific cognitive tasks (e.g., Han, 2011,

2012; Han & Stevenson, 2008; Phakiti, 2006, 2007). The deployment of metacognitive control is rather context-specific
and can fluctuate from context to context, and such deployment may depend on a number of factors, such as the writers’
motivation at the time of writing, their attitudes towards the writing tasks, the familiarity with the writing topics, and FL
writers’ processing efficiency (Schoonen et al., 2002, 2003, 2009; Phakiti, 2007; Purpura, 1999).
As has been mentioned, metacognitive control operates in one’s working memory, efficient processing can leave
working memory with sufficient cognitive energy for the metacognitive knowledge to be retrieved from the long-term
memory and to be applied strategically in the writing processes (Han, 2012, 2016; Han & Stevenson, 2008; Phakiti,
2003, 2007; Purpura, 1999). In our research, we did not measure learners’ efficiency of linguistic processing in writing,
such as speed of lexical retrieval and speed of sentence construction, therefore, whether efficiency of linguistic
processing affects writers’ use of writing strategy remained unexplored.
Across the two writing tasks, we found that the patterns of metacognitive control of writing strategy between high-
and low-performing writers were not consistent. For the first writing task, the only difference lay in the cognitive
strategies, whereas in the second writing task, the two groups of students differed in terms of both cognitive and
metacognitive strategies (i.e., planning and evaluating strategies). This shows that deployment of cognitive strategies
exhibited consistency across the two tasks: the high-performing EFL writers used more of this kind of strategies than
their low-performing counterparts irrespective to the writing tasks. This was in line with Purpura’s (1999) emphasis on
the importance of the cognitive strategy use.
The cognitive strategies are primarily concerned with “intentional and goal-oriented process that individuals employ
to use language to understand or learn for some purposes” (Phakiti, 2007, p. 6-7), whereas the metacognitive strategies
are mainly used to regulate cognitive strategies and linguistic processing (Phakiti, 2007). The different functions
between cognitive and metacognitive strategies could be why the patterns of using planning and evaluating strategies
between our good and poor EFL writers differed for the two tasks, because high-performing EFL writers might not feel
a need for use of many metacognitive strategies when completing the first writing task possibly due to the reason that
the topic was more familiar and easier compared to the topic of the second writing task.
Indeed, Manchon, Larios, and Murphy (2007) suggested that topic familiarity is an important factor that affects
writers’ writing strategy use. The first writing topic was concerned with making friends, which was more closely related
to students’ everyday life experience, and hence could be more familiar to them. The second writing topic was
discussion on an educational issue, which seemed to be further away from the students’ daily experience. The more
familiar topic, presumably easier one (the first writing task) might not have triggered the high-performing writers to
actively use metacognitive strategies in the writing process as many as those used in the less familiar and more
challenging writing task (the second writing task), hence no differences were found between good and poor writers on
using metacognitive strategies.
This might be why we only found use of cognitive writing strategies differed between high- and low-performing
writers in the more familiar writing topic. In the less familiar and more difficult writing task, which presumably
required the writers to carefully plan before writing and to constantly evaluate what had been converted into the written
texts after writing might have created opportunities for good writers to apply metacognitive strategies more frequently
in order to handle the more challenging writing task. Consequently this might enable the differences on the
metacognitive strategy use between the proficient and less-proficient EFL writers to show.
In summary, our study suggested that while the high- and low-performing EFL writers did not differ from each other
in terms of the metacognitive knowledge they possessed in FL writing, they differed in terms of actual use of writing
strategies depending on the writing task. When the participants were undertaking a writing topic which was more
familiar and easier for them, the two groups of writers only differed in using cognitive writing strategies, whereas when
the writing task appeared to be more challenging and difficult, in addition to using more cognitive strategies, the good
readers might have used more metacognitive strategies to help them coordinate cognitive processes in terms of planning
and evaluating for their writing. The results of our research highlights the importance of making a clear distinction
between metacognitive knowledge – the knowledge about writing strategy use, and metacognitive control – the actual
writing strategy use in specific writing tasks, in FL writing strategy research. The differences of the metacognitive
strategy use contrasting good and poor EFL writers in the more difficult writing task may point to the potential that
training programs targeted on metacognitive strategies could be more beneficial. A recent intervention study which
compared the effects of metacognitive and cognitive writing strategy training might support this speculation. Tabrizi
and Rajaee (2016) found that Iranian primary school students who received metacognitive writing strategy training
achieved better performance in English writing performance than students who received cognitive writing strategy
training.
Conclusion
Owing to the scope and design of the study, a number of limitations should be pointed out and possible avenues for
future research are also outlined. First, the participants in our study were English majors, who could not represent a vast
majority of Chinese EFL learners learning English only as a required course. Future studies may investigate
metacognitive knowledge and control of writing strategy with non-English major students. Another major limitation is
that we only used retrospective questionnaire for measuring students’ metacognitive control, which might not accurately
represent students’ concurrent strategy use during writing. Think-aloud method would be a better method for concurrent

strategy use, although such method is quite time-consuming and may only be feasible with small sample size. With
relatively large sample, such as ours, we recommend that a combination of both retrospective questionnaires and the
think-aloud method on a sub-sample of participants, who are carefully selected based on writing performance can be
used in future studies to investigate FL writers’ metacognitive control. In conclusion, our research highlighted the
importance to distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and control in EFL writing research.
APPENDIX. MARKING RUBRICS
Circle: 1 = Very poor 2 = Poor 3 = Moderate 4 = Good 5 = Very good

Criteria Score
1. Structure and Organization (20%)
1.1 Title: The essay has a title which clearly corresponds with the content of the essay. 1 2 3 4 5
1.2 Structure: The essay contains a clear division in: introduction, argumentation and conclusion. 1 2 3 4 5
1.3 Lay-out: The essay is well-organized. There is a clear division in paragraphs. Paragraphs are divided by: a blank line, 1 2 3 4 5
indenting or are started on a new line.
1.4 Relations between Paragraphs: There is a clear ‘train of thought’ between paragraphs. It is easy to determine coherence 1 2 3 4 5
relations between paragraphs in the text.
1.5 Continuity: Information which belongs together is a presented together. 1 2 3 4 5
Total
2. Content (30%)
2.1 Introduction: The thesis statement is presented in the introduction and (possibly) the writer’s own opinion on the thesis 1 2 3 4 5
statement is also provided.
2.2 Persuasion: It is clear what the writer wishes to persuade the reader to believe: a choice for or against the thesis 1 2 3 4 5
statement.
2.3 Reader Orientation: The essay is easy to comprehend for readers who have not read the essay. 1 2 3 4 5
2.4 Conclusion: The essay contains a clear conclusion, which corresponds with the rest of the text and which indicates the 1 2 3 4 5
writer’s own opinion.
2.5 Closing: It is clear that the essay is finished, for example by a brief summary of the content of the essay or by a closing 1 2 3 4 5
statement. There are no loose ends left.
Total
3. Argumentation (30%)
3.1 Writer Position: The position is clear, and strongly and substantially argued. 1 2 3 4 5
3.2 Support: The argument consists of multiple arguments, which support the writer’s opinion. 1 2 3 4 5
3.3 Relevance: The argumentation does not contain too much superfluous information, i.e., information which does not help 1 2 3 4 5
support the writer’s opinion.
3.4 Argumentation: The arguments are clearly recognizable; e.g. “therefore I do (not) think that…”, “I think…”, “I do (not) 1 2 3 4 5
agree with…”
3.5 Referential and Coherence relations: The referential and coherence relations are clear if they are implicit, or else are 1 2 3 4 5
marked explicitly; e.g.: therefore, so, because, firstly, secondly, thirdly, subsequently
Total
4. Language Use and Mechanics (20%)
4.1 Sentence Structure: There is an effective balance of simple and complex sentence patterns with coordination and 1 2 3 4 5
subordination.
4.2 Vocabulary Knowledge: The essay demonstrates a sophisticated range of vocabulary knowledge. 1 2 3 4 5
4.3 Grammar: There are few errors of agreement, tense, word order, articles, pronouns and prepositions. 1 2 3 4 5
4.4 Mechanics: There are few errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization and paragraphing. 1 2 3 4 5
4.5 Handwriting: The whole essay looks tidy and neat and the handwriting is good. 1 2 3 4 5
Total
Total score: _____________________
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Zehua Wang obtained a Bachelor of Arts (2010) from Xi’an International Studies University, and a Master of Education (2013)
from the University of Sydney.
Currently she is a Lecturer in the Department of English at Shaanxi Xueqian Normal University, Xi’an, China. Her current
research interests are (1) language learning strategies and (2) educational technology in higher education.
Ms. Wang has received funding on four research projects in China and she has published a number of journal articles.
Feifei Han obtained a Bachelor of Arts (2003) from Xi’an International Studies University, a Master of Arts (2006), a Master of
Education (2008), and a PhD (2014), all from the University of Sydney.
She has worked as a Lecturer, a Research Officer, and currently is a Research Fellow for education research at the University of
Sydney. Her current research interests comprise of three broad themes: (1) language and literacy education; (2) teaching, lea rning,
and educational technology in higher education, and (3) educational psychology.
Dr Han has received more than 15 scholarship and awards nationally and internationally. She is also a solo principle investigator
on four grants in language and literacy education. As an early career research, she has published a number of referred book chapters
and journal articles.

ISSN 1799-2591
Iranian Intermediate EFL Learners' Vocabulary

Inferencing Strategies: A Qualitative Study
Mohammad Hossein Yousefi
Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Bonab Branch, Bonab, Iran
Maryam Ahadzadeh
Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Bonab Branch, Bonab, Iran
Abstract—The present qualitative and interpretative study aims to investigate Iranian EFL learners' L2
vocabulary strategies. The distribution of strategy types and what factors contribute to the success of the
inferencing strategies are the two main purposes of the study. Using think-aloud procedures with 15 Iranian
EFL learners, the present study explored L2 learners' inferencing strategies and the relationship with their
success. Sixteen types of inferential strategies were revealed to be employed by the participants and two types
of inferences were identified: successful and less successful inferences. The results of the study are discussed in
the light of the similar studies and the suggestions for future research are made. The study has a number of
pedagogical implications for L2 research and practice, L2 teachers, syllabus designers, and educational
psychology.
Index Terms—L2 vocabulary learning, lexical inferencing strategies, L2 teaching
I. INTRODUCTION
Vocabulary development is an essential part of second language (L2) acquisition (Laufer, 1992; Nation, 2006;
Schmitt, 2008; Yousefi, 2015; Yousefi & Biria, 2015, 2016). There is a general consensus in the field of SLA that
lexical inferencing (LIF) is among the most commonly used techniques that L2 learners use to generate meaning for
unknown words they encounter in context (Deschambault, 2012).
Learner's knowledge of efficient strategy use in lexical inferencing research has been presumed to be a determining
issue for learner's vocabulary learning achievement (Nassaji, 2004). Some studies centered on the signs apply in lexical
inferencing (Paribakht & Wesche, 1999); whereas other studies reveled the achievement speed of lexical inferencing
(Bengeleil & Paribakht, 2004). When sufficient signs are accessible in the context, learner's L2 ability is one of the
important things to proper signs employ and successful meaning construction for new words. This has been confirmed
by the studies on the relationship among learner's lexical inferencing success and their vocabulary size, or the width of
vocabulary knowledge (Laufer, 1997) and the depth of vocabulary knowledge (Qian, 1999).
Literature Review
Lexical inferencing means “making informed guesses as to the meaning of a word, in light of all available linguistic
cues in combination with the learner’s general knowledge of the world, her awareness of context and her relevant
linguistic knowledge” (Haastrup,1991, p. 40).Over the past decades, researchers have spent considerable amount of
time theorizing and exploring what successful language learners do and what strategies they employ in the process of
acquiring a second language (Hu & Nassaji, 2014). A word with a derived meaning is more likely to be retained in an
L2 lexical system than a word with a glossed meaning (Nation, 2001). Recently, there has been an increased research
interest in the infenceing strategies of L2 learners and factors affecting the use and success of them (Hu & Nassaji,
2012 ; Nassaji, 2003, 2004; Nassaji & Hu, 2012; Paribakht & Wesche, 1999; Wesche & paribakht, 2010). Research
also indicated that lexical inferencing was widely used by L2 learners when dealing with unknown words in their
reading (Paribakht & Wesche, 1999; Parry, 1993). Lexical inferencing has also been found to be closely associated with
incidental vocabulary learning (Nagi, 1997).
Besides, a number of researchers (e.g., Coady, 1993; Stein, 1993) claim that inferring word meaning from context is
often an unreliable method of vocabulary learning. For instance, Ko (2012) argues that due to their lack of vocabulary
knowledge or proficiency level, L2 learners cannot make intelligent guesses In the same manner, Nagy (1997) believe
that learners must know the majority of the vocabulary in any text to be able to guess the meanings of unknown words
successfully. As stated by Ko (2012), guessing unknown words would be more problematic in the case of L2 beginners
whose overall L2 knowledge is limited.
Hu and Nassaji (2014) have determined several important characteristics of successful inferencers included frequent
use of evaluation and monitoring strategies, a combination of both textual and background knowledge, self-awareness,
and repeated efforts to infer the target word meanings. Advanced vocabulary knowledge necessitates knowledge of
lexical knowledge (Meara & Wolter, 2004) and also involves understanding the affect or attitude conveyed by different
word choices (Qian, 1999). Additionally, Corrigan (2007) posited that the notion of vocabulary depth is important

because it has been shown to make a unique contribution (i.e., beyond vocabulary breadth in predicting reading
comprehension (Qian 1999).
In the same way, Nassaji (2006) examined the relationship between English as a second language learners' depth of
vocabulary knowledge, their lexical inferencing strategy use, and their success in deriving word meaning from context.
In this study, participants read a passage containing 10 unknown words and attempted to derive the meanings of the
unknown words from context. Introspective think-aloud protocols were used to discover the degree and types of
inferencing strategies learners used. Nassaji found that the stronger students made more effective use of certain types of
lexical inferencing strategies than their weaker counterparts. And depth of vocabulary knowledge made a significant
contribution to inferential success over and above the contribution made by the learner’s degree of strategy use. Nassaji
provided empirical support for the centrality of depth of vocabulary knowledge in lexical inferencing.
Nassaji (2006) also lend countenance to the hypothesis that lexical inferencing is a meaning construction process that
is significantly influenced by the richness of the learner’s preexisting semantic system. To make successful meaning
inferences , learners not only need to be attentive to the functions and meanings of affixes, but should be able to
integrate structural (morphological structure) and contribution of morphological awareness and lexical inferencing
ability semantic (morpheme meaning) information of each target word (Zhang & Koda, 2012).
In their mixed design, Hu and Nassaji (2014) explored L2 learners’ inferential strategies and the relationship with
their success. Twelve types of inferential strategies were found to be used by all the learners, and two groups of learners
were identified: successful and less successful inferencers. The results of the study confirmed a number of differences
between successful and less successful inferencers which pertained to not only the degree to which they used certain
strategies but also when and how to use them successfully. Research (Nassaji, 2004; Haastrup, 1991; Wesche &
aribakht, 2010) has also found that learners’ knowledge of effective strategy use is a determining factor for learners’
vocabulary learning success.
Most significantly, Kintsch (2004) argued from a psycholinguistic view that an inferencer must build a situation
model, in which the information is provided by the text and the schemata. Kintsch proposed that there are at least two
ways in which the meaning selection could occur: one is that the schema acts as a filter in a top-down manner and the
other is that the meaning selection takes place in a bottom-up manner. In the former case, the context suppresses
irrelevant information due to its mismatch with the contextual meaning (P.28). To sum up, Nassaji and Hu (2012)
concluded that task-induced involvement had significant effects on the use of lexical inferencing strategies and word
retention.
II. METHODOLOGY
Iranian EFL learners are rarely taught L2 vocabulary inferencing strategies at schools and universities. Deriving the
meaning of unknown words from context is a demanding challenge for Iranian EFL learners. Accordingly, they have
difficulty in understanding, reading and deriving the meaning of unfamiliar words from context. Another problem is
that we as language teachers do not have knowledge whether Iranian EFL learners employ a repertoire of inferencing
skills or not.
The purpose of the present study is to determine different types of L2 lexical inferencing strategies that Iranian EFL
learners employ for deriving the meaning of unknown words from context. Another purpose is that to determine factors
hinder Iranian EFL learners to successfully derive the meaning of unknown words within context. Finally the study
aims to determine factors contribute to the difficulty of L2 vocabulary inferencing among Iranian EFL learners.
As (Bengeleil & Paribakht, 2004; Nassaji, 2004) stated that although many studies of lexical inferencing have been
took out in the context of English as a secondary language with their participants from varied language and cultural
backgrounds, there are limited studies aiming to discover lexical inferencing in the context of English as a foreign
language with all participants distribution one particular language and culture.
Research Question
The following question is addressed in the present study:
1. What types of L2 lexical inferencing strategies do Iranian EFL learners employ deriving the meaning of unknown
words from context?
Participants
The Participants of the present qualitative study were 15 Iranian EFL learners (11 female and 4 male), aged
between12-30(mean=18) who had been in intermediate level of Engl;ish proficiency. The participants were from private
language institute in Miyandoab, Iran. They had different L1 background including; Azarbayjani Turkish, Persian and
Kurdish. The class met three times a week. The focus was on reading book. All of participants volunteered for the study.
The participants were told that the results of the study had nothing with their final exam scores. All the participants
achieved a satisfactory threshold level to be able to infer the meaning of unknown words.
Materials
A reading passage was selected as a means of data collection. Ten words were selected as the target words and
highlighted in bold fonts in the text .The target words were chosen from content words and low frequency words. The
content words were considered significant for understanding the main ideas of the text. In order to make sure that the

target words were unknown by the participants, the pilot study was conducted with five learners. Those words that were
known by these learners were replaced with other target words.
Procedure
The participants were received a target text with target words bold in it. They were asked to read the text for
comprehension and to infer the meaning of the target words from the context. They were asked to verbalize what they
would be thinking aloud to passage while inferring the target words. They were asked to think-aloud by reporting their
thoughts when they inferring the meaning of the words. They were permitted to do the think-aloud in the language they
felt most relaxed with it (either their own L1 or English). Afterwards, the learners were then given a test of five
multiple-choice comprehension questions. They had been given 5-10 min to answer the comprehension tests. The aim
of giving a reading comprehension test was to make sure that the participants read the text for comprehension while
inferring the target words. After transcribing think-aloud protocols, they were translated to English.
Data collection
Concurrent think-aloud protocols were collected from the participants while they were engaged in lexical inferencing
task. The protocol was employed since it was thought that some part of the information might be missing while
participants were producing verbal reports. After data collection, data were transcribed by the second researcher. Then,
the data were codified inductively. The researchers analyzed the data by going from examples to the main taxonomy of
the Lexical Inferencing Strategies by Iranian EFL learners. Based on the reading of the transcriptions, a coding scheme
was designed. The strategies recognized were refined based on the subsequent readings of the transcriptions of the
think-aloud data. Firstly, sixteen types of inferential strategies were recognized. These strategies were as follows:
analyzing, associating, repeating, using textual clues, using prior knowledge, paraphrasing, confirming-disconfirming,
stating failure, reattempting, analyzing + using textual clues, associating + using textual clues, analyzing + paraphrasing,
associating + using prior knowledge, making inquiry + stating the failure, analyzing + stating the failure, analyzing +
confirming-disconfirming. These strategies then regrouped into eight major categories: Form-focused, Meaning-focused,
Evaluating, Monitoring, Form-focused + Meaning-focused, Evaluating + Monitoring, Form-focused + Monitoring,
Form-focused + Evaluating strategies.
III. RESULTS AND ANALYSES

TABLE 4.1.
FREQUENCY OF EACH STRATEGY TYPE ALONG WITH CORRECT AND INCORRECT INFERENCES
Frequency Strategies Frequency Partially correct Correct Incorrect Sum Mean
Form-focused 49 Analyzing 13 1 11 1 13 6.5
Associating 35 6 28 1 35 17.5
Repeating 1 0 0 1 1 0.5
Total 49 7 39 3 49 24.5
Meaning-focused 71 Using textual clues 40 4 26 10 40 20
Using prior knowledge 18 2 15 1 18 9
Paraphrasing 13 1 3 9 13 6.5
Total 71 7 44 20 71 35.5
Confirming-
Evaluating 5 disconfirming 5 2 2 1 5 2.5
Total 5 2 2 1 5 2.5
Monitoring 2 Stating the failure 1 0 0 1 1 0.5
Reattempting 1 0 1 0 1 0.5
Total 2 0 1 1 2 1
Form-focused + Analyzing + Using
Meaning-focused 14 textual clues 5 0 5 0 5 2.5
Associating + Using
textual clues 2 1 1 0 2 1
Analyzing +
Paraphrasing 6 2 3 1 6 3
Associating + Using
prior knowledge 1 0 1 0 1 0.5
Total 14 3 10 1 14 7
Evaluating + Making inquiry +
Monitoring 1 Stating the failure 1 0 0 1 1 0.5
Total 1 0 0 1 1 0.5
Form-focused + Analyzing +Stating
Monitoring 1 the failure 1 0 0 1 1 0.5
Total 1 0 0 1 1 0.5
Analyzing +
Form-focused + Confirming-
Evaluating 1 disconfirming 1 0 1 0 1 0.5
Total 1 0 1 0 1 0.5
No strategy 6 No strategy 6 1 0 5 6 3
Total 6 1 0 5 6 3
Sum 150 20 97 33 150
Total Mean 16.67 2.22 10.78 3.67 16.67
Table 4.1. shows the each strategy type along with it sub-strategies. As it is evident meaning-focused strategies are
the most frequently strategies with form—focused ones following them. However, as far as the success of inferences is
concerned, form-focused strategies have triggered the most correct inferences on the part of the participants.

Figure 4.2 the mean for all strategy types
Figure 4.2 demonstrate mean for all strategy types that employed by learners. For example the highest mean belongs
to using textual clues (it is 20). And the least mean for repeating, stating the failure, reattempting, associating + using
prior knowledge, making inquiry + stating the failure, analyzing + stating the failure, analyzing + confirming-
disconfirming, it is 0.5.
Figure 4.3 Figure for main strategies that used by participants

Figure 4.3 demonstrates that participants used 71 times Meaning-focused strategies. It is the most frequently strategy
type. This figure also demonstrate that Evaluating strategies + Monitoring strategies, Form-focused strategies +
Monitoring strategies, Form-focused strategies+ Evaluating strategies used less frequently by participants 1 time. In this
figure there is no strategy. Participants guess the meaning of words 6 times with No strategy, they just say the mean for
words.
IV. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The present qualitative and interpretive study sought to investigate Iranian EFL learner's use of different types of
lexical inferencing strategies in order to derive the meaning of unknown words from context. The results of the present
study revealed that Iranian EFL learners have a rich repertoire of strategies to infer the meaning of the unknown words.
They simultaneously employed more than one strategy (e.g Form-focused strategies + Meaning-focused strategies).
The findings suggest that meaning-focused strategies were the most commonly used strategies that Iranian EFL
learners employed deriving the meanings of unknown words. This can be attributed to the fact that the participants most
frequently relied on using contextual clues, both linguistic and non-linguistic, their prior knowledge and paraphrasing.
The findings also give countenance to the fact that successfully applying prior knowledge to making meaning out of
the reading task and deriving the meanings of unfamiliar words should be encouraged by the language teachers.
Furthermore, to drive the meaning of unknown lexical items in reading task, L2 learners should be taught strategies to
capitalize on textual clues. They also should be made aware of the different part of speech, discourse markers,
synonyms, antonyms, and elaboration techniques employed by authors.
Among most frequently used strategies are form-focused strategies. Associating is the first and foremost strategy on
this regard. The participants employed it about three times more than analyzing and 11 out of 13 strategies were
successful. This might be attributed to the fact that associating has saliency among cognitive tasks and hence the
participants have propensity to apply the strategy more than the other strategies. It is recommended that language
teachers emphasize the strategy teaching reading skill.
That is because they guess, they think. One of the contributes of the present study is to highlight (no strategy use) in
the current study sometimes participants report using any strategy. That is because many teachers don't teach strategies.
The results of the present study demonstrate that Iranian EFL learners, under some circumstances, simultaneously
employed more than one strategy type. They tend to utilize Meaning-focused Strategies (using contextual clues) than
any other strategy type. It might be because of the fact that the participants read the text for comprehension purpose.
Although participants simultaneously used both strategy types (e.g Analyzing + Paraphrasing), but a small number of
participants employed these strategies. I think because they didn't know the strategies and didn't know how they used
these strategies.
Pedagogical Implications
The present study has a number of pedagogical implications for syllabus designers, language teachers, curriculum
developers and applied linguistics. It is suggested that language teachers should incorporate teaching inferencing
strategies in teaching reading courses. Due to the fact that the lexical items which once successfully inferred will have
greater chance of retention and recall, it is strongly recommended that L2 learners encouraged to infer the meaning of
unknown words in the first place.
Limitations of the study
The present study has a number of limitations that should be confessed. First, the study was conducted with small
number of the participants. Thus future studies are suggested to be done with a large number of the participants. Second,
the participants were intermediate EFL learners. Caution should be exercised since advanced learners may have difficult
patterns and reports of vocabulary unfencing strategies.
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Mohammad Hossein Yousefi is an assistant Professor of Teaching English as a Foreign Language in the Department
English at Islamic Azad University of Bonab, Iran. His research interest lies in Task -based Teaching, and Second Language
Acquisition and L2 Vocabulary Teaching.
Maryam Ahadzadeh received her M.A. degree for Islamic Azad University of Bonab Branch, Bonab, Iran. Her research
interest includes: L2 vocabulary teaching and Learning. She teaches undergraduate courses for Iranian EFL learners.

ISSN 1799-2591
George Eliot’s Feminine Assertion in

Middlemarch
Liang Zhang
Teachers’ College of Beijing Union University, No.5 Wai Guan Xie Jie Street, Beijing 100011, China
Lingqin Zeng
Teachers’ College of Beijing Union University, No.5 Wai Guan Xie Jie Street, Beijing 100011, China
Abstract—As a female writer, especially the one capable of winning a unique reputation among the
male-dominated literary circle during the Victorian era, George Eliot was sensitive and much concerned for
women’s living circumstances and difficulties in the community. The article aims to make a tentative
interpretation on Eliot’s feminine perspectives by a closing reading of her representative novel, Middlemarch.
The article concludes that George Eliot was not a feminist, and she herself might refuse to be entitled a
feminist. Through analysis of her female images, it is clear that George Eliot never put man and woman on the
two contradictory extremes, and she didn’t contend that women’s pursuit for social worth and individual
values should be obtained at the loss of feminine qualities, such as to be a wife and mother. Thus, George Eliot
is definitely not a feminist; instead, she is a female writer with advanced consciousness of women’s
independence, social worth and individual values. Instead of emphasizing women’s sexual identity, Eliot puts
priority on women’s social identity--- a human being equal to men. No matter a man or a woman, they should
enjoy the same rights and undertake the same obligations. Just like herself, she succeeded in writing and
didn’t give up her pursuit for love and marriage.
Index Terms—feminine, social value, independence
I. INTRODUCTION
In A Literature of Their Own, Elaine Showalter states in the Chapter IV “Feminine Heroines: Charlotte Bronte and
George Eliot that: “Women beginning their literary careers in the 1840s were seeking heroines-both professional
role-models and fictional ideals-who could combine strength and intelligence with feminine tenderness, tact, and
domestic expertise. At the same time, they perceived themselves and their fictional heroines as innovators who would
provide role-models for future generations”(Showalter, 2004, p.100). It is much of the truth that George Eliot
emphasizes the feminine qualities of women. She believes that women’s strength and intelligence are equal to, even
greater than those of men. When comparing George Eliot with Charlotte Bronte, Elaine Showalter maintains that in
terms of Charlotte Bronte, she chose a volcanic literature of the body as well as of the heart, a sexual and often
supernatural world, thus she is usually seen as the romantic, the spontaneous artist who pours forth her feelings without
premeditation. While George Eliot, on the contrary, is a writer and a woman in the Jane Austen tradition, studies,
intellectual, cultivated (P.104). In her reviews of the silly lady novelists, Eliot defined her own professional ideals, the
really cultured women, who “is all the simpler and the less obtrusive for her knowledge…she does not make it a
pedestal from which she flatters herself that she commands a complete view of men and things, but makes it a point of
observation from which to form a right estimate of herself. She neither spouts poetry nor quotes Cicero on slight
provocation. …she does not write books to confound philosophers, perhaps because she is able to write books that
delight them. In conversation she is the least formidable of women, because she understands you, without wanting to
make you aware that you can’t understand her” (Showalter, 2004, p.104).
George Eliot’s views and her unconventional life experiences incurred much doubts and disgust from the
contemporary female writers. “Victorian women writers, when they contemplated George, had felt somewhat betrayed.
They thought she had rejected them because she had avoided intimacy; they thought she had despised them because she
had held them to a rigorous standard. They could not equal her, and they could see no way around her” (Showalter,
2004, p.111).
The feminists berated her for her compromise and submission to male-dominated social values, and concluded that
Eliot was subject to the ideological limitations in the Victorian era. However, it’s fair to say that Eliot is a mild
philosopher rather than a radical social activist. As an outstanding writer with realistic spirit, George Eliot was sensitive
to women’s living conditions and social circumstances at the era. Thus, George Eliot didn’t strongly advise women to
pursue social values at the cost of love, marriage and family life, for she was aware that no one should encourage
women to slap the door behind and applaud for their courage and volition of running away from women’s identity
without providing the feasible suggestions for them to live in the current male-dominated society.
It was not until Virginia Woolf that female writers changed their views on George Eliot. Virginia Woolf

complimented Eliot and regarded her as a heroine instead of a rival. In 1919, Virginia Woolf wrote an essay helping
restoring Eliot to her rightful position after a period of Victorian and Edwardian backlash. While Woolf admitted that
there were flaws in Eliot’s novels, she appreciated Eliot’s fidelity to female experience depicted in the heroines. To
explore the feminine assertions of George Eliot, the best way is to explore the characters, especially the female images
in her works.
II. MIDDLEMARCH
First published during 1871 and 1872, Middlemarch, A Study of Provincial Life is set in the fictitious Midlands town
of Middlemarch during 1829 to 1832. The novel is composed of several different but interweaving stories and quite a
large cast of characters. Middlemarch is centered on the lives of the residents of Middlemarch. The narrative consists of
three or four plots of unequal emphasis: the life of Dorothea Brooke; the career of Tertius Lydgate; the courtship of
Mary Garth by Fred Vincy; and the disgrace of Bulstrode. Dorothea and Lydgate are the main characters and their
stories are those of the main plots in the novel. Dorothea is the female representative to reflect explicitly Eliot’s
feminine thoughts.
Dorothea Brooke is a 17-year-old lady. After her parents’ death, she lived with Celia, her younger sister, under the
guardianship of her uncle, Mr. Brook. Dorothea is an ambitious and pious young woman, who always dreams of being
useful and exerts efforts to do something great. However, her uncle discourages her several times for her identity of
being a woman. Dorothea turned down Sir James Chettam, a young man close to her own age, instead, she is attracted
to Casaubon, a much older and ugly scholar despite her uncle’s advice and sister’s misgivings. Dorothea accepts
Casaubon for the reason that she might be useful to her husband in his great work and assists in achieving something
great. However, Dorothea soon becomes disappointed and gets depressed during their honeymoon in Rome, for she
finds that her husband has no intention to involve her in his intellectual pursuits. Casaubon’s cousin Will Ladislaw is
attracted to Dorothea. Oblivious as she remains to him, the two become friendly. When Casaubon returns from Rome,
he suffers an attack and diagnosed by the doctor that he only has about fifteen years left if he takes it easy and ceases
his studies. In poor health, Casaubon attempts to extract from Dorothea a promise that, should he die, she will “avoid
doing what I should deprecate, and apply yourself to do what I should desire”(Eliot, 1994, P.367). Casaubon dies before
she can reply, and she later learns that Casaubon leaves the will that if she marries Ladislaw, she will lose her
inheritance. In the end, Dorothea denounced her heritance and married Will Ladislaw.
III. FEMININE THOUGHTS REFLECTED FROM MIDDLEMARCH

Virginia Woolf drew a perfect conclusion about the character of George Eliot’s novels on the combination of
Aesthetics and ethical value: “George Eliot makes us join in their (characters in novels) life with sympathy not deigning
and curiosity… Her broad mind contains a group of main factors of human nature, she loosely gets them together with a
sound understanding, and we read them again and again, not only finding that her characters are dynamic, free and
unconstrained, but also surprisingly finding that they can control our laughter and tears” (Showalter, 2004, p.136). In
Middlemarch, George Eliot explores the awakening of self-independent consciousness of women, the rebellion and
struggle undertaken by women who are in pursuit of their personal independent personality, and the confused state
because of its unavoidable limitation of the times and the pressure from the patriarchal society, thus she reveals her
concern for women and exhibits her feminine consciousness.
A. Dorothea’s Pursuits
Dorothea Brook, as the premier character in the novel, is first introduced to readers as a 19-year-old woman
brimming with youthful vitality and noble ambition. Dorothea and her sister Celia are brought up by her bachelor uncle,
Mr. Brook. As ladies of the landed gentry class, she and her sister have been educated in convert school abroad. Quite
similar to Maggie in The Mill on the Floss, Dorothea is an intelligent girl with pursuits beyond duty imposed on women
in the Victorian era. Insightful as Dorothea is, when compared with other women at her day, George Eliot set that the
meagre education received, enforced by her ardent nature, theoretic mind and a rather dull, reclusive life, has inspired
the young lady onto a precarious road of life and vocation.
Dorothea grows into an extraordinary woman, a young lady of “eccentricities”, as is known in the neighborhood. She
is not satisfaied by the prospect of a life of ease and comfort typical of women of her class at the time, but sincerely
hopes to rise above her peers, above their trivial, pitiable confinement of femininity, and to mold her life into something
wider in scope and profounder in meaning. Her religious zeal finds vent in her eagerness to embrace the holy doctrines
she can lay hold of and in her yearning for a life of glory through religious martyrdom.
Dorothea seems always different from others for her excessive ambition. As her sister Celia says, she always sees
what nobody else sees and never sees what is quite plain. Unlike the young ladies of the day, Dorothea doesn’t like
jewelry at all. Dorothea doesn’t like the jewels not because the jewels are not beautiful but that the jewels don’t match
her soul and her higher quest for spiritual contentment. Dorothea’s refusal to jewels is a symbol of her refusal of
stereotypes imposed on women. For Dorothea, women should have nobler quest other than dressing up like dolls.
To satisfy her puritanical self-sacrificial ideal, she even withdraws from the activities she enjoys most. She devotes

herself to reforming the living conditions of her uncle’s cottagers and busying herself with visiting the poor and helping
the sick. When her efforts are not readily appreciated by the people around, and certainly inconvenienced by her own
maidenhood dependency, she transfers her hope and ambition onto Casaubon, a crusty old scholarly priest, in hopes of
attaining the final realization of her ideal. The Reverend Edward Casaubon, noted for his profound learning, is said to
have been engaging on a great work concerning religious history; without much understanding and contact, Dorothea
grows inclination for Casaubon, mainly from his being called a knowledgeable scholar. When Celia says how ugly Mr.
Casaubon is, Dorothea defends that he is one of the most distinguished-looking men she ever saw, and he is remarkably
like the portrait of Locke with the same eye-sockets (Eliot, 1994).
It is obvious that Dorothea’s self-realization is not limited to a pious religious follower, but, rather, as noted in
Prelude, she aspires to be a new St Theresa. In other words, with a life which combined great practical achievement
with continual prayer and religious sanctity, she hopes to reach a state of spiritual marriage with God. And a most holy
and glorious life like St. Theresa’s is what Dorothea has in mind when she sets out on her journey of life. Whatever
noble ideal Dorothea has in mind, she wishes to achieve the greatness of St Theresa, her ignorance about herself and the
society, and her personal experience of the narrowness of this small world she is dwelling in makes her seek her
martyrdom rather blindly. Since there is no way for her to do anything socially practical, she naturally turns her eyes to
learning, the profound, holy knowledge which seems to hold the key to her fantasy of sainthood.
Apparently, everyone is clear that the reason Dorothea chose Casaubon was not out of passion and love from a
woman to man, but admiration and respect from a student or follower to scholar and tutor. To some extent, Dorothea is
not to choose a lover but a mentor. Her love for Casaubon is blind and irrational. Eliot often applies “childlike” and
“childish” to characterize Dorothea in her early days. She is confused about the devotion to religion and faith with the
devotion to family life and husband. Even worse, she is meddled with the realization of her personal quest for ideal life
with the fulfillment of social values. It turns out that her plans are not met with much enthusiasm.
B. Dorothea’s Disillusionment
As Mr. Brook and Celia say of Dorothea, her thoughts and behaviors are not in line with the expected roles of women.
At the very beginning of Chapter I of Book One, George Eliot quotes from The Maid’s Tragedy: Beaumont and Fletcher
that: Since I can do no good because a woman, Reach constantly at something that is near it (Eliot, 1994, p.5).
“Something” that Dorothea chose is to find an ideal husband. “Ideal” for her is not social status, property or appearance.
On the contrary, she despises all of these superficial judgments and claims that the ideal man for her is “who could
understand the higher inward life, and with whom there could be some spiritual communion; nay, who could illuminate
principle with the widest knowledge a man whose learning almost amounted to a proof of whatever he believed”(Eliot,
1994, p.38).
Too much devoted to her religion and quest for great expectations, Dorothea, instead of being rational and wise, falls
into the other extreme. She is blind to people’s advice and refuses to accept people’s judgment on Casaubon. Casaubon
turns out to be indifferent, lack of manly affections for his wife. No wonder that he is ever called “no better than a
mummy” by Sir James, a loyal courtier of Dorothea. In the weeks since her marriage, Dorothea’s depression grows day
by day. When Dorothea told her husband that she wished to be more useful to him and urged him to write book about
his research, Casaubon got irritated.
Desperate to be of use to her husband and take part in the great research he’s devoting to, Dorothea can’t help but
show her eagerness to urge her husband to do something as she expects. When it fails to her expectation, Dorothea, out
of her natural reaction, is agitated and relentless. Dorothea’s failure of the first marriage is resulted from the
complicated social elements as well as her personal causes concerning her breed, religion, characters, etc.
In terms of social elements, Dorothea is subject to the identity as a woman. Her devotion to the spiritual perfection,
her thirsty for knowledge, her quest to change the world are out of the line with the supposed roles of a woman. Though
Mr. Brook was an intellect, he emphasizes the identity of women in a contemptuous tone: Young ladies don’t
understand political economy, and “I cannot let young ladies meddle with my documents. Young ladies are too flighty”
(Eliot, 42). For Casaubon, Dorothea is a companion who can stay and take care of him in his declining years. He never
expects his wife to be of use of his work, let alone to involve her in his research and writing. Casaubon doesn’t have the
passion of love and the spirit of dedication to love that Dorothea has. His lukewarm attitude and his intentional refusal
of communion disappoint Dorothea. With more and more understanding, Dorothea finds that her marriage is completely
different from what she has expected. Neither can she realize her noble quest for spiritual contentment, nor can she seek
warmth and comforts from her husband.
Compared with the social elements, George Eliot reminds reader much of Dorothea’s disadvantages in her religion,
education and personality. In a sense, Dorothea is the one to blame for the failure of her marriage. In the story, the
narrator says that Part of Dorothea’s naive formula for marriage stems from her bachelor uncle’s Protestant upbringing.
In roman, the narrator says that “But let them conceive one more historical contrast: the gigantic broken revelations of
that Imperial and Papal city thrust abruptly on the notions of a girl who had been brought up in English and Swiss
Puritanism, fed on meager Protestant histories and on art chiefly of the hand-screen sort; a girl whose ardent nature
turned all her small allowance of knowledge into principles, fusing her actions into their mold, and whose quick
emotions gave the most abstract things the quality of a pleasure or a pain (Eliot, 1994, p.384). From the sentences, it is
rational to say that although compared with other women, Dorothea is quite noticeable for her smartness and quick wits,

but it’s undeniable that with a limited education, Dorothea is self-indulgent in her noble and selfless devotion to the
world.
Education plays a great role in Victorian women’s marital choice. From Eliot’s view, the educational gap between
Victorian women and men reflects their outlook on marriage and further affects their marital choices. The failure of
Dorothea’s first marriage is first of all due to her meager education. Some critics once compared Dorothea to George
Eliot. However, it is reasonable to say that Dorothea is endowed with Eliot’s eager desire for knowledge and personal
fulfillment, but lack of Eliot’s sound and all-round education in languages, theology, philosophy, and even artistic
tastes.
Firstly, Dorothea lost parents in her childhood, thus she has no formal domestic education for her parents, especially
from her mother. When she and her sister live with her uncle, unmarried uncle still can’t guide them in domestic
education. The lack of domestic education arouses criticism from the neighborhood, and it’s quite unusual and improper
for young girls in the Victorian era. Thus, lack of guidance propels Dorothea’s premature independence in thought.
Despite a little formal education in Swiss, she teaches herself by voracious reading especially that of Greek and other
classics. Thus, such education is not enough to cultivate a really independent lady with free and profound thinking, just
like George Eliot.
Secondly, Dorothea doesn’t receive a sound education. Although Dorothea gets some education, it’s far from being
called well educated. Details in the plots may suffice to prove it. When Mr. Brook mentions that women don’t
understand political economy, she feels annoyed but has to admit the truth of her ignorance of political economy, “that
never-explained science which was thrust as an extinguisher over all her lights”(Eliot, 1994, p.9). In a sense, her talks
about the reforms of farm and land, and her perspectives of ameliorating tenants’ lives are not based on the systematic
and sound knowledge but on her personal understanding.
In terms of characterization of Dorothea, Eliot’s narrator is aware of and intentionally reminding reader of Dorothea’s
demerits in personalities.
Dorothea, for one thing, is self-indulgent. Dorothea always holds the quest for noble devotion to the world. When
Casaubon showed her around his house and welcomed any alteration as she liked, Dorothea answered: “Pray do not
speak of altering anything. There are so many other things in the world that want altering--I like to take these things as
they are”(Eliot, 1994, p.91). Dorothea believed she is endowed with higher request to devote to the world, and she’d
like to sacrifice her own desire at the sake of the welfare of the whole world. The way Dorothea looked at the world and
her duty reminds readers of Saint Teresa. However, there isn’t much common between Dorothea and Teresa except for
Dorothea’s eagerness to serve the world. Her ardent pursuits and ignorant incapability results in her rush and hasty
decision in marriage, through which she tries to separates herself from the other women around her. However, when she
goes to Rome for a honeymoon, she comes to the realization that her own knowledge and experience of the world to
date has been woefully inadequate. The worst thing is that She is also despondent that her husband does not return her
affectionate attentions towards him. The two have a disagreement one morning towards the end of their honeymoon in
Rome in which each misunderstands the other. Casaubon mistakes Dorothea’s request to be of aid with his intellectual
endeavors to be a criticism of his inability to write a book on his scholarship while Dorothea’s feelings of intellectual
inadequacy compared to her husband increase. It’s clear that Dorothea’s Dorothea has always overestimates herself. The
narrator has applied the word “stupid” and “conceit” foe many times to describe Dorothea’s personality, and Dorothea,
for her self indulgence and ignorance, doesn’t realize her problems until she gets married. When Casaubon teaches her
Latin and Greek as she requires, “Dorothea herself was a little shocked and discouraged at her own stupidity, and the
answers she got to some timid questions about the value of the Greek accents gave her a painful suspicion that here
indeed there might be secrets not capable of explanation to a woman’s reason”(Eliot, 1994, p.180). Besides, Dorothea
misjudges herself as well as her husband. When everyone around her reminds of reconsideration about her marriage to
Casaubon, she believes that she judges a man from soul. To some extent, Casaubon never cheats her. It is Dorothea
herself takes it for granted that Casaubon is a talented genius, who can be compared with the scholars such as Milton.
Dorothea’s expectation for marriage is based on her ignorance, lack of reason and narrow-mindedness. Thus, it’s proper
to say that Dorothea falls victim to her self-indulgence and conceit.
For another, Dorothea intentionally suppresses herself for true love and desire. Influenced by puritan creeds,
Dorothea follows the rule of self-repression. Take the jewels plot as an example. When Celia advises to divide the
jewels left by their mother, Dorothea’s natural reaction is that they should never wear them. Not until Celia puts
forwards the idea that keeping jewels is in respect to their mum’s memory does Dorothea agree to take the jewels out
for the first time. Dorothea offers all the Jewels to Celia and claims, “if I were to put on such a necklace as that, I should
feel as if I had been pirouetting. The world would go round with me, and I should not know how to walk” (Eliot, 1994,
p.89). Besides, she intentionally avoid touching the jewels with careless deprecation, for she believes these jewels
unable to match her souls. Celia’s reaction is that “she felt a little hurt. There was a strong assumption of superiority in
this Puritanical toleration, hardly less trying to the blond flesh of an unenthusiastic sister than a Puritanical persecution”
(Eliot, 1994, p.89).
Dorothea despises the jewels out of her self-repression. She actually intentionally suppresses herself for love for the
beautiful stuff that she assumes not to be becoming to her. However, as a young girl, seeing the beautiful gems,
Dorothea can’t help exclaiming under a new current of feeling, as sudden as the gleam. Dorothea has to admit these

gems are beautifully and “slipping the ring and bracelet on her finely turned finger and wrist, and holding them towards
the window on a level with her eyes. All the while her thought was trying to justify her delight in the colors by merging
them in her mystic religious joy” (Eliot, 1994, p. 90). The detailed description here illustrates Dorothea’s true feeling
towards the shining and bling jewels. Seeing Dorothea’s reaction, Celia begins to think with wonder that her sister
shows some weakness. Once again, Dorothea feels contradictory between her natural spontaneous desire and
self-repression for the greater soul. When she was persuaded to keep the ring and bracelet, she conceals her feeling and
she says in another tone---Yet what miserable men find such things, and work at them, and sell them! She paused again,
and Celia thought that her sister was going to renounce the ornaments, as in consistency she ought to do (Eliot, 1994).
Dorothea’s reactions show clearly that she actually restrains herself from her nature on purpose. Her refusal to her true
nature annoys her and will sooner or later incur unexpected consequences.
Just as Eliot says in front of the chapter one, “Here and there is born a Saint Theresa, foundress of nothing, whose
loving heart-beats and sobs after an unattained goodness tremble off and are dispersed among hindrances, instead of
centering in some long-recognizable deed”(Eliot, 1994, p.4). Eliot has long predetermines Dorothea’s destiny. Loving
and ardent as she is, Dorothea falls victim to her self-indulgence, conceit and self-repression as a result of her religion,
inadequate education and demerits in her personalities.
C. Dorothea’s Self-consciousness
Lack of mutual understanding and enough communions between the couple lead to the unhappiness soon after their
marriage. Dorothea experiences several different psychological phases in dealing with her relationship with Casaubon.
Dorothea, at beginning, was in the reaction of rebellious anger at her dull and indifferent husband. Dorothea has
planned to protest against her husband’s indifference, mainly in meditative struggle. However, the religion and the
education she has gradually turned her resentment into pity and sympathy on her old husband. Her deep-rooted
self-repression for her truly desire overwhelmed again. Finding her husband’s face more haggard, hearing her husband’s
soothing words with kind and quiet melancholy, Dorothea feels like she is devoting to something noble, and feels like
she’s much needed and appreciated for her tolerance and submission. Dorothea once again convinced herself of the
worth and value at the cost of her happiness and personal desires.
Just as Dorothea’s intentional repression from jewels and riding horse, Dorothea holds back her affections for
Casaubon’s cousin, Will Ladislaw. Once again, Dorothea is struggling between her desire for love and self-repression
from personal desires. The night before Casaubon’s sudden death, Casaubon asks if Dorothea will carry out his wish
and avoid doing what he deprecates and apply to do what he desires. Dorothea pleads for more time to give the answer.
She lays awake almost the whole night to consider if she should promise to her husband. Her hesitation once again
demonstrates her conflicts in self-repression and self-consciousness.
After Casaubon’s death, Dorothea is quite clear about her yearning for will’s love. When Will came to say farewell
before leaving, instead of confessing her love to Will, Dorothea says that she encourages Will to leave and make
himself of some mark in the world. Will feels nothing but irritation and disappointment. Dorothea conceals her feelings
for Will and tortures herself and her lover as well. A detail well shows Dorothea’s self-depression. When Sir James
visits, Will bids his farewell. Dorothea put out her hand and said her good-by cordially. “The sense that Sir James was
depreciating Will, and behaving rudely to him, roused her resolution and dignity: there was no touch of confusion in her
manner. And when Will had left the room, she looked with such calm self-possession at Sir James…” (Eliot, 1994,
p.330). Until then, Dorothea’s self-depression overweighs her feminine consciousness.
On an occasion, Mrs. Lydgate makes it clear to Dorothea that Will loves no one but her, Dorothea finally bursts out
her repressed feeling and fires her desire for love and happiness. After so many years’ repression, Dorothea finally
follows her heart and makes a decision out of her desire. Dorothea frees herself from some odious provisions in
Casaubon’s will and she gets married to Will as she wishes. Some critics refer to the second marriage as no better than
the first one. For Will Ladislaw, seen by her family as low-bred, is always regarded as a vaguely artistic fellow. Well
educated as he is, he is not much gainfully employed. That Dorothea gives up inheritance marries Will even arouses
disappointment in Dorothea. Henry James, in his comment on the book, referred to Will as “insubstantial”. Some
feminists, like Florence Nightingale, are much annoyed that Dorothea didn’t devote her post-Casaubon life to social
work. George Eliot shows us the growth, especially the psychological development of a young lady like Dorothea.
When the girl finally realizes her demerits in education and personality, she should go back to the family life and
become one of the angels in the house. That’s out of readers, especially the feminists’ expectation.
It’s natural that feminists wish that Dorothea would renounce marriage and motherhood altogether, and pursue her
social values, such as to be a freelance intellectual and novelist like George Eliot herself. However, since the beginning
of the novel, George Eliot tends to show us the growing pains of a handsome ad wealthy lady with meager education.
Dorothea’s ignorant pursuits, inadequate education, demerits in personalities endow the image with much vividness and
vitality. In the end, Dorothea gets her happy life. Some feminists criticize that Dorothea compromises with realism, and
the originally ambitious young lady goes back to family life and becomes one of the ordinary housewives. However,
there is no denying that Dorothea, after so many frustrations, finally has a clear idea of who she is and what she really
wants. What’s important, Dorothea becomes a psychologically independent human being.
IV. CONCLUSION

George Eliot’s feminine assertions have been a hot issue in the literary studies. As Elaine Showalter points out, the
feminist literation didn’t start until George Eliot’s death in 1880. Apparently, it’s unreasonable to label George Eliot as a
feminist. More likely, George Eliot is a female writer with feminine concerns. Her concerns for women is not as radical
as feminist expected. Instead of setting women and men on two extremes, George Eliot is likely to judge them from the
same standards, to be a human being. Instead of depicting women as victims of the patriarchal society, George Eliot
doesn’t hesitate to disclose women’s weakness and ignorance. For George Eliot, no matter it is a man or woman, what
counts most is their qualities of being a worthy man. Thus, in a sense, Eliot believes that women are equal to men in
terms of religion, education, ideology, etc. Consequently, George Eliot’s feminine views are beyond the limits of sexual
discrimination, thus contain the universal connotations.
George Eliot’s feminine views are a combination of tradition and modernity. As a Victorian writer, George Eliot
expresses her concern for women’s sound growth ahead of the advent of feminism. From her novels, it can be seen that
Eliot attaches much significance to women’s education. George Eliot was advanced in supporting women’s education
equal to men and condemned the artificial education women received.
Besides education, George endorsed women’s pursuit for social values. Although confronting difficulties in realizing
their pursuit, Dorothea is the exemplary model of avant-guard for vocational rights.
As for love and marriage, George Eliot is unique one, both in her life experiences but in her remarkable works. In
Middlemarch, for the two marriages, Dorothea discards the standards of property and social status, chooses Casaubon
for his knowledge and Will for love and passion. Clearly, the heroin doesn’t confine herself to the social values of
choosing partners in Victorian era. Thus, it’s fair to say that the George Eliot is a female writer with modernity of
feminine awareness.
At the same time, Eliot expresses conservative opinion on feminine assertions. Eliot doesn’t support the idea that
women pursue the individual quest at the cost of sacrificing the feminine qualities. Instead, she praises the traditional
womanly qualities and advocates that women should preserve qualities such as tenderness and submission. Women’s
education, in Eliot’ opinion, if inadequate and shallow, will do harm to women. Women’s lack of sound and formal
education doesn’t enable them to get involved in political decisions. Of course, it is by no means to say that George
Eliot depreciates women’s role in society. On the basis of reality, George Eliot is but to expose the truth to people. For
Eliot, the difference between men and women doesn’t lie in the sexual identity, thus the standards to judge men and
women should be based on the qualities of being a worthy human being instead of anything else. To some extent,
George Eliot’s views on religion and feminine assertions are consistent with her cherished values of humanity.
REFERENCES
[1] Beauvoir, Simone de. (1974). The Second Sex. New York: Vintage Books.
[2] Eliot, George. (1994). Middlemarch. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics.
[3] Showalter, Elaine (2004). A Literature of Their Own: British Novelists from Bronte to Lessing. Princeton: Princeton UP.
[4] Spiltters, Brain. (1993). George Eliot: Godless Woman. New York: St. Martin’s press.
[5] Stephen, Leslie. (1902). George Eliot. London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd.
[6] Stonyk, Margaret. (1983).Macmillan History of Literature: The Nineteenth Century English Literature. London: The
Macmillan Press& Co. Ltd.
Liang Zhang was born in Henan Province, People’s Republic of China in 1981. She finished her MA in English Language and
Literature in Wuhan University, China in 2006. She is currently an assistant professor of Teachers’ College of Beijing Union
University. She has taught intensive English and advanced English for nearly seven years, and won quite a number of prizes in
teaching competitions. She has also supervised a large number of BA dissertations in literature. Her major research interests are
TESL and British & American literature.
Lingqin Zeng was born in Guizhou Province, People’s Republic of China in 1973. She finished her MA in English Language and
Literature in Guizhou University, China in 2001. She is currently an assistant professor of Teachers’ College of Beijing Union
University. The subjects she has taught are English Pronunciation and Intonation, English Listening, English Literature, and
Advanced English, and she trained quite a number of students to win prizes in public speaking competitions. She has also supervised
a large number of BA dissertations in literature. Her major research interests are American & British literature and TESL.

ISSN 1799-2591
The Exploring Practice of Grading Model in

College English Teaching
Liu Peng
School of Foreign Languages, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong, China
Chunrong Wu
Fang Xie
Abstract—This article tries to explore the grading model in college English classrooms in a western university
in China. As we know, teaching is an essential service for the society, and it is a regular but challenging task.
Faced with new generation of students every year, educational institutions should get prepared and think out
better strategies to meet every challenge ahead. The grading model is proved to be a better way out but not a
best one. The wiser is to practice, revise, and practice. All done is to promote China college English teaching.
Index Terms—grading model, college English, CET-4
I. INTRODUCTION
Starting from 1999, China colleges and universities at all levels implemented the policy of increased enrollment.
Since then, for more than a decade its average rate of admission is 60.81%, while between 1998 and 1977, its average
acceptance rate is 23.51%. Concerning the level of English education in such a huge country like China, it has a great
variety from region to region and from college to college. But in truth for quite a long time, most universities and
colleges at all levels employ “one-size-cuts-all” system and teachers-center model in the actual teaching practice. In
universities or colleges with more favorable conditions, English course can be conducted in networked-computer
classrooms, where students enjoy great advantages of modern technology. Classroom teaching is more student-centered,
teachers talk less, instead, more relevant learning materials in video or MV can be played, and thus related discussion
can be carried out. However, most China universities or colleges don’t have such favorable sources. In those
universities most English classes are given in traditional classrooms where chalk, blackboard and textbooks are greatly
favored. In such a learning environment, usually two natural classes are combined into one English class (normally 60
students or so, this term I have one class with 98 students) because of lack of teachers’ and teaching resources. To make
better use of class time, teachers are compelled to talk a lot as there will be a unitary teaching plan and final exam for all
students. Besides, even given time for students’ class participation, few shows interest and most (more than two thirds I
bet) are looking around and waiting shy. Things are getting worse with new generation of students who are born and
grow up with advanced information technologies. Normally after one semester of college English, teachers and students
complain lots and they even become “enemies” in class, really no exaggeration.
A. Related Theories
As early as 2,000 years ago, Confucius, a world-known ancient thinker and educator in China, pinpointed that every
student is an unique identity, which cannot be overlooked for any reason. Hence various requirements should be laid
down elaborately to meet different levels of students, based on which the great theory of “teaching students in
accordance with their aptitude” came into being subsequently. Obviously such a wise man like Confucius introduced
what we successors follow and well apply to teaching and education till now. In 1960s American educator Bloom
Benjamin in his mastery learning methods proposed that “the focus of instruction should be the time required for
different students to learn the same material and achieve the same level of mastery. This is very much in contrast with
classic models of teaching, which focus more on differences in students' ability and where all students are given
approximately the same amount of time to learn and the same set of instructions.”(Bloom, 1981) Likewise, “If given
proper study conditions, most students will become quite equal and close in learning ability, study efficiency, and
further motivation.(Zhu, 1999) On basis of what’s introduced above, it is an essential move to make a necessary
reformation in accordance to every generation of college students, namely college freshmen.
B. China College English Guidelines
It’s known to all, China college English has its nationwide emphasis starting from State (China) Education
Commission. For greater efficiency in teaching and learning, since early 1980s, the Commission has issued and

rewritten China’s College English Curriculum Requirements (henceforth the Requirements) six phases: 1980,
1985-1986, 1999, 2004, and 2007. In the latest version, the Requirements (2007) proposes that the teaching of College
English should follow the principle of instructing students in accordance with their aptitude so as to meet the specific
needs of individualized teaching. To improve classroom teaching efficiency, the Requirements highlight three objectives
of assessment, namely, they are basic objective, intermediate objective and advanced objective, hence make a detailed
list of listening, speaking, reading, writing, and translation, all of which are thought very important for any learner to
master a foreign language. In addition, the Requirements put forth that college English course is one part of humanistic
education in higher education, possessing the characteristics of being instrumental (a communicative tool) and being in
spirit of humanity. In the aspect of being an instrument, college English course is an advancement and extension of
basic stage in secondary education, of which aim is to improve students’ comprehensive skills in reading, writing,
listening, speaking and translating (interpreting). College English overall teaching goals, therefore, are raising students’
practical ability in English, strengthening their cross-cultural awareness and fostering their communicative competence;
in the meantime, training their self-learning, enhancing their artistic appreciation in order that they can use English
effectively in their future life, study, social interaction and career as well.
Back to actual teaching activity, we must take notice of what’s been learned before college, how much has been
mastered and what will be learned at college. As an American psychologist, David P. Ausubel, put in the preface to his
book Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, that “If [he] had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one
principle, [he] would say this: The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows.
Ascertain this and teach him accordingly.” (Ausubel, 1968) To achieve this end, the scheme grading teaching is aimed
at those who have different needs or levels of English learners in China college English classrooms.
II. THE EXPLORATION PRACTICE IN COLLEGE ENGLISH CLASSROOMS

A. Relevant Illustration for Researched College English Teaching
As is stated in the Requirements, China college students have different levels of English proficiency as a result of
geographical regions. It is also true that there is a wide gap for English learners in the same university. Take examples
of two classes respectively majoring in arts like law and in science like maths. In law class the highest score in gaokao
(College Entrance Exam, total score is 150) is 137, the lowest being 90; in the match class, whereas, the highest one is
also approaching 130, and the lowest can be 70 below.
Before 2015 fall semester, our university adopted “one-size-cuts-all” teaching system, which specifically meant that
all freshmen, regardless of arts, science or engineering, employed uniformed in-class textbooks and identical final exam
papers. At that time there was no freshness, every class followed text books because teachers were supposed to finish
the same number of teaching units for final exam at the end of each semester. Since teachers followed almost the same
teaching plan and syllabus, some of them labored through the whole teaching if adding extra materials outside of
textbooks. Despite trying very hard, both teachers and students failed to reach targets. Besides the close proportion of
failure in passing final exam, the worse was that even some students who showed interest in English or were good at it
started to hate it and stopped making any progress.
For Chinese college students whose English proficiency is high, their ultimate goal is to pass College English
Test-band 6; for those who have an above-average level and keep up working hard at college, their great goal is to pass
College Test-band 4, and for those who stay at a humble level, their goal is to pass final exam or second test smoothly in
order to graduate successfully. Besides that, there are a few students who don’t care about taking any nationwide tests
though their English is good. What they want is to improve their practical use in English and reinforce their advantages
in communicative competence. Regardless, there should be no problem to understand different testings require different
techniques to prepare. When students with different goals were arranged in one class to follow textbooks, the results
were imaginable. In in all, to meet the needs of students’ national test-taking, graduate study or future employment, the
current system is in most need of some reformation.
B. First Experimental Practice
1. Grading Principle
Our English department proposed to our university education office the implementation of grading teaching model
among grade 2015. In the first week when freshmen entered college, they were required to take an objectively-graded
test. Based on their scores, students were graded into two levels, i.e. A and B. In 2015 fall, in our university there were
5678 undergraduates registered. The initial plan was to grade college freshmen in half, but the actual grading result was
2775 students were in level A, another 2903 in level B. Students of level A and B were divided into 86 and 85 classes
respectively. Here again a harsh truth is mentioned as in my previous articles, English teachers in our university take
heavy workload. Twenty-three English teachers undertook the teaching task of all the 171 classes in total.
2. Teaching practice
Referring to College English Test-4, teachers conduct classes for better strategies of test-taking. For every college
freshman, upon entering university, it is a basic to know about what exercises are taken and how to prepare for it. The
total score (for CET-4/6) is 710. Its testing emphasis is in listening (account for 35%), reading (30%), and writing
&.translation (35%). In class much importance is attached to preparation for this national test held in middle December.

Its types of test exercises are listed in the following table.

TYPES OF CET-4 EXERCISES AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES:
Layout of Paper Testing Contents Forms Ratio Timing
Composition Writing (No less than 120 Words) Essay 15% 30mins
Listening Comprehension Three News Items Multiple Choice 7% 25mins
Two Long Conversations Multiple Choice 8%
Three Passages Multiple Choice 20%
Reading Comprehension Vocabulary Comprehension Banked Cloze 5% 40mins
Length Reading Matched Choice 10%
Depth Reading Multiple Choice 20%
Translation Chinese into English Paragraph Translation 15% 30mins
Note: Types of CET-6 exercises are identical to those of CET-4 but with much difficulty in every test exercise.
For this end, in class teachers adopt the concept of test-oriented training courses, introducing test exercises, teaching
test-taking methods, and letting students do mountains of exercises in listening, reading, writing and translating, which
are tested in CET-4(/-6). In level A class, textbooks act as an aid of reinforcement for basic knowledge. This kind of
teaching method is boring and dull, it is very rewarding and students can easily feel a sense of accomplishment though
accompanied by occasional failure, because they know what they have done daily is making a step closer to their
fulfillment of goals.
Level B students are not allowed to take College English Test-4 in the first semester. In order to reinforce their basic
knowledge, all teachers of level B obey traditional model of language teaching, adopt unitary textbooks and teaching
plans, more teachers-oriented in class. Two textbooks supposed to be used. One is Reading and Writing book, the other
being Listening and Speaking book. For the first book there are four modules in each unit: text, vocabulary, exercise and
structured writing, and for the second, as its name implies, the listening part and the speaking part. Obviously New
Horizon College English books are in precise accordance with China’s College English Curriculum Requirements. If
used scientifically, it will build up students’ comprehensive skills in English language, and without doubt, train students
in near future CET-4 taking from the angel of basic knowledge.
But it is not the case in actual teaching practice. Most probably due to this, more or less, in level B class, more than
half students show little interest in English learning or is less accomplished at it. Teachers’ emphasis is laid on basic
knowledge like pronunciation, vocabulary, listening, translating and writing. In some cases movies or music are played
to arouse students’ learning interest. Usually in class teaching activities are as follows: pronunciation correction helped
to memorize vocabulary, weekly dictation was to re-correct pronunciation, train their listening and supervise their
vocabulary memorization, doing simple translation and composing short essays are for practical language use to build
up their confidence. In the same way students feel satisfied after each class as their efforts are paid off and the progress
is obvious.
The important thing is that both A and B don’t need to worry much about final exam as different tests are designed
for them respectively in accordance with their teaching syllabus.
3. The results
In December 19, students of level A took the national CET-4. Its ratio of students passing CET-4 (≥425) is 60.95%,
much higher than former ratio of 22.58%, say in 2014. Here is what’s done in fall semester. But what should be done in
spring semester (2nd semester)? In level A class for most students who pass CET-4, they are happy to move on for
CET-6 in the second semester. Sadly a few students have to do the whole preparation for CET-4 from the very
beginning. If put in one class, what is the effective way of in-class instruction? For level B students, majority of
students who pass final exam feel ready to take CET-4. In truth, most students succeed in passing the exam because
their final scores are composed of test paper score (account for 70%) and class-performance score (30%, flexible and
subjective). In order not to strike students’ enthusiasm in English learning, students are selected to take CET-4 in June
of second semester with test paper score over 62 (the total score for final exam is 100). As a result, about one-third meet
the requirement. Again how do teachers instruct students more efficiently?
In 2016 spring semester, level A students, whether for those passing CET-4 and failing the test, are following unitary
textbooks in class, while level B students are using materials for CET-4. In June 2016, its rate of students who pass
CET-4 is 25.09%, far from satisfaction.
As is put in Bloom (1968), “there is a shift in responsibilities, so that student's failure is more due to the instruction
and not necessarily lack of ability on his or her part”. For the good of what’s done for students, it is a must to try a new
pattern of language teaching. To vividly practice a spirit of humanity, the new model should combine the principles of
practicality, knowledge and interest, facilitate mobilizing the initiative of both teachers and students, and attach
particular importance to the central position of students and the leading role of teachers in the teaching and learning
process. American linguist Stephen Krashen illustrates in Input Hypothesis that learners progress in their knowledge of
the language when they comprehend language input that is slightly more advanced than their current level. Krashen
called this level of input "i+1", where "i" is the learner's interlanguage and "+1" is the next stage of language
acquisition.(Krashen, 2003) Applying it to teaching practice, “1” can be overall language knowledge higher than
students’ current average level, i.e. learning goals in next stage.
4. Further exploration

In 2016 fall semester, teaching models are conducted quite similarly as in 2015 fall semester. In December 2016 the
rate of students passing CET-4 is 63.03%, which is perfectly encouraging to both teaches and students. Before new
terms starts on Feb. 27, our English department implement a further grading scheme. Freshmen of Grade 2016 are
graded into four: level A for students passing CET-4, level B for students who fail CET-4 and who meet the
requirements taking CET-4 in June, and level C for those who are not allowed to take CET-4 in June 2017.
For level A, as all students succeed in passing CET-4 in December 2016, the teaching emphasis are placed on CET-6
preparation and comprehensive skills especially in listening and speaking mostly with the aid of New Horizon College
English (coursebook). Ideally since there is no heavy load for a national test like CET-4 because CET-6 is an optional
for undergraduates in our university, students are supposed to be very enthusiastic in class participation. So far as I
observe in my level A class though new term started three weeks ago, i.e. Feb.27, most students put on an indifferent
face in class, and don’t try to participate in easy or hard activities in class.
Things in level B seem differently better than level A. This term I am assigned two classes of level B, which are those
students who failed CET-4 in December 2016. On the first English class, I offered them lots of encouragements and
strength. Most students are quite confident and working very hard in class and stay close to teachers’ plan. For sure our
learning methods are doing loads of test exercises in accordance to CET-4 types of exercises, and our aim is trying
every means to pass CET-4 in June 2017.
Students of level C are the most difficult or easiest to handle. Majority of them have very low level of English. In
written exercises, they may use he/she/they in place of him, her, or them; they may put down sentences like “The tree
has a bird”, “There is a girl study in the classroom”, or “Not only he is my teacher, but also my friend.” When reading
those sentences, teachers feel grateful and relieved as they are trying. The worse is that some students hand in an empty
exercise-book and even don’t hand in anything besides frequent absence from English classes. There are a few students
who have a modestly better mastery of English language. These students feel awfully unfair in such an environment
filled with negativity when they really want to improve their English. In class teachers use New Horizon College
English (coursebook) to such a rigid degree that they never involve any additional materials with some difficulty. From
teachers’ perspective, it is no good or use putting students into a difficult learning environment.
III. FOLLOW-UPS
A. Advantages of Grading Model
Concerning the advantages of this teaching model, so far better in this way. It helps to stimulate students’ motivation
and raise their awareness of active participation. Moreover, it can implement the principle of “teaching students in
accordance with their aptitude”.
1) This model is beneficial for students to make some progress in their own starting point. In grading teaching, the
division line is set according to students’ performance in a test. When set in a new class, students’ level of English is
closer than before. If proper teaching methods are employed, students can make progress, especially when their learning
interests are maintained.
2) This model improves teachers’ efficiency in planning teaching. Before the grading model is adopted in classrooms,
students have very different levels of English. When given lessons in the same way, some take it easily while some feel
it difficult, which puts teachers and students into a difficult situation. Teachers work hard but students learn little.
Things change to better when teachers design class activities in the view of the majority. Thus, it is more effective and
pleasant.
3) This model creates a positive environment for teaching and learning. In traditional class environment, students
who are good at English before college find it a waste of time to listen to “easy” knowledge, what’s worse, they may
become lazy and never make any progress in English classrooms. However, what’s easy for good students is considered
too much for students whose English is bad. They may complain with teachers that they even cannot compose a
complete correct simple sentence in English. In the new model of teaching, brilliant students’ capacity have been
activated, and know clearly what the goal of next stage is and try every means to accomplish them. Likewise students
less accomplished in English gain their confidence and start working hard from the very beginning.
B. Drawbacks and Limitations
With regard to its drawbacks and limitations, like reformation or exploration, it is predictable and acceptable. What’s
the most important of all is to keep trying hard, reflecting objectively and amending with efficiency. After one grade of
exploration and another ongoing, three lessons can be concluded as follows:
For one thing, it strikes students’ confidence more than encouragement. No exaggeration to say that quite a number
of students are put in a wrong level though three levels are set. The span is expected to be thinner. As far as is known,
most universities set three levels of English classes which are rough. In the actual teaching practice, teachers can tell
even within the same level of the same class, students’ levels are quite different. Even if teachers employ the method of
“teaching students according to their natural ability”, its teaching effectiveness still has been restrained as a result of
differences in regions, majors, interests and preferences.
For the second, the testing before grading is not quite scientific. On the first week of freshmen’s enrollment, they are
supposed to take an objectively-graded rest which determines students’ fate in the first semester of English course. The

test paper with total score 70 is composed of two exercises: one is multiple choice accounting for 20 points, and the
other is reading comprehension. Multiple choice tests students’ knowledge of vocabulary, e.g. The years Tom spent in
the countryside is a _______ experience. A. reward; B. to reward; C. rewarding; D. rewarded. Altogether there are 40
sentences and each sentence is 0.5 points. In Reading Comprehension, as its name implies, it tests students’ reading
skills in mastering main idea and important information or details in passages. There are five passages, with five
questions followed for each passage. Two points is for each question. In all the degree of testing difficulty is almost
staying at the same level as College Entrance Examination. Maybe here the problem is not lying in the degree of testing
difficulty, but in its testing exercises, as in my eyes objectively-graded tests test more in students’ luck than English
knowledge or ability. The 2007 version of Requirements point out, evaluation is a key component in College English
teaching. In the process of teaching and learning, a comprehensive, objective, scientific and accurate evaluation system
is of vital importance to the achievement of course goals. Among other things, formative assessment and summative
assessment are suggested. The former refers to procedural and developmental assessment conducted in the teaching
process, and the latter is conducted at the end of a teaching phase. Here the test before grading is classified as the
former assessment which help to track the teaching process, provide feedback and promote an all-round development of
the students, in accordance with the teaching objectives and by means of various evaluative methods.
For the third, this model is more exam-oriented. As an exploring practice, this exploring is worth the praise and
support. But as is illustrated, its great efficiency and success is vividly shown in increased proportions of students who
pass College English Test Band Four (CET-4), which is not satisfactory. For new generation of students, test-taking is
not the ultimate goal. What matters most in college English classrooms is for the good of students’ further development
like future career or success while all-round mastery, especially in communicative competence, is of much significance.
That exactly echoes the double qualities of being humanistic and instrumental mentioned in the Requirements. Before
college, students are too busy with various entrance exams in English to think a second about for what. As a
consequence, they are too much dependent of the teaching methodology: listen to teachers passively and take notes of
every detail into their ears. When entering college, they complain lots, what’s more, feel frustrated if college teachers let
them participate and nothing much left in their notebook after class.
Last but not the least, the final exam is too “humanistic” (soft). At the end of each semester, our English department
designs three kinds of test papers for three levels of students respectively. But on the whole, test papers are very easy to
pass because teachers think students invest lots of time and energy into English study and their efforts have yielded
good results in CET-4. The principle is, the easier the better like a gift for students. In this case tests are not designed to
examine students’ practical capacity in language use. Instead, repeat the mistakes of traditional model in emphasizing
rigid memorization of language knowledge. Even so, the results are not quite satisfactory. The awful truth is: the easier
the test is, the lazier students become.
IV. CONCLUSION
To promote China’s overall quality education, for the time being, the grading model is a way out for current
embarrassment in China college English education before better models are found. Its implementation and practice
facilitate the transformation of traditional mode to modern mode with the support of computer-aid technologies.
Because of this, an increasing number of universities and colleges have put it into practice, the division of teaching
classes is far from satisfaction. Since it is an exploring practice in our university, it is inevitable and normal to encounter
some difficulties and challenges which requires educators and teachers to bear the original intention in mind, keep up
further exploration and perform duties well for China college English education. Only by this means of continual
practice, down-to-earth improvement in actual teaching activity, can this teaching model be a win-win model, and in the
end both teachers and students are happy and fruitful.
REFERENCES
[1] Ausubel, D.P. (1968). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart &. Winston.
[2] Benjamin S. Bloom (1981). All Our Children Learning - A Primer for Parents, Teachers, and Other Educators. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
[3] Chun Zhu (1999). Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
[4] Higher Education Commission of China. (2007). College English Curriculum Requirements, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign
Language Education Press.
[5] Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Liu Peng, was born in Chongqing, China in 1976. She received M.A. degree in applied linguistics from University of Electronic
Science and Technology of Chengdu, China in 2012.
She is currently an English lecturer in School of Foreign Languages, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong,
China. Her research focuses on EFL teaching.

Chunrong Wu, was born in Yinbin, China in 1973. In June 2000 she graduated from Southwest University with M.A. Degree in
applied linguistics. From Apr. 2014 to Dec. 2016 her research on “A Pragmatic-translation approach to research on applied
translation” is financed by by Research Project of Education Department of Sichuan Province.
She is currently a professor of the English language in School of Foreign Languages, Sichuan University of Science and
Engineering, Zigong, China. Her research specialization is in applied linguistics and translation.
Fang Xie, was born in Zhongxian, China in 1978. She received M.A. degree in applied linguistics from University of Electronic
Science and Technology of Chengdu, China in 2012.
She is currently an English lecturer in School of Foreign Languages, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong,
China. Her research interest includes sociolinguistics.

ISSN 1799-2591
Translation of Persian Mystic Terms into English:

A Case Study of Conference of the Birds by Attar
Sadaf Khosroshahi
Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, Iran
Ahmad Sedighi
Allameh Tabataba'i and Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract—Translation of mystic terms or metaphors is a very important portion of rendering a text from a
source language to a target language, because some of mystic terms do not exist in the target language and this
point makes the translation harder. This paper aimed at identifying the translation strategies and procedures
used by Darbandi and Davis (1984) in The Conference of the Birds of Attar Neishabouri. To achieve the
objectives, Attar’s Persian original work (Shafiei Kadkani, 2010) was read carefully to extract mystical terms.
Then, the translated text by Darbandi, and Davis (1984) was carefully read and the corresponding English
translations of Persian mystical term were found. The original mystical terms and their Persian translation
were analyzed based on Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map to find out translation strategies and procedures used by
the translators on the one hand and indicate the dominant strategy and procedure in the whole work of
translation on the other. The result showed that literal translation strategy (72.41%) was the most frequently
used strategy and direct transfer procedure (68.96%) was the most frequently used procedure. This paper
may have some implications in literary translation and help translation instructors and translation trainees as
well in translation classes.
Index Terms—mystic terms, translation, The Conference of the Birds, Van Doorslaer’s map
I. INTRODUCTION
Since some of a source language (SL) mystic terms may not exist in a target language (TL), translation of mystic
terms or metaphors is a very important portion of rendering a source text (ST) into a target text (TT). Metaphor, a
figurative trope, etymologically originating from the Greek μεταφορά (metaphorá), means “transference of a word to a
new sense” (Hawkes, 1972). What metaphor does is to add a new sense or meaning to a singular word or concept.
A poet uses metaphor more often than the writers with the intention of introducing a new concept, offering more
clear-cut meaning or presenting a more poetic effect in his/her poems. Therefore, translation of poetry needs something
more than translating other genres of literature because of its special features. It should be noted that the main concern
in translating Attar’s poems, in general, and metaphor, in particular, is how best the translators been able to convey the
messages and beauties of the poems. Most of the translators face challenges in translating poetry. Jakobson (2004)
believes that this kind of translation is rather not possible. An important feature in poetry translation is its formal
characteristics and aesthetic aspects that are hard to transfer to other languages and cultures.
A mystic term is usually classed as a metaphor that changes the sense or meaning of a word, because a metaphor is
the main device in any kind of poetry as a universal system of meaning within language. The main problem, on the way
of the translator of mystic terms exist is that Persian mystic terms are highly culture-bound and their translation into
other languages may be difficult and sometimes even impossible.
To clarify the point, it is necessary that the images be selected according to their underlying meaning and mystical
significance. The translator should comprehend the differences between various cultural and social structures in which a
poem has been shaped. Therefore, this research did an attempt to find out how these problems have been solved by
Darbandi and Davis (1984) as the translators of Attar’s The Conference of the Birds. In this paper, the researchers
intended to compare mystical terms or metaphors in Attar’s poem in The Conference of the Birds and its English
translation by Darbandi, and Davis (1984) based on Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map.
II. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Considering the translation of mystic terms as one of the main issues in poetry translation, this study pursued the
following objectives: firstly, it was an attempt to find out what strategies and procedures have been used to find proper
equivalents for ST mystic terms. Secondly, it was hoped that the investigation of the translations of the mystic terms in
Attar’s poems would further address, explore the problems in translating mystic texts by other Persian poets, and
suggest instructional points for translation education. Therefore, this study dealt with the existing problems and
challenges of translation of the mystic terms in Attar’s The Conference of the Birds. The study of Attar’s work and its
English translation can be so interesting and motivating for not only the researchers of this paper, but it is of interest to

all who are familiar with Persian and English languages and enjoy studying serious literature. The results may be of
instructional value for translation trainees and professional translators, as well. On the other hand, the results would
hopefully shed some lights on the applicability of Doorslaer’s (2007) map of translation strategies and procedures when
translating literature from Persian into English. To achieve the objectives of this study, the following four questions
were posed:
RQ1. What strategies have been used in translation of mystical terms in The Conference of the Birds according to
Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map?
RQ2. Which translation strategy has been the dominant one and why?
RQ3. What procedures have been used in translation of mystical terms in The Conference of the Birds according to
RQ4. Which translation procedure has been the dominant one and why?
In order to handle and monitor this study, the researchers have decided to narrow down their subject as much as
possible. Therefore, the researchers narrowed the topic to a comparative investigation of mystical terms of The
Conference of The Birds of Attar based on Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map and the English translation of Darbandi, and
Davis (1984). As a result, other aspects of the book were not paid attention to. It is noteworthy that the researchers have
no real contact with the translators (i.e., Darbandi, and Davis). Therefore, finding their main intentions (whether they
translated the book for money, entertainment, or other reasons) for translating this book was almost impossible. It is
clear that finding their strategies and procedures needs more study.
III. METHODOLOGY
The present study aimed to find the differences between mystic terms and their meaning in TL. To achieving this
purpose, a Persian book – Mæ nteq-o Teyr [literally The Conference of The Birds] – by Attar and edited by Shafiei
Kadkani (2010) was chosen. In addition, this book was translated by Darbandi, and Davis (1984) into English. The
translators’ strategies and procedures in terms of choosing the mystical items were investigated and compared between
two languages (English – Persian). The research method of this paper can be comparative and descriptive, because a
corpus of mystical terms was chosen from the Persian text and their corresponding English translation were identified
for data collection and analysis.
As mentioned earlier, the purpose of the study was to explore the differences between mystical items in ST and their
translation in the TL. In order to do the research, the researchers followed a systematic procedure. After selecting the
book and its English translation, the researchers listed the mystical terms and its translation.
In this comparative study, mystical terms were examined in two ways. In the first step, the researchers found the
Persian meaning of each mystic term in Moein (1985), Mousavi Sirjani (2002), and Mousavi (2009) and extracted the
exact meaning of the Persian mystic terms. In the second step, the researchers found the English translation of each of
the mystic terms (those that were translated by translators) and found their exact meaning(s) in American Heritage
Dictionary (Morris, 1969), and extracted their meaning(s). Then, they compared two meanings to see if they are close to
each other or not. After that, the researchers investigated why some differences exist at all. The researchers investigated
the translation strategies and procedures based on Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map, to understand under what condition
such strategies and procedures were used. In addition, both source language and target language cultures in original text
and target text were investigated in this paper. Since it was possible that some words or sentences be eliminated or
changed completely in the translation, the whole process from collecting data, grouping them, to their analysis was done
manually. It is noteworthy that word level was the unit of the analysis. The researchers utilized the Van Doorslaer’s
(2007) map as well as his translation strategies and translation procedures.
It is noteworthy that the researchers to achieve the objectives of the study utilized Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map. In
such maps, a distinction is drawn between ‘translation’ and ‘translation studies’, reflecting the different centers of
interest of research. ‘Translation’ looks at the act of translating and, in the new map (Van Doorslaer, 2007, p. 223), is
subdivided:
- Lingual mode (interlingual, intralingual);
- Media (printed, audiovisual, electronic);
- Mode (convert, overt translation, direst/ indirect translation, mother tongue/ other tongue translation, pseudo-
translation, retranslation, self- translation, sight translation, etc.);
- Field (political, journalistic, technical, literary, religious, scientific, and commercial).
Translation studies (ibid: 228-31) is subdivided into:
- Approaches (e.g. cultural approach, linguistic approach);
- Theories (e.g. general translation theory, Polysystem theory)
- Research methods (e.g. descriptive, empirical);
- Applied translation studies (criticism, didactics, and institutional environment).
Linguistic transfer of course still occurs within a sociocultural and historical context and institutional environment
that place his or her own constraints on the process.

To achieve the objectives of the study, the researchers chose the following sets of Van Doorslaer’s (2007) strategies
and procedures. In this research, the following four strategies were chosen to see which strategy has been the most
frequently utilized strategy in English translation of Mæ nteq-o Teyr [Literally the Conference of Birds]:
1. Free Translation: This strategy produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original. As an
example, Darbandi, and Davis (1984) have translated the Persian word “mæ refæ t” into the English word “insight”.
Therefore, they have utilized free translation strategy in this instance extracted from The Conference of the Birds.
2. Foreignizing: Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately
breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning (Gile, 2009). As an example, Darbandi, and
Davis (1984) have translated the Persian word “ʔeblis” into the English word “Eblis”. Therefore, they have utilized
Foreignizing strategy in this instance extracted from The Conference of the Birds.
3. Naturalization: This strategy adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology
of the TL (Newmark, 1988b, p.82). As an example, Darbandi, and Davis (1984) have translated the Persian word
“qæbz” into the English word “Despair”. Therefore, they have utilized Naturalization strategy in this instance extracted
from The Conference of the Birds.
4. Literal Translation: In this strategy, the translator retains the forms of source text as much as possible. In this type
of translation strategy, the SL grammatical structures are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical
words are again translated singly, out of context (Newmark, 1988b, p.81). As an example, Darbandi, and Davis (1984)
have translated the Persian word “cofr” into the English word “Blasphemy”. Therefore, they have utilized Literal
Translation strategy in this instance extracted from The Conference of the Birds.
In addition, the following four procedures were chosen to see which procedure has been the most frequently utilized
procedure in English translation of Mæ nteq-o Teyr [Literally the Conference of Birds]:
1. Expansion: It refers to the case where the translator exceeds the number of words of the SLT in translation.
Expansion procedure also occurs when the translator tries to shift from the implicit to the explicit (Zakhir, 2008). If the
French phrase “Homme noir” is translated into “Dark skinned man” in English. It can be stated that Expansion
procedure has been used by the translator, because there is a shift from n+adj in French to adj+ptp (compound adj)
+noun.
2. Borrowing: According to Harding & Riley (1986), borrowing is reproducing or, where necessary, transliterating
the original term. An example of Borrowing is the verb ’mailer,’ which is used in Canadian-French utterance. Here, the
French suffix-er is added to the English verb ’mail’ to conform to the French rules of verb-formation.
3. Adaption: As the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes,
characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten (Newmark,
1988b, p.81). As previously mentioned, Darbandi, and Davis (1984) have translated the Persian word “qæbz” into the
English word “Despair”. Therefore, they have utilized Naturalization strategy in this instance extracted from The
Conference of the Birds. Accordingly, it can be said that they have used Adaption procedure.
4. Direct Transfer: According to Vinay and Darbelnet (1997), in the strategy of Direct Transfer (also known as
Borrowing), a source language (SL) item is transferred directly to the target language (TL). As an example, Darbandi,
and Davis (1984) have translated the Persian word “tælæb” into the English word “quest-search-seek”. Therefore, they
have utilized Direct Transfer procedure in this instance extracted from The Conference of the Birds.
IV. RESULTS OF THE STUDY

In this study, the researchers tried to compare mystic terms and their meanings in a book entitled The Conference of
the Birds. The purpose of the researchers was to find the differences between the main meaning of the mystic terms and
their translation by Darbandi, and Davis (1984) in English language.
According to Van Doorslaer’s (2007) translation strategies, data collection and analysis carried out in a comparative
descriptive framework. In other words, each mystic term was interpreted in its own language (Persian) and then its
English translation by Darbandi, and Davis, 1984was interpreted again in target language (English) and these two
interpretations were compared by using Van Doorslaer’s (2007) translation strategies and procedures. Finally, the
researchers categorized these strategies and procedures, and calculated their frequencies.
In the following sections, the analysis and its results are presented and discussed. According to Table 1 and Figure 1,
from 29 examples extracted from the book The Conference of the Birds in the part “the Seven Valleys”, according to
Van Doorslaer’s (2007) strategies, there were 20 instances of Literal Translation, 6 instances of Naturalization, 1
instance for Foreignizing, and 1 instance for Free Translation. It is noteworthy that no instance was found for Van
Doorslaer’s (2007) other strategies.

TABLE 1.
APPLIED TRANSLATION STRATEGIES IN THE CONFERENCE OF THE BIRDS
Strategies Frequency Percentage
Free translation 1 3.44 %
Literal translation 21 72.41 %
Foreignizing 1 3.44 %
Naturalization 6 20.68 %
Total number 29 100 %
Figure 1. Percentage of Translation strategies applied in in the Conference of the Birds
According to Table 2 and Figure 2, from 29 examples, derived from the book The Conference of the Birds in the part
“the Seven Valleys”, according to Van Doorslaer’s (2007) procedures, there are 20 instances for Direct Transfer, 7
instances for Adaption, and one instance for Borrowing and Expansion. It is noteworthy that no instance was found for
Van Doorslaer’s (2007) other procedures.
TABLE 2.
APPLIED TRANSLATION PROCEDURES IN THE CONFERENCE OF THE BIRDS
Procedures Frequency Percentage
Adaption 7 24.13 %
Borrowing 1 3.44 %
Direct transfer 20 68.96 %
Expansion 1 3.44 %
Total number 29 100 %
Figure 2. Percentage of Translation procedures applied in in the Conference of the Birds
Based on the findings of this study, the dominant strategy used in translating this book was Literal Translation that
had 72.41% of whole percent. After that, Naturalization was ranked with 20.68% of whole percent. Finally, Free
Translation and Foreignizing were ranked with 3.44% of whole percent. It was interesting that the rest of strategies
were nothing. On the other hand, the dominant procedure in translating this book was Direct Transfer that had 68.96%
of whole percent. After that, Adaption was ranked with 24.13% of whole percent. Finally, Borrowing and Expansion
were ranked with 3.44% of whole percent. Accordingly, the researchers may conclude that the mystic terms can be
transferred to the TL with their almost exact content of the SL, if the translator has a good choice for any term, and that
is what the translators (i.e., Darbandi, and Davis, 1984) had done by using Literal Translation as a dominant strategy of
translation and Direct Transfer as a main procedure of translation.
V. CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

To conclude what has been assumed and has been done from the beginning to the end of this research, it is needed to
start once more with restatement of the purpose and research questions. The purpose of this study was to find out what
strategies and procedures have been used to find an effective equivalence for each of the ST mystic terms.
Based on the comparison made between the original Persian text and its English translation, the researchers found the
following results for each of the four research questions:
RQ1. What strategies have been used in translation of mystical terms in The Conference of the Birds according to
Based the applied strategies by Darbandi, and Davis (1984) in The Conference of the Birds, the result confirmed the
logicality and comprehensiveness of Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map on the one hand, and the conscious choice of the
natural and proper translation strategies by Darbandi, and Davis (1984). Another point that was of interest, for the
research and maybe those who enjoy a sense of feeling poetry and its hardship of translating poetry from one language
into another was that cultural distance and linguistic gap as to main problems on the way of translating poetry. Some
scholars and some translators like Darbandi, and Davis (1984) have been successful to some extend to provide
acceptable translation, even for such difficult matter as a translation of Persian mystic terms into English.
RQ2. Which translation strategy has been the dominant one and why?
To give reason why literal translation has been the dominant strategy in The Conference of the Birds by Darbandi,
and Davis (1984), it is quite the right time to refer to idea and theories presented by some scholars about translation of
poetry. For example, Jakobson (2004) believes translation of poetry is in poetry and literal strategy is mostly used.
Following a same way, Nabokov (2004) believes that translation of poetry is almost impossible and the only way that
he suggests is literal translation.
To think logically we may come to conclusion that the safest way to translate elements of poetry is to stick to
literalness and leave the feeling of poetry to the reader himself/herself. Of course, here, by reader we do not mean
general reader but a reader who is in the field of literature and especially mystic poetry. Therefore, Darbandi, and Davis
(1984) again by innate ability and natural experience has shown the literal translation strategy as the dominant one.
RQ3. What procedures have been used in translation of mystical terms in The Conference of the Birds according to
Translation procedures have been used are Adaption, Borrowing, Direct Transfer and Expansion. The findings
showed that these strategies were in line with Doorslaer’s (2007) map. Here again, Doorslaer’s logicality of his theory
of translation procedures were confirmed. On the other hand, it showed that the natural feeling of Darbandi and Davis
(1984) in choosing procedures that is closely referring the related strategies.
RQ4. Which translation procedure has been the dominant one and why?
To answer question four, results showed that the dominant procedure was direct transfer. This result was also
compatible with the literal translation that has been the dominant strategy. In other words, literal translation and direct
transfer support each other as closeness of a particular strategy and its corresponding procedures.
According to the information provided in Table 1 and Figure 1, the total amount of literal translation enjoys the
highest frequency (72.41%) in the translation strategies. As illustrated in Figure 2 and Table 2, the total amount of
Direct Transfer enjoys the highest frequency (68.96%) among the translation procedures of Van Doorslaer’s (2007)
map.
As it is clear and worth to noting, according to Van Doorslaer’s map, the dominant strategy used in translation of
Darbandi, and Davis (1984) was literal translation and the dominant procedure used in their translation was direct
transfer.
The results of this research may have some instructional implications. Although translation is not a new field of study
but much research can be done in this field. The new technologies and movements of the world have changed the
traditional face of research. Therefore, these movements intensify the need to accept and emphasize that poetry
translation can be studied as a course in Translation Studies. What has been found in this research can also be used in
translation training program. Translators can use the results of the study to do research about mystical translation in
other genres, fields and even enjoy the results of this study.
Translators must be aware of the fact that the heart of their tasks is not to translate texts, but to translate cultures.
They should know that misinterpretation occurs when they do not consider culture. If they translate the cultural words
literally, since the meaning would be distorted, the target language readers or audiences will be culturally shocked.
Besides, each language has unique characteristics and one of the main translation problems is to find possible
strategies/procedures and analyze specific translations. Hence, it would be helpful for translators to find the norms that
govern the choice of translation strategy. In other words, they would be more successful if they know which
strategies/procedures are used more and are accepted by competent translators.
In addition, it seems so necessary to make translation students aware of the importance of preserving cultural and
linguistic diversities of any language. What is more important is the awareness of the translators in selecting a text, the
genre, its author and in adopting translation procedures and strategies. Making use of Van Doorslaer’s (2007) map is
strongly recommended. The results of this work may help teachers of translation and material developers in the field to
review their methods and concepts on translation trainings.

It is hoped that this research can pave the way for other pieces of research. In this regard, the following suggestions
were proposed:
1. One may replicate the same or almost the same topic to verify or diversify the found results.
2. The researchers of this study limited themselves only to “Seven valleys of Love”. Others may choose different
parts of the book.
3. In this research, Van Doorslaer’s map was chosen as the framework. Others may choose different strategies
selected from the frameworks suggested by other scholars such as Newmark (1988a), Baker (1992), and Chesterman
(1997).
4. Since Persian culture enjoys vast literature in mysticism, some other researchers may choose a variety of translated
texts from Persian into English by other translators.
REFERENCES
[1] Baker, M. (1992). In other words. A Course Book on Translation. London & New York: Routledge.
[2] Chesterman, A. (1997). Memes of translation: The spread of ideas in translation theory. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John
Benjamins.
[3] Darbandi, A. & Davis, D. (1984). The Conference of the birds. England, London: Penguin Classics.
[4] Gile, D. (2009). Basic concepts and models for interpreter and translator training. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins
Publication Company.
[5] Harding, E. & Riley, P. (1986). The Bilingual Family: A Handbook for Parents.UK: Cambridge University Press.
[6] Hawkes, T. (1972). Metaphor. London: Methuen and Co. Ltd.
[7] Jakobson, R. (2004). On the linguistic Aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (ed.), the Translation Studies Reader (pp. 113-118).
London & New York: Routledge.
[8] Moein, M. (1985). Moein Persian Dictionary. Tehran: Amirkabir Publication.
[9] Morris, W. (1969). American heritage dictionary of the English language. USA: American Heritage Company.
[10] Mousavi, S. M. (2009). Fæ rhæ ng-e ʔestelahat-e ʔerfan-e ʔeslami [The Glossary of Islamic Mystical Terms]. Tehran:
Sohrevardi Research and Publication Center.
[11] Mousavi Sirjani, S. (2002). Fæ rhæ ng Nam-e Tæ tbiqi [The Comparative Glossary]. Tehran: Zavar Publication.
[12] Newmark, P. (1988a). A Textbook of Translation. New York & London: Prentice Hall.
[13] Newmark, P. (1988b). Approaches to Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall.
[14] Nabokov, V. (2004). Problems of translation: Onegin in English. In L. Venuti (ed.), the Translation Studies Reader (pp. 115-
127). London & New York: Routledge.
[15] Shafiei Kadkani, M. (Ed.) (2010/1389). Mæ nteq-o teyr [The Conference of Birds]. Tehran: Agah Publication.
[16] Van Doorslaer, L. (2007). Risking Conceptual Maps. In Y. Gambier and L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.). The Metalanguage of
Translation. The Special Issue of Target, 19, 2, 217-233.
[17] Vinay, J. & Darbelnet, J. (1997). A Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology for Translation. In J.
Munday (Ed.), Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London & New York: Routledge.
[18] Zakhir, M. (2008). Translation Procedures. University of Soultan Moulay, Morocco. Retrieved From
http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1704.php.
Sadaf Khosroshahi holds an M.A. in Translation Studies at Islamic Azad University South Tehran Branch. She is interested in
Persian and English Literature, Translation Studies, and Mysticism.
Ahmad Sedighi is assistant Professor of TEFL at Allameh Tabataba'i University and Islamic Azad University where he teaches
translation courses for MA and BA students.

ISSN 1799-2591
Struggling between Tradition and Modernity: A

Feminist Interpretation of Yu Opera China
Women
Songcun Zhang
Sichuan University of Arts and Science, Dazhou, China
Abstract—Yu Opera China Women (some translated it into Our Company, pinyin: Xiāng Hún Nǚ) (2000) has
been well received by audiences for its simple folk description, vivid characters, touching story lines, stunning
stage backgrounds and exquisite stage performances. The opera describes a story of Xiangxiang and
Huanhuan, mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, two generations of women in the reform and opening up years
in the twentieth century in China. These Chinese women try to break the shackles of fate, with the strength to
overcome hardships, work hard to gain wealth, and be brave to pursue true love, so it has a strong sense of
feminism. However, rooted in the deep traditional Chinese culture, Xiangxiang and Huanhuan are always
struggling between tradition and modernity, and they make difficult choices along with the awakening of
women's consciousness.
Index Terms—China Women, feminism, tradition, struggle, modernity
I. INTRODUCTION
Yu opera (simplified Chinese: 豫剧; traditional Chinese: 豫劇; pinyin: Yùjù), or Yuju opera, formerly known as
Henan bangzi (Chinese: 河南梆子; pinyin: Hénán Bāngzi), is one of China's famous national opera forms, alongside
Peking opera, Shaoxing opera, Huangmei opera and Pingju. [1] Yu Opera originated from central China's Henan
Province about 400 years ago, and has extended its popularity to other regions along the Yellow River in northern China.
[2] Then it spread across China, including the northwest Xinjiang province and southeast Taiwan. The Yu opera not only
deeply rooted in the soil of Chinese national culture psychology, but also closely connected with the national cultural
psychology all the time. Meanwhile, its creation is based on the Central Plains people's living style, folk etiquette, folk
dance and language style, etc. So it reflects Henan people’s essence of life. There is a strong local color in Yu opera’s
features, penetrating Henan province's local customs and people’s simple folk customs in the Central Plains. In a word,
it has played an irreplaceable role in the development of folk music in the Central Plains since it was born. In May 2006,
Yu opera has been listed as part of China's intangible cultural heritage, approved by the State Council of the People's
Republic of China. There are thousands of pieces in the list of Yu opera. Some promote patriotism and national integrity,
such as Su Wu Herds Sheep and Wu Shi Qing Ying (the 100-years-old lady to be commander), etc. Some reflect loyalty
and the ancient battle life, such as Mu Guiying Took Command and Hua Mulan, etc. Some put on shows of folk daily
life, love affairs and social ethics, such as The Beheading of an Ungrateful Husband and Qingfeng Pavilion, etc. Today,
Yu Opera writers are no longer satisfied with the reflection of history and the recurrence of major historical events, but
concentrate on the common people in the real life, their family, their experiences and thoughts, their emotional changes,
moral and ethics, love and personal fate, their value of life and other issues. (Zhang Hua: 2013, p9)
Modern Yu Opera China Women (2000) is such kind of story. China Women demonstrates a typical image of
Xiangxiang, a traditional woman who struggles hard to move forward the modern society. In April 2015, the film of Yu
opera China Women won the music Remi Award and the best art direction award at the 48th World Fest-Houston
International Film and Video Festival, USA. Some critics say that the film is well received by American audience for its
unique Chinese local opera elements and its touching themes, some audience couldn’t help crying as they watch it.
Through two generations of women's fate intertwined and their soul’s collision, Yu Opera China Women reflects the ups
and downs of Chinese women living in the patriarchal society and their desire to pursue love and freedom. This thesis
intends to reveal the tragic destiny of the two generations of women in the patriarchal society from three levels of
society, family and personal, in the light of feminist theory, and finally reveals their awakening female consciousness.
II. THEORY OF FEMINISM

Western Feminism’s basic view is that Western civilization is male-centered and controlled by the male, while
women are in a subordinate position both in the society and in the family, being oppressed and prejudiced. That is what

This article is supported by the research project of “The Western Feminism and Moyan” (NO. SCWY15-23) supported by Sichuan Foreign
Language and Literature Study Center

Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) says “the second sex” or “The Other”. Feminists advocate criticizing the
male-centered western society and fight for the equal rights and status between men and women in all fields of society.
The term Feminism first appeared in France, and then came to many countries in Europe, America, and Asia and so on.
There have been three waves in the history of Feminism development. The first wave of feminism appeared from the
late 18th century to the 1920s, mainly fighting for women’s rights to vote, to receive higher education and the right to
work. The representative feminists are Christine de Pizan (1364-1430), Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) and Virginia
Woolf (1882-1941) and so on. Then the second wave was the women's emancipation movement since the 1960s, mainly
criticizing sexism, gender discrimination and male power. Although women had the rights to vote, work and receive
education, they still couldn’t be equal to men. Simone de Beauvoir pointed out that women were not born as women,
but made by the male-centered society. So the feminists advocate eliminating gender differences and realizing the real
gender equality. The representative feminists are Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986), Betty Friedan (1921-2006), Kate
Millett (1934-) and Germaine Greer (1939-) and so on. At last, the third wave appeared in the 1990s, and the feminists
of this wave were usually born during the 1960s or 1970s, influenced by the second wave, these feminists held more
ideas, so there were different groups and ideas. The representatives include Alice Walker (1944-) and Doris Lessing
(1919-2013) and so on.
In ancient traditional China, women were always in a subordinate position, and a good female must obey the will of
her father, her husband and then her adult son when getting old. While in modern times, influenced by western
feminism, Chinese feminism is also developing. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century,
the main contents of the Chinese women's movements were: to fight for women’s participation in the political power, to
set up women's industry, to fight for women's social power, such as: to stop binding women’s feet, to be free to hair
cutting, admission to school and freedom of marriage. The story of Yu Opera China Women happened in the 1980s, the
reform and opening up years in China, and women’s liberation has made some progress. The heroin Xiangxiang could
go out to work, but she was still struggling hard to move from tradition to modernity. On one hand, she wants to be a
good daughter, a good wife, a good mother and a good mother-in-law following Chinese tradition; on the other hand,
she desires to pursue her true love and enjoys freedom in marriage when her husband is irresponsible and gambling, and
they don’t love each other at all. This contradiction leads to her tragedy.
III. THE MORAL KIDNAPPING OF PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY

It was Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) who first brought the concept of “the Other” to the field of gender study. In
her masterpiece The Second Sex (1949), Simone de Beauvoir explored woman as the sexual “Other” in relation to man
in a male-dominated culture. The concept of “the Other” indicates the domination of man over woman, “a man
represents both the positive and the neutral, as indicated by the common use of man to designate human beings in
general; whereas woman represents only the negative, defined by limiting criteria, without reciprocity”. (Beauvoir:
1989, p 234.)
It is the real description of Xiangxiang and Huanhuan’s status at that time. Xiangxiang was sold to be a child bride in
the family of Shen as a property by her parents when she was at seven because her parents were too poor to live.
Huanhuan was also sold by her parents for 20,000 Yuan because her parents’ family was in economic trouble. Then the
clever and beautiful Huanhuan married a well-known mentally handicapped husband Dunzi, who was Xiangxiang’s son.
She was beat by her husband when he had an attack of his old illness. Xiangxiang also suffered her husband’s bully
throughout her life. In the Act II, Xiangxiang’s husband Erdong lost all his money in gamble, returned home and asked
for more money. When she refused, Erdong was angry and began to beat her again, and sang his lines: As a woman, you
shouldn’t be odd; you should be a good house wife and your duty is to help your husband and teach your children well.
No matter how capable you are, you are shoes, and I’m feet. I take it for granted that feet step on shoes. This is the
group consciousness in the traditional patriarchal society. Women were expected to obey the will of their father, their
husband and then their adult son when they were getting old. There is a famous saying in ancient China: Ignorance is a
woman's virtue. That means, when a woman is incapable and without any idea, she always listens to the instruction of
male, this is a virtuous woman with feminine traits. So women are expected to be totally surrendered to man’s power
and domination, then become the inferior Other. Only men have rights to divorce from his wife, and that will bring
shame on her parents’ family name. Sometimes, the divorced wife would die of shame. If a woman dare to say no to the
patriarchal society, the public would generally be hostile to her and condemn her. So almost all the women lived in the
moral kidnapping of patriarchal society, without their own thinking, without any personality. All they need to do is to
satisfy their husbands and the patriarchal society.
However, the feminists are against this kind of discrimination to women, and they fight for women’s rights to work
and to be independent. In China Women, Xiangxiang was not incapable. As the real boss of Shen family’s Jun Kilns,
Xiangxiang should be respected and valued. It’s still very difficult for her to change her inferior status, because she was
also kidnapped by the moral of patriarchal society, so do most of women in China. They didn’t dare to say no to the
requirement from a powerful tradition. Xiangxiaing chose to put up with her hard situation, only to win a reputation of
good wife, good mother and good mother-in-law, as she sang in Act II. That’s the expectation of the patriarchal society.
Xiangxiang enhanced it consciously or unconsciously. When her daughter-in-law Huanhuan saw Erdong beating her
unintentionally, Xiangxiang threatened Huanhuan to beat her, if she could tell others about the family conflict.

Xiangxiang wouldn’t dare challenge the traditional public opinions. Although Xiangxiang fell in love with the potter
Shizhong, she couldn’t dare divorce from her husband and start a new life. Finally, she was caught in her own trap in
patriarchal society.
In conclusion, woman’s identity is the Other in marriage life and is much lower than her husband’s status. In most
occasions, she is just one property of the family, without respect from her husband, not to mention love and freedom.
Women were kidnapped by the moral of patriarchal society. They couldn’t dare to fight against the tradition for fear of
being criticized by the patriarchal morality.
IV. THE EVOLUTION OF POWER RELATIONS BETWEEN HUSBAND AND WIFE

In the story of China Women, the power relations between the husband Erdong and the wife Xiangxiang was going
through a period of irreversible change. When Xiangxiang was a child bride in Shen family, she was the totally inferior
one. Her duty was to serve the whole family without any complaint, being beat and cursed, never dared to resist. This is
a real portrayal of many child bride’s life in old China. They are sold to their husband’s home when they are children,
without any discourse power. In the year 1950, the marriage law of the People's Republic of China has expressly banned
the child bride marriage.
In an unfortunate life, Xiangxiang didn’t depend on her idle husband or was willing to live a poor life, but worked
hard and became strong to change her life.Many years later, grow-up Xiangxiang was capable enough to be the richest
woman and labor model in the town, through working hard to make the boom of Shen family’s Jun Kilns business in the
reform and opening up years in the twentieth century in China. While her husband Erdong was the type to sit around
doing nothing but gambling, economically dependent on Xiangxiang, taking money from Xiangxiang for granted. On
the surface, Erdong got money from home in the permit of Xiangxiang, while in fact Xiangxiang had no rights to say no
and she was still under control of her husband. But the situation was changing and it was not nice for Erdong as time
went by. Without her husband’s help, Xiangxiang took all the tough burden independently. When she met and saved the
life of the younger potter Shizhong, Shizhong owed a big debt of gratitude to her and began to work hard for her. It was
natural that love would come in time. Xiangxiang seemed to be mistress of her own destiny. Double bumper harvest of
love and career shows a strong feminism color. Erdong knew that Xiangxiang didn’t love him; he only wanted to
possess and control her. After he was drunk, losing money in gamble, he went home and took his annoyance out on her.
He knew the love affairs between his wife and Shizhong, but he pretended not to know, in order to get money from their
Jun Kilns. Erdong hated Xiangxiang and Shizhong, but he depended on them. So he is a bully with a coward's heart.
The male feminist John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) talked about the role of women in marriage and how it needed to be
changed in his book The Subjection of Women (1869). Mill argues that relations between sexes simply amounted to “the
legal subordination of one sex to the other - is wrong itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement;
and that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality.” (Mill: 1869, chapter 1). Mill hates the situation that a
man can establish total supremacy over his wife, doing nothing, this is a grievous injustice. Mill also argued that the
oppression of women was one of the few remaining relics from ancient times, a set of prejudices that severely impeded
the progress of humanity. The ideal gender relations of the modern society should be like this: No one is born with
privilege and irrevocable in that position. People should be free and equal to obtain their expected life, by using their
talents and taking favorable opportunities.
In the story of Yu Opera China Women, the husband Erdong was such a self-centered bummer, useless, but intended
to be a tyrant in the family. While the wife Xiangxiang was not a weak woman, she was amazingly competitive and
capable enough to be the real boss of Shen family’s Jun Kiln. Her success in work and economic independence made
her no longer the obedient child bride. She tried to say no to her husband’s idleness and greed, even though they had to
fight with each other. In that patriarchal society, although it’s very difficult for Xiangxiang to improve her living
condition, she was brave and working hard to change, finally she really made some progress. Along with the constant
struggle and development of feminist movement in China, women have gained some rights and status gradually.
V. THE AWAKENING OF FEMALE CONSCIOUSNESS

The Feminist Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) pointed out that women’s feminine obedience was not natural, but
man-made in her book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). In other words, the gender differences between
men and women are not only determined by the physiology, but also by the patriarchal society. Our traditional culture
and literary classics are male-centered, full of discrimination and prejudice against women. (Li Yinhe: 2005, p15) So the
feminist movements protest sexual discrimination and fight for equal rights between men and women. With the
influence of western feminist campaign, the theme of feminism was revived with great zeal in the late twentieth century
in China. More and more women walked out of their families, began to work hard and tried to win their liberation,
along with a kind of obvious awakening of female consciousness.
Xiangxiang is a good example. It’s obvious that Xiangxiang’s family life was very unfortunate: Her husband Erdong
was a gambler and sometimes beat her black and blue, her son Dunzi was mentally handicapped and suffering from
epilepsy. But Xiangxiang didn’t succumb to her tragic fate. Instead, she was brave to face all the difficulties, went out to
work and tried to make Shen family’s Jun Kiln booming. This is the first step of her awakening of female consciousness

and beyond lots of traditional Chinese women. In the process of making Kiln porcelain, Xiangxiang encountered a
skillful potter Shizhong. Act III describes Xiangxiang and Shizhong’s love story in detail. The two help and support
each other, then fall in love, and then give birth to a daughter named Lingzhi. This is the second step of her awakening
of female consciousness. In traditional Chinese ideology, a wife must be completely faithful to her husband, no matter
what happened. When Xiangxiang fell in love with Shizhong, she was brave to loosen the bonds of tradition and
enjoyed the true love, although they could only love secretly and Lingzhi pretended to be Erdong’s daughter.
However, Xiangxiang was still born in old China and sold as a child bride, there was still tradition in her deep heart,
so it was very difficult for her to break up with tradition completely. For example, Xiangxiang knew that people
admired her because she had a lot of money, then she planned to do what she wanted using money. She loved her son so
much that she intended to spend 20,000 Yuan marrying her son a very clever and beautiful girl Huanhuan in traditional
Chinese way. This is her hand-made tragedy. Huanhuan originally had a closing and loving relationship with her
boyfriend Jinhai. In order to separate the two, Xiangxiang spent money in sending Jinhai to work in city, and let the
loan officer ask for money in Huanhuan’s family, because they were in debt. Finally, her mentally handicapped son got
married with Huanhuan. They couldn’t communicate with each other at all. The heartfelt rural ethics in the traditional
agricultural civilization era was quietly replaced by the money ethics in the economic society. What dominates people is
no longer the traditional family authority and the male power, but the money in the pocket of the capable person. Money
is new baton in people’s life, and it refreshes the neighborhood relationships, meanwhile it reorganizes the social ethical
relations in the new period of economic reform.
But Huanhuan was born in modern times, she made more progress in the awakening of female consciousness. To
start with, she had an insight into the problems in Shen family and was very sympathetic to the unfortunate marriage of
her mother-in-law Xiangxiang. In Act V, when Xiangxiang was dating with her lover Shizhong at night, her husband
Erdong returned home suddenly, Huanhuan was clever enough to cover up for them in an emergency. Xiangxiang was
touched by Huanhuan’s goodwill and finally realized the tragedy of Huanhuan, just the same as hers.
In Act VI, Erdong was arrested by the police because of gambling, Shizhong left Xiangxiang in order to protect her
reputation, her Jun Kiln collapsed, Xiangxiang was in frustration and desperation. Huanhuan came to comfort
Xiangxiang and encouraged her to find Shizhong back. Xiangxaing was hopeless to say, their Jun Kiln was lost through
Erdong’s gambling losses. But Huanhuan told her, the gambling debts were not protected by the law, you still had Jun
Kiln. Xiangxiang was deeply moved by Huanhuan’s good heart and confessed her sins to Huanhuan, she shouldn’t have
separated Huanhuan and her boyfriend, using various means. After a strong ideological struggle, Xiangxiang told her
son Dunzi to divorce from Huanhuan, but Dunzi didn’t agree and insist wanting Huanhuan. Xiangxiang was really
caught in a dilemma. Finally Xiangxiang determined to break the cage, gave Huanhuan freedom and gave her chance to
restart her life.
Along with the developing of the plot, the story reached a climax at the last Act. Huanhuan couldn’t help crying when
she left, because she knew Xiangxiang was really getting into trouble. Huanhuan still persuaded Xiangxiang to change
her life and find Shizhong back. The audience would be deeply touched by the awakening of female consciousness. The
two generations of women finally open their minds to each other and encourage each other to start a new life. The
awakening of people, human enlightenment and deep humanitarian concern are put into the social background of the
history and reality to display, Yu Opera China Women criticizes the old and decadent culture and ideology with a deep
sense of crisis, shows the alienation of normal human nature in the new turning period, and reflects on the difficulty and
possibility of the awakening of humanity and recovery.
VI. CONCLUSION
Yu Opera China Women is very popular among Chinese audience as soon as it was on. Besides its sweet music,
stunning stage backgrounds and exquisite stage performances, the touching story and characters really captivate
audiences. The role of Xiangxiang is true and heavy. She is shrewd, capable and experienced in Jun Kiln business,
selfish and vicious in finding the daughter-in-law, disgusted and hopeless under her husband’s oppression, kind and full
of love for her children, warm and helpless before her lover. Almost all sorts of women’s sides were showed accurately
in various scenes, selfish while selfless, self-esteem while self-abased, strong while weak, so this is really a round
character. She is strong enough to break away from the unfortunate fate of being a victim of the unhappy marriage at the
old age, but makes a new cage to suppress Huanhuan using her money in the new era. This is penetrating criticism of
human nature, but the more valuable thing is that Xiangxiang could reflect on herself and correct her wrong behavior,
eventually encourage her daughter-in-law to start a new life. Therefore, readers can see the revival of human nature and
the culture reflection of humanity enlightenment.
Audiences also can see the struggle and the awakening of female consciousness in the heroines Xiangxiang and
Huanhuan, they are eager for self-reliance and self-improvement. It was encouraging that they never succumb to their
fate. However, in the strong patriarchal tradition, the Chinese women's liberation is particularly difficult. Xiangxiang
and Huanhuan are always struggling between tradition and modernity. They can be brave to break the shackles of fate,
but their fight will be a history of blood and tears.

REFERENCES
[1] Beauvoir, Simone de. (1989). The Second Sex. New York: Vintage.
[2] [EB/OL]. [2017-02-15]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_opera.
[3] [EB/OL]. [2017-02-15]. http://english.cri.cn/8706/2010/12/01/1141s608032.htm.
[4] Li Yinhe. (2005). Feminism. Jinan: Shandong People Press.
[5] Mill, J.S. (1869 first ed.). The Subjection of Women. London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
Web Transcription Tool. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Subjection_of_Women#Arguments.
[6] Zhang Hua. (2013). Research on Modern Drama Creation of Contemporary Yu Opera in Henan. Taiyuan: Shanxi Normal
University. Master Dissertation.
Songcun Zhang was born in Pingdingshan, China in 1982. She received her Master degree in British and American literature
from Shaanxi Normal University, China in 2009.
She is currently a lecturer in the school of Foreign Languages, Sichuan University of Arts and Science, Dazhou, Sichuan. Her
research interests include American literature and Chinese drama.

ISSN 1799-2591
Application of Cooperative Principle and

Politeness Principle in Class Question-answer
Process
Lulu Liu
Shanxi Normal University, Linfen, China
Abstract—Question-answer method of teaching is one of the common ways of classroom interaction and it is
also a bridge of communication and cooperation between teachers and students. Teachers can check and know
students’ understanding of the knowledge and guide students to think of problems activity by asking questions.
The paper is justified by correlational theories of Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle. Research
method of literature is conducted. That is, teachers should pay attention to the way and method of asking
questions in class question-answer process, who express to euphemism and accurate as soon as possible and
give affirmation and encouragement for students answer to improve the amount of language output. The
teachers should be skillful in using of the major principles of Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle in
the English Classroom quiz. These theories not only help to establish a harmonious teacher-students
relationship, but also improve the effect of classroom teaching.
Index Terms—class question-answer, Cooperative Principle, English, Politeness Principle
I. INTRODUCTION
Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle are the most important theories in the field of pragmatics. Both of the
two principles have attracted the researcher’s attention. Grace put forward the theory of “Cooperative Principle” in the
late 1960s who was a famous American philosopher Linguists. Leech proposed the theory of “Politeness Principle in
1983”. The linguists have made outstanding contributions to linguistic, especially in the skills. In theory, it develops
pragmatics research. In practice, it is helpful for people’s communication and cooperation. Class question-answer
method of classroom interaction is one of common ways and it is also a bridge of communication or cooperation
between teachers and students. But the application of these theories in the English class question-answer is relatively
scarce view of this situation. So this article researches on the knowledge about Cooperative Principle and Politeness
Principle, from which analyzes the class question-answer between teachers and students. Cooperative Principle and
Politeness Principle are complementary and can be supplied each other perfectly. The essay hopes to rich the related
theory of pragmatics in linguistics, on the other hand, the article expects to establish a harmonious teacher-students
relationship and improve the effect of classroom teaching.
The paper explores the interactive essence of Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle in actual use, and
provides good cases in point. It is from these experiences to inspire teachers and students to observe relative concepts of
Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle. In addition, as an initiator of knowledge, teachers should apply these
theories to English class question-answer for effective teaching, and improve teaching efficiency and quality; teachers
could make students to obtain more knowledge and get more comprehensive development as soon as possible in a
relaxed and happy environment. Eventually it is helpful to form a good relationship between teachers and students.

Scholars at home and abroad have done a research on Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle. It enriches and
develops the category of linguistics. But the application of these theories in the English class question-answer is
relatively scarce view of this situation. Consequently, it left the space to further explore of this article.
A. Previous Research at Home
Domestic scholars have inherited and developed the Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle. In 1987, Liu
Runqing introduced Leech’s Politeness Principle and maxims detailedly in the article of About Leech’s Politeness
Principle. Levinson proposed three principles of conversational implication, which is the core of the new Grice’s theory
of conversational implication. Suo Zhenyu Put forward the principle of appropriateness as the general principle of
conversation, which is considered that the principle of politeness is a relevant criterion of the principle of
appropriateness. He Ziran showed that the Politeness Principle is the complementary theory with Cooperative Principle.
B. Previous Research Abroad
In 1973, the scholar named Rabin Lakoff who studied Politeness Principles in the early. The article of The logic of

Politeness; or, minding your P’s and Q’s, in which he combined Politeness Principle with Cooperative Principle. The
philosopher H. Paul Grace of American systematically illustrated the conversational implication. He put forward the
theory of “Cooperative Principle” in order to ensure the conversation went on smoothly and reach the mutual
understanding, mutual cooperate in the course of conversation. This theory of Grace aroused so many people researched
on the conversational implication. The theory of “Politeness Principle” was proposed by Geoffrey Leech of Linguists,
who made a beneficial supplement to the principle of cooperation.
III. COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE AND ITS APPLICATION IN CLASS QUESTION-ANSWER PROCESS

Cooperative Principle plays an important role in Pragmatic Linguistic. Especially the four maxims are the essential
criteria that speakers and hearers need to obey. In the modern society, more and more people pay more attention to the
education. They hope their children get more knowledge in the limited time. In this condition, it is imperative to use
Cooperative Principle in class question-answer process.
A. Cooperative Principle Theory
The concept of the Cooperative Principle was introduced by philosopher H. Paul Grice in his article "Logic and
Conversation" in Harvard University. He proposes that participants in a conversation obey a general Cooperative
Principle (CP), which is expected to be in force whenever a conversation unfolds: “Make your conversational
contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange in which you are engaged.” Grice thinks that in all language communications, there is a sense of privacy
between speaker and hearer that the two parties should obey. In order to guarantee the dialogue can be carried out
smoothly and ensure that the task can be completed effectively, both sides of speakers ought to observe this principle.
Grice views pragmatic interpretation as heavily relying on inferential processes: the hearer is able to hypothesize about
the Speaker’s meaning, based on the meaning of the sentence uttered, on background or contextual assumptions and,
last but not least, on general communicative principles which speakers are expected to observe. In addition,
“Cooperative Principle includes four maxims “the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the
maxim of manner” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.154). It is very easy to meet misunderstandings if you violate one of these
maxims. So it is crucial to observe the Cooperative Principle in order to achieve interaction and communication
between teachers and students.
B. Cooperative Principle and Question-answer in English Class
English teachers’ language is used in the specific context of English classroom. The teachers’ question not only can
meet the interchange between teachers and students but reflect the teachers’ teaching skills and teaching ideas. On the
one hand the teachers’ questions provide an important source of language input for students to learn language. On the
other hand this is a good opportunity for students to output language. Thus, question-answer from teachers and students
is good for classroom atmosphere and communication between teachers and students. What’s more, question-answer
process in classroom is of great significant and urgency on urging learners to use language. In order to realize this
purpose, the amount of teachers’ questions must be abundant but superfluous; the teachers’ questions should be
interrelated with the text; the key points should be given by teachers; teachers’ questioning language should be concise,
vivid but obscure translation. Only by doing so can teachers guide the students participate in classroom thinking
actively, answering questions energetically in class and exercise their ability of understanding language
comprehensively. Students’ learning status can be reflected and pragmatic competence to be exercised and cultivated.
1. The Maxim of Quantity and Class Question-answer
The maxim of quantity refers to “try to make your contribution as information as is required for the current purpose
of the exchange, do not make your contribution more informative than is required” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.154). It asks
teachers to put forward the problems that must be closely related with the text. In addition, to maintain a proper amount
of teacher talk and let the students fully participate in the classroom quiz. The teachers not only need to consider the
form of a question, the language of a question and the type of an organization. Teachers should make a certain
expectation to this question that students give the answers. What’s more, it is necessary to emphasize the point of the
application is the purpose. This kind of question can help students to deepen understanding of the text. At the same time,
it can improve students’ language output.
After explaining the article of The Importance of Computer, teachers can ask a question like this “How do you
understand a person who doesn’t know computer is a modern illiterate?” This question is to expand the content of the
text and examine the understanding of the text by students. Simultaneously, it can cultivate students’ communicative
competence. On the flip side, the question of teachers cannot be too simple or too difficult, but the question is raised
should arouse students’ thinking and promote the success of communication between teachers and students. There is a
key that teachers can make use of a flexible way of asking question in order to reduce the difficulty of questions and
promote students’ language output.
When teachers ask an open-ended question, such as “As college student, what will you do in your English study?”
For this question, students are hard to answer comprehensively owing to the short time. In this condition, teachers
should regulate the way of asking questions timely and reduce the difficulty to the current level by using General

questions or Alternative questions like “Do you have trouble in reading? Do you find inefficiency to do exercise? So
can you give us some advice on how to improve reading skills? And how do you overcome your listening problems? Do
you think it is important to master some listening skills? What kind of listening skills do you know? ”
From the students’ perspective, in order to make the learners’ status can be reflected in classroom. The teachers
should remind students follow the maxim of quantity in answering questions. That’s to say, the answer to the question
only contain information of the certain question but not exceeding this scope. Therefore, every student should
understand question accurately and highly summarized their answer. If things go on like this, the students’
understanding and expression abilities must be improved significantly.
2. The Maxim of Quality and Class Question-answer
The maxim of quality refers to “make your contribution one that is true, do not say what you believe to be false, do
not say that for which you lack adequate evidence” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.154). It is a fundamental of a teacher is
occupied in teaching. Consequently, the question that teacher asks in classroom should be well-founded, don’t present
what you believe to be false or present which you lack adequate evidence. In addition, positive feedback is the
motivation for students to keep on working hard, but negative feedback enables students daunted at the sight of
questions and no longer participated in the classroom questions, which can’t let students achieve the purpose of
communication. Teachers should provide good quality feedback accurately for the students’ answer. Because teachers’
feedback is the cornerstone of the students’ development in study. “OK! You may be right. Don’t be too sad! Your
efforts will be rewarded. You almost hit the point, but can you give more supplements? It doesn’t matter, you will do
better next time, won’t you? ” The teachers’ answers or comments like these not only stimulate students’ enthusiasm for
learning but also make students have truly gained by participating. In the terms of students, teachers required students
do not use false words or lack of evidence of discourse. Otherwise, the dialogue is a failure because it can’t promote the
progress of classroom teaching goes well.
3. The Maxim of Relation and Class Question-answer
The maxim of relation refers to the conversation between the speaker and the hearer is closely related to the topic in a
specific context. Only by doing so, can make dialogue smoothly and achieve its coherence. Hence from the teacher
perspective, teachers’ question is very much about knowledge appeared in the lesson or including teaching content. If
teachers say something beyond the classroom or say many unrelated words, it will not only violate the maxim of
relation but also violate the maxim of quantity indirectly. Whether teachers’ questions or students’ answers, it must be
relevant, not a powerful and unconstrained style for fear that reduce the quality of classroom teaching. Teachers ought
to ask many questions that are related to students, such as students experiences, interests and hobbies, etc. Teachers
select materials of questions should be about the topic that the students are families with or interested in. It can either
increase students’ interest of studying and improve teaching quality or strengthen the consciousness of participating in
the class. When a teacher is about to teach an essay, named “An Unforgettable Teacher”, the questions of classroom
lead-in as follows:
Example 1:
Teacher: Hello! Everyone! All of you look very tired. So what was your last class?
Student: P.E
Teacher: So I guess you did a lot of exercise and become exhausted. Yes? Cheer up, please!
Teacher: Who is your P.E teacher?
Student: Miss. Liu.
Teacher: Oh! I know her. When I was a senior middle school student, my P.E teacher was very strict and he was a
strong man. You know, I am not good at sports. Therefore, i did not like my P.E teacher. However, after I am a teacher, I
think he was an excellent teacher. Are there any teachers who you will never forget, and why? What do you think of him
or her?
Student: ...Strict but very kind, conscientious, humorous, considerate, knowledgeable...
Teacher: So, today we will come to study “Unforgettable teacher”
The teacher observes that students are tired in class. Firstly, she finds the cause of exhaustion of students. Then turns
students’ attention from exhaustion to class by asking questions, which related to students studies. It promotes students
to actively participate in classroom discussion and improve the teaching effect.
4. The Maxim of Manner and Class Question-answer
The maxim of manner refers to “avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, Be brief, be orderly” (Liu Runqing,
2014, p.154). In people’s daily conversation, communication between the two sides or one side can express some
extended meanings with vague, ambiguous or lengthy discourse to realize interpersonal communication. But in class,
when teachers asking a question should be strictly follow the principles in order to ensure that the students understand
the meaning. In classroom questioning teachers should notice the way that the question was framed, that’s to guide
students’ thinking and joining activities actively by using accurate or clear questions. That will avoid the use of obscure
and ambiguous expression or words. There are many ways to communicate for teachers and students. The language
dialogue is just one of them. Besides, body language and sign language are also the common ways between teachers and
students. Teachers should make full use of these vivid symbols to promote the classroom atmosphere becomes more
active. Compared with language dialogue, this pattern can save more time. Teachers in order to avoid an embarrassing

situation of interrupting students, they can use the act of smiling to express appreciation. In addition, they can nod their
heads, adopt “OK” of the sign language. After these actions, teachers could say “I love your stories, would you like to
tell me more after class”, in this way, it not only maintains the students’ self-esteem and self-confidence but also
effectively prevent the infinite divergence of his lengthy answers. The students’ answers should also try to use clear and
rational words to answer questions.
IV. POLITENESS PRINCIPLE AND ITS APPLICATION IN CLASS QUESTION-ANSWER PROCESS

“CP explains how conversational implication is given rise to but it does not tell us why people do not say directly
what they mean” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.157). So Politeness Principle is the complement of Cooperative Principle. In
most cases, people do not say directly what they mean. But make full use of means or strategies to achieve various
purposes. Such as maintain harmonious social relations in conversation. Thus Politeness Principle is used in class
question-answer process that is a good way to establish a harmonious relationship between teachers and students.
A. Politeness Principle Theory
A famous British scholar named Leech, who puts forward the Politeness Principle on the basis of the principle of
cooperation in 1983. Besides cooperation, most interactions are governed by politeness, that is to say, the one is
considered a “polite social behavior” within a certain culture. Politeness Principle is another pragmatic principle, which
is the complement of Cooperative Principle. Leech defines the polite form as well as establishes and maintains the
friendship. It includes six maxims. “Tact Maxim, Generosity Maxim, Approbation Maxim, Modesty Maxim,
Agreement Maxim, Sympathy Maxim” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.158). Leech’s Politeness Principle asks speaker gives
benefits to hearer as much as possible and try to make himself at a disadvantage. Thus in order to make communication
smoothly and let the other side feel respect and get good feelings from the speaker, Politeness Principle’s work in class
question-answer can’t be ignored.
B. Politeness Principle and Class Question-answer
Language is a basic tool in daily communication for students. In China, English is regarded as a foreign language.
Students’ language acquisition is closely related to the outcome of classroom teaching. Because of lacking natural
environment for English learning, English classroom teaching and activities become main resource for language
learners. In English classroom teaching, successful communication is derived from the cooperation of teachers and
students. That means teachers need to make full use of classroom time and create a harmonious surrounding for their
students. Then, students can be enlightened to learn English better. So the communication of the two sides should pay
more attention to the stress of politeness in language communication. That is to say, in the same conditions, as far as
possible to reduce not polite expressions and maximize the faith expression. To realize effective teacher-student
relationship in regular training classes. Teachers should reasonably use Politeness Principle to reduce students’ anxiety
and friction with students or to increase the confidence of students, which will achieve the purpose of effective
teaching.
1. Tact Maxim and Class Question-answer
Tact maxim refers to “minimize cost to other, maximize benefit to other” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.158). In
question-answer from teachers and students of language communication, teachers are in the leading position with
initiative, but students in a passive position. It is easy to cause the students to feel inferiority, nervous or shy. So as to
improve the efficiency of communication between teachers and students, students should follow the tact maxim. On the
other hand, because the teachers’ expression is not clear and the use of language is not accurate will cause gross
misunderstanding or distortion of the question accordingly influence students’ answer. By way of avoiding it happened,
teachers should put students in the center of interest as well as use appropriate and accurate language to ask question
and establish an equal communication environment for teachers and students. As far as possible to make the students in
communication of teacher-student interactions receive more accurate information. So that students can get benefit from
the question as much as possible.
Example 2:
A: Will you answer my question?
B: Would you answer my question?
C: Could you possibly answer my question?
The politeness of above sentences presents the increasing trend. From the students’ point of view, when the teacher
asks questions more politely, and more students like answering the teachers’ questions and participating in class
activities. It will eliminate students’ tension and decrease the absolute dominant of the teachers in the teacher-student
communication, so as to ensure the smooth progress of the interaction.
Example 3:
A: Could you have a try? I will help you.
B: Don’t worry. It doesn’t matter even you make a mistake.
C: Just to be brave. Don’t worry about making mistakes. No one laugh at you.
There is large space for students to think by words like these. The students will not be too embarrassed even if they

give a wrong answer.

2. Generosity Maxim and Class Question-answer
Generosity maxim refers to “minimize benefit to self and maximize cost to self” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.158).
Generosity maxim is particularly important especially this theory is manifest above all in the wait-time link of
classroom questioning. The length of time that teacher waits for the students to answer, which is beneficial to teaching.
Rowe, American psychologist point out in the classroom where he observed that teachers waiting time is less than two
seconds when a student is assigned to answer question. If there seconds later the students can’t answer, the teacher is
about to intervene. He emphasized that when teacher does have the patient to wait for the time of students answer
question to extend during three and five seconds or even longer. There are more and more students would like to
involve in the classroom. So if teachers use the maxim of generosity of Politeness Principle in waiting for the answer.
Increasing the cost of spending time let the student have full time and the space to carry out independent thinking. This
will not be a waste of valuable time in the classroom, but prompt students to really think about the problem. Eventually
it will cultivate an ability of processing information and foster the students’ good study quality. At the same time, the
quality of the students to answer the questions is improved. Besides, teachers’ image and authority not depend on
blowing her horn, but in a well-grounded way to establish. So when students should have mastered the knowledge,
teachers might as well say “Well, perhaps it is my error, I didn’t emphasize that in the previous class.” On the other
hand, Teachers usually use apologetic words to express their generosity.
Example 4:
T: I am sorry to interrupt you. But we have to continue our class now.
S: Well. That is all right.
In the above example, the teacher uses phrases like “I am sorry” to reduce the possibility of threatening students’
negative face. Those sentences give students enough room to respond. Students will not feel offended if their teacher
uses proper words to explain their interruption.
3. Approbation Maxim and Class Question-answer
Approbation maxim refers to “minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.158).
Students have the desire to be appreciated by teachers. Teachers should use the approbation maxim properly, especially
they feedback to the students in classroom questioning. Teachers should try their best to make appreciation and
encouragement to students’ advantages, progress and achievement. Such as “Great! Thank you very much, you did an
extraordinary job.” These words not only meet the students’ demand of obtaining identified but encourage students to
participate in classroom and achieve effective communication between teachers and students. When students give a
wrong answer, teachers should also use this maxim and minimize students’ derogation like “You have made much
progress, but I think you can do it better if you......” The students will accept the teachers’ words pleasantly, because the
teacher fully respects the students, which points out the shorting of student and raises hopes of them. Students are
impossible to answer all teachers’ questions. It concludes that students need to study how to reject politely. During this
period, students couldn’t damage teachers’ face and influence the teaching enthusiasm and progress.
Example 5:
A: Sorry, I can’t.
B: I don’t think i can handle it.
C: I’m not sure about my answer, but I will try my best.
A has not enough space to show and maximize dispraise of teachers’ feelings. From B to C, the euphemism of
rejecting becomes much higher, so the sentence of C protects teachers’ face.
4. Modesty Maxim and Class Question-answer
Modesty maxim refers to “minimize praise of self and maximize dispraise of self” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.158). From
the teachers’ social role and students to see, teachers are more, students are less on acknowledge; teachers are more
developed persons but students are not on intelligence; teachers with deep experience but students with less on social
experience. So compared with the students, teachers have obvious advantages who should obey the maxim of modesty
during the classroom questioning, that’s minimize praise of oneself and maximize dispraise of oneself, especially when
teachers guide students to answer questions, she or he should not use their own merits of the knowledge, intelligence
and experience to boast, but should inspire or induce students to answer the questions patiently. When the students
couldn’t answer the questions or give the wrong answer, in this case, teachers should try to exaggerate the derogatory,
and take all the responsibility of students did not master what they have learned on themselves. Teachers can say “well
perhaps it is my fault I didn’t emphasize that in the previous class”. This will show the teacher’s humility and tolerance
as well as make students face retained and protect students’ learning initiative skillful. Teachers try to be a modest
person will not be undignified, but on the contrary, it is helpful to establish a harmonious relationship between teachers
and students to ensure the normal process of asking questions. When students become quizzers, they should make full
use of the Politeness Principles to ask questions. The teacher will not get angry because they don’t understand the
meaning, but is willing to help the students to solve problems.
Example 6:
A: I don’t understand it and want you to explain it again?
B: could you help me with this question?

C: I am a little silly. Could you please explain it again?

A, B and C are all the ways of asking questions. A is too direct and give the teacher’s feeling of being on top. The
students should have lay low for a while and kept open-minded in study instead of the tone of command required. B
adopts method of questioning. But C is very polite, because the student protects the teacher’s fame by maximize
dispraise and admitting, not to show off themselves.
5. Agreement Maxim and Class Question-answer
Agreement Maxim refers to “minimize disagreement between self and other and maximize agreement between self
and other” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.158). Pragmatic studies indicate that when the position of the parties exchanged are
alike and have the unity of interest. The requirement and instructions are made by one party, it will be more likely to be
accepted by the other party. But during the process of communication in the process of classroom questioning, it is
inevitable to produce some difference of opinions. So teachers should try to shorten the distance between teachers and
students through language, and let them feel that teacher is one of them by overusing these words: “us”, “we” to
express.
Example 7:
A: “Let’s settle the problem together, then”,
B: “We will have a discussion now”
C: “Maybe you are right. I will check it out and tell you later”.
By this way can make all students participate in class discussion and create active classroom atmosphere. If the
response from the other direction like “I’m your teacher. No matter what you say i am right. Just remember this!” If the
answer can like this will lead students to feel upside and disappointed. There is another example, students may bring
forward professional ideas when they did translation exercise. Teachers should listen patiently and encourage them to
say it. After they express their views, teachers had better correct properly, but not simply deny them without any
explanations. Maybe teachers can say “I think it’s better to translate this sentence in this way because...Do you agree
with me?”
These words make the students into the further thinking more quickly. Meanwhile, increasing communications as
well as mutual question, the teachers should encourage students to speak out freely and air his or her views. As long as
it makes sense, the teacher should approve naturally, but importune students’ answer is exactly alike with the standard
definition. Teachers apply the agreement maxim in the question and answer session of class. This can not only reflect
the respect for the students but stimulate the curiosity and creativity of students. Furthermore, making full use of this
maxim can enhance the students’ confidence and promote effective communication between teachers and students.
6. Sympathy Maxim and Class Question-answer
Sympathy maxim refers to “minimize antipathy between self and other and maximize sympathy between self and
other” (Liu Runqing, 2014, p.158). Canfield & Welles indicate that the confidence is under the protective and
encouraging conditions, the cognitive activity of learning is the most efficient. “Emotion is the booster that can maintain
learning motivation, the obstacles will inevitably lead to the stagnation of learning”. (Wang Chuming, 2001, p125).
Thus teachers should use maxim of sympathy in the inquiry process to establish a good teacher-student relationship,
create relaxed classroom environment and help students to eliminate the negative emotions. When the teachers asked
questions, they should take into account all the difficulty of the problem whether match with students’ individual level.
It will make the poor students experience a sense of happiness and success, eliminate anxiety and inferiority feelings.
Ultimately it is to cultivate positive attitudes. Teachers should smile and listen carefully, provide proper tips as well as
try not to correct the mistakes in the process of students’ speech. It is also a way to avoid anxiety.
Example 8:
Student: I am sorry, I could not work it out.
Teacher1: Of course, you are so stupid.
Teacher2: that’s OK, this question is difficult itself. And most students cannot work it out. You have made a perfectly
done.
From the above example, we can see that when the student couldn’t answer the question, the teacher not criticize or
ridicule, but find reasons to forgive the student and protect his pride from hurt. So, a teacher should be more patient and
give encouragement and comfort to reduce the students’ frustration, protect students’ self-esteem, establish harmony
environment between teachers and students. Finally it will achieve the purpose of effective classroom communication.
Example 9:
T: Who would like to answer this question? Is there any volunteer?
S: (Silence)
T: OK. It might be a little difficult for you. We will discuss it together.
When teachers want someone to answer his question, he uses words “would like”. When his students do not
cooperate with him, he applies words “it might be”. Those phrases reveal the teacher’s less desire to compel the
students to answer the question.
V. CONCLUSION

Above all, classroom quiz is a common way of students and teachers to interact. We understand the theory of
Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle are how and when to be observed. The purpose of foreign language
teaching is to communicate. English classroom interaction between teachers and students is a kind of language
communication activities and is also a good opportunity for the students' language practice. However, the classroom
questioning plays the key part, and as the main way to realize the successful communication between teachers and
students. In this regard, in order to let students master more knowledge and skills, teachers must appropriate application
of the Politeness Principle and Cooperative Principle. Teachers should pay attention to the way and method of asking
questions. Especially, in class question-answer process teachers should use normative language and words to construct
sentences according to students' ability of receptivity and students' academic performance. Teachers’ expression must be
euphemism and accurate as soon as possible and give affirmation and encouragement for students answer to improve
the amount of language output of students’ language.
However, the study of the application of Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle in class question-answer
process is still at its early stage, it remains to be further in-depth. Meanwhile, it is easy to find that the pragmatics has a
great application value in teaching field. It not only creates an euphonious learning atmosphere and strengthens the
students’ self-confidence. It also has a great significant in promoting the relationship goes well and improving the effect
of classroom teaching. Thus we should pay attention to combine with concrete practical activities, and carry out the
effective teaching to improve the class activities smoothly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, my supervisor shall receive my most sincere gratitude because that her persistent encouragement
and inspiring ideas have done me a great favor. Without her enlightenment and support, this paper can’t have been
completed so satisfactorily.
Secondly, my special thanks should also be paid to my professor who taught me how to arrange a paper correctly in
the class. If not for Professor sincere guidance, I even would not know how to start a paper.
Lastly, I shall appreciate my families who support me unconditionally and encourage me all the time and my friends
who help me to collect relevant materials. I’m indebted to all these people assisting me.
REFERENCES
[1] Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[2] He Yanqiu. (2005). Application of Cooperative Principle in English Class Question-answer Process. The application of science
and technology, (Vol. 6), 16-25.
[3] Leech. G. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman.
[4] Liu Runqing. (2006). The Cooperative Priciples. New Linguistics Course. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research
Press.
[5] Liu Runqing. (2014). New Linguistics Course. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[6] Levinson S.C. (1987). Pragmatics. England: Cambridge University Press.
Lulu Liu was born in Linfen, China in 1992. She is studying for her Master’s degree in linguistics from Shanxi Normal University,
China in 2017.
She is currently a student in the school of Shanxi Normal University. Her research interests include pragmatics and social
linguistics.

ISSN 1799-2591
An Investigation into the Effect of Individual

Differences on Iranian EFL Teachers’
Perceptions Concerning Professional
Development Obstacles
Sara Rahimi
Department of Faculty of Humanities, Bushehr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr, Iran
Abstract—The aim of this study is to examine Iranian EFL teachers’ perceptions of the professional
development obstacles they face during their teaching career. A total of 50 Iranian EFL teachers at different
language academy within a small city of Kangan, participated in this study. The following items were found to
be most highly frequent among the participants of the current study: [“Observers’ visits are rare” for
institutional professional development obstacles; (M= 3.91)], [“Some teachers cannot afford pursuing
postgraduate studies” for self-directed professional development obstacles; (M= 4.76)], [“English language
conferences in Iran are rare” for professional development obstacles related to the nature of the work; (M=
3.74)]. On the contrary, the following problems were found to be the least highly frequent ones the participants
were facing during their professional development: [“Institute administration considers English less important
than other languages”; (M= 3.04)], [“Some teachers always feel frustrated with most students”, (M= 2.97)],
[“Teaching is a type of work that rapidly becomes routine” for professional development obstacles related to
the nature of the work; (M= 2.85)]. Finally, no significant difference was found in teachers’ perceptions of
professional development obstacles with regard to their academic qualification, ELT experience, gender, and
age.
Index Terms—teachers’ professional development, obstacles, teachers’ perceptions
I. INTRODUCTION
Living in a condition, where knowledge, technology, concepts, philosophies, almost everything is quickly
transforming would make teaching a very complicated and arduous career. Keeping abreast of the continuous changes
and developments is deemed to be a necessity for attaining a very high quality of teaching. Thus, ongoing professional
development is a vital component in teachers’ lives.
Hargreaves and Fullan (1992) point to the significance of promoting educational standards, which revolves around
the issue of creating equal and sufficient chances to learn for all school students. However, “opportunities to learn also
require opportunities to teach” (Woods, cited in Hargreaves and Fullan, 1992, p. 1). Consequently, EFL instructors have
been required to be continually moving forward and equipping themselves with the knowledge that will enhance their
ability to offer opportunities to enhance the quality of their teaching.
Examining the English-language classes, many researchers referred to a few main factors contributing to the failure
of English-language teaching-and-learning: unqualified and poorly-trained teachers, poorly-motivated students, learners
of mixed abilities in overly large classes, and rare chances for student exposure to English outside of classroom time
(Dhanasobhon, 2006).
The final goal of education of foreign language teacher is preparing teachers with training in order to educate
students carefully and guide them in helping students in future career. However, to the best of researcher knowledge no
one has investigated professional development obstacles facing English language teachers in Iran.So the of the purpose
of this study is an investigation into the effect of individual differences on Iranian EFL teachers’ perceptions concerning
professional development obstacles.
A. Objectives of the Study
Firstly, this study aims to investigate the professional development obstacles English language teachers face. Finding
out the answer to this question is of grave importance in western countries. Therefore, eliciting such data would
definitely help improve the quality of teaching and learning within EFL classrooms in Iran. Secondly, it is within the
scope of this study to measure if there are significant differences in teachers' perceptions in terms of the participants’
gender, academic qualification, experience, as well as their age. By making sure if there is any relationship between
teachers’ perceptions and some of their personal attribute, the researcher can create a blueprint for other language
teachers. Thirdly, having provided the findings, the researcher will suggest solutions for EFL teachers' professional
development obstacles.

B. Research Questions
In order to achieve the objective of the research the following research question was addressed.
1. What are the professional development obstacles facing language institute teachers in Iran?
It should be mentioned that language teachers might have different perceptions regarding the abovementioned
research question due to their personal and individual characteristics such as one’s gender, age, academic qualification,
and working experience. In order to address such factors the following research questions were formulated.
2. Are there statistically significant differences in perceptions of male and female institute language teachers
concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development?
3. Are there statistically significant differences in perceptions of institute language teachers, having different
academic qualification (Diploma, BA, MA or higher), concerning the obstacles they face during their professional
development?
4. Are there statistically significant differences in perceptions of institute language teachers, with different working
experience, concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development?
5. Are there statistically significant differences in perceptions of institute language teachers, with different ages,
concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development?
C. Research Hypotheses
1. There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions of male and female institute language teachers
concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development.
2. There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions of institute language teachers with different academic
qualifications, (Diploma, BA, MA or higher), concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development.
3. There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions of institute language teachers with different working
experience, concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development.
4. There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions of institute language teachers with different ages;
concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development.

Introduction
This section is a short review of researchers who had study in this subject. Finally, the problems affecting EFL
teachers’ professional development will be addressed.
Alternative perceptions of professional development
In the literature there are some alternative terms related to teachers’ professional development, like self -exploration -,
self- appraisal and self- concept. These terms are utilized interchangeably in the related literature. Self– exploration is
the term which encompasses, investigation, evaluation, and, notion of teachers on their instructional practices.
Teachers’ idea is pivotal to create a great understanding of the incidents that happen in the classroom. As Richert (cited
in Lieberman & Miller, 1991) stated that having experience does not necessarily lead to learning about it, but that
having experience and then reflecting on it does.
According to Farrell (1998), reflective instruction can benefit English language teachers in three different ways.
Firstly, it helps free the teacher from impulsive and everyday and mundane behavior. Second, it permits teachers to act
in a deliberate, intentional manner and avoid the “I don’t know what I will do today” syndrome, and it considers
teachers as educated beings.
As Reece and Walker (1997) contended, teachers can receive all kinds of help in evaluating themselves but, unless
they make their own judgments, they will find all sorts of excuses why someone else’s evaluation is invalid. Then the
word “reflection” is necessary to create a great comprehending of the occurrences that happen in the classroom.
Teachers Should create about useful ways in order to attain their purposes.
Language learning in adults and teacher development process
Teachers have various needs and capabilities at different steps of their jobs. Therefore, comprehending adult learning
is significant in order to understand the teachers’ professional
Progression.
Knowles (cited in Raths& Katz, 1986) introduced some principles for facilitating adult learning, despite one’s stages
of development. One of the principles which incorporate the foundation of modern adult learning is that; adults have a
deep-rooted tendencies to be self-directed, thus the role of the teacher is to involve in a process of inquiry with adult
learners rather than to transfer some information to them. Another principle is that, experience is the richest source for
adult learning thus, the main activity of adult education is the analysis of experience.
In addition to Knowles, Burden (cited in Raths& Katz, 1986) highlighted the significance of knowledge of teachers’
personal and professional development changes because it can help teacher educators understand the needs and
capabilities of instructors at various points in their jobs and serve as a basis for planning new approaches and methods
to promote developmental growth.
Life cycle of EFL instructors

There are various methods of examine the teachers’ professional period of life. However, Hargreaves and Fullan
(1992) and Day (1999) agreed with the idea that there are some authoritative studies on this subject by teachers like
Huberman (1989) as well as Fessler and Christensen (1992). As mentioned by Day (1999), these teachers’ works
suggest that teachers experience and therefore get passed five broad stages: launching a career, stabilization, new
challenges and new concerns, reaching a professional plateau and disenchantment. During the first stages of their career,
teachers go through easy or painful starts to their career and they show initial commitment and interest. This stage is
experienced between 1-3 years of teaching experience. After this stage, teachers find commitment and feel relatively
secure in their knowledge of ELT practices and subject matter. In this stabilization stage, teachers are comfortable with
their identity as members of particular school or language academy community. This stage of teaching experience lasts
4-6 years. The sense of growing maturity is likely to be accompanied by experimentation and commitment but
eventually to, stagnation and dissatisfaction. These may happen between 7-18 years of teaching experience. Between
19-30 years of experience teachers may exhibit more concern withholding on to what they have and subsequently show
resistance to creativity and innovations. They may experience mid-life crisis and dissatisfaction to their job. On the
other side of the coin, in contrast to this conservatism, teachers may feel a greater sense of confidence and self-
acceptance. In the final 10-15 years of their careers teachers seem to have calmer years and experience and less
involvement as they get closer to retirement. Disengagement may be experienced in 31-40 years of teaching experience.
In the light of these theories, the researcher can jump to the conclusion that teachers at various stages of their careers
may experience, feel, think and act differently. Thus, professional development activities should be employed and
evaluated according to the teachers’ needs at different phases of their careers.
III. METHODOLOGY
Participants
To collect the data needed, a total of 50 ELT teachers working at different language academies in the city of Kangan,
voluntarily participated in the study. According to Figure 1, there were 22 males and 28 females. In other words, nearly
44.7% of the teachers were male and 55.3% of them were females.
Figure 1: Percentage of teachers’ gender
Moreover, as Figure 2 presents, concerning the teachers’ academic qualifications, 4 teachers had a diploma [6.4%].
35 teachers [72.3] were either BA graduates or on the verge of graduation. Moreover, a total of 11 teachers [21.3] had
either a master’s or PhD degree.

Figure 2: Percentage of teachers’ academic qualifications
Regarding the ELT experience of the participants of the current study, it should be mentioned that, according to
Figure 3, 12 teachers [23.4%] had 1 to 2 years of teaching English in language academies. A total of 20 teachers [40.4%]
had 3 to 5 years of ELT experience. While 16 teachers [31.9%] had teaching experience of 6 to 15 years, only 2
teachers [4.3%] had ELT experience of above 15 years.
Figure 3: Percentage of teachers’ ELT experience
With respect to teachers’ age, it should be maintained that most of the participants, [59.6%], aged from 25 to 35.
Figure 4 shows the percentage of teachers’ age range.
Figure 4: Teachers’ age range

Data collection
Instrument
A questionnaire constructed by Herzallah (2011) was used in this study. This questionnaire is composed of two parts.
The first part had been formed to collect demographic information about the sample's masculine, female, age, education,
and the work experience. The second part had been allotted for eliciting the problems hindering institutional
professional development, self-directed skilled development obstacles, and Professional development obstacles from the
nature of the work. All said, the questionnaire consisted of 65 likert type statements. 3.4.1.1. Reliability of the
questionnaire
The reliability reported in this study was [.75] which was a good index of reliability since it was above [.70].
However, since the study and the instrument had been used in an Arab country, there might exist some sort of variation
in the reliability of the questionnaire within the context of Iran as compared with an Arab country. Therefore, before
administering the questionnaire to the sample it was piloted first by giving it to 30 EFL teachers who were very similar
to the sample. Cranbach alpha subsequently was run to calculate the reliability of the questionnaire. As can be noticed
in Table 1, the questionnaire enjoyed acceptable level of internal consistency and therefore, it was reliable. The reason
for such an interpretation is that the reliability coefficient was .734, which is a good index of reliability, since it was
above .70.
TABLE 1:
THE RELIABILITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Cronbach 's Alpha Cronbach 's Alpha N of Items
Based on
Standardized Items
.734 .807 65
Procedure for data collection

To collect the data needed to find answer to the research questions of the current study, a total of 50 language
teachers were asked to take part in the study by filling out a questionnaire constructed by Herzallah (2011). Before
administering the questionnaire to the sample, a total of 30 EFL teachers, very similar to the sample, were asked to take
part in the pilot study. In this phase, to ensure that Herzallah’s questionnaire was a valid and reliable instrument, it was
pilot tested by giving it to 30 EFL teachers. After that the researcher calculated the reliability and made sure that the
instrument was still reliable in the context of Iran, it was given to 50 EFL teachers.
Data analysis
In the first phase of the study (the pilot study), Cronbach Alpha was used to check the reliability of the instrument. In
the second phase of the study, the collected data was analyzed, using various statistical techniques. First, descriptive
statistics such as means and percentages was used to determine the principle professional development barriers that
Iranian English language teachers are faced. Secondly, independent part of t-test was used to measure the statistical
distinctions in means with respect to teachers' genders. Lastly, one way ANOVA was used to calculate the statistical
differences of means between the teachers' age, knowledge, and academic skills.
IV. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Descriptive statistics for the questionnaire
Before discussing the means as well as standard deviation of the items of the questionnaire, it is necessary to provide
some introductory information concerning the questionnaire used in the study. The questionnaire used in the study
aimed to elicit information concerning the obstacles that English language teachers face during the process of their
professional development. Since the questionnaire was originally constructed in an Arab country, certain changes
should have been made within it, to make it more useful in the context of Iran. To make sure whether or not the
questionnaire was still reliable after its adaptation, the researcher piloted the questionnaire by giving it to 30 EFL
teachers very similar to the sample. The reliability coefficient was found to be .73, which was a good index of reliability.
In order to interpretation, each of the constructs of the questionnaire will be analyzed separately, through the
provision of their means and standard deviations. In the next section, descriptive statistics for the first construct of the
questionnaire will be provided.
The difference in EFL teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles with respect to their
academic qualifications
In this section, the researcher intended to find answer to the question if there was any statistically significant
difference among EFL teachers of different academic qualifications (diploma, BA, MA, PhD) concerning their
perceptions of the three constructs of the professional development questionnaire, namely, institutional and self-directed
professional development obstacles, as well as those related to the nature of the work. Table 2 shows the results of one-
way Anova with respect to the academic qualifications of the teachers. According to Table2, there was not any
significant difference between teachers; academic qualification and their perceptions of institutional professional
development obstacles. The reason is that the Sig value is not less than [.05].

As can be noticed in the table below, there was no significant difference between the participants academic
qualifications and their perceptions of self-directed professional development obstacles [Sig= .438] as well as those
related to the nature of the work [Sig= .194], since the p value for each of the constructs of the questionnaire was not
less than [.05].
TABLE2:
THE RESULTS OF ONE WAY ANOVA FOR ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 30.201 5 15.101 .096 .909
Institutional Professional Development
Within Groups 6944.267 45 157.824
Obstacles
Total 6974.468 50
Between Groups 193.253 5 96.627 .841 .438
Self-directed Professional Development
Within Groups 5057.725 45 114.948
Obstacles
Total 5250.979 50
Between Groups 99.765 5 49.883 1.705 .194
Professional Development Obstacles Within Groups 1287.341 45 29.258
Total 1387.106 50
The difference in EFL teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles with respect to their ELT
experience
Being interested in knowing if teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles was influenced by how
long language teachers were teaching English, the researcher of the current study added ELT experience as another
independent variable. Table 3 shows the results of one-way ANOVA used for determining if there was any significant
difference in the EFL teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles with respect to their ELT experience.
As can be noticed in Table3, no significant differences were found in the EFL teachers’ perceptions of professional
development obstacles with respect to their ELT experience. The reason for such an interpretation was that the Sig
value of each the constructs of the questionnaire was not less than [.05].
TABLE3:
ONE-WAY ANOVA RESULTS FOR ELT EXPERIENCE
Between Groups 854.033 5 284.678 2.000 .128
Institutional Professional
Within Groups 6120.435 45 142.336
Total 6974.468 50
Between Groups 587.172 5 195.724 1.805 .161
Self-directed Professional
Within Groups 4663.807 45 108.461
Total 5250.979 50
Between Groups 66.202 5 22.067 .718 .546
Professional Development Obstacles
Within Groups 1320.905 45 30.719
related to the nature of the work
Total 1387.106 50
The difference between males and females in their perceptions of professional development obstacles
This section aims to examine if there is any significant difference in the perceptions of male and female EFL teachers
concerning the three constructs of professional development obstacles, namely institutional and self-directed
professional development obstacles, as well as those related to the nature of the work. Table 4 shows the total means of
male and female EFL teachers’ perceptions of institutional and self-directed professional development obstacles, as well
as those related to the nature of the work.
TABLE4:
THE TOTAL MEANS OF MALE AND FEMALE EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF INSTITUTIONAL AND SELF -DIRECTED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
OBSTACLES, AS WELL AS THOSE RELATED TO THE NATURE OF THE WORK.
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Institutional Professional Development male 22 106.5238 10.28892 2.24523
Obstacles female 28 99.9615 13.20146 2.58902
Self-directed Professional Development male 22 72.5238 14.05923 3.06798
Obstacles female 28 73.4231 7.17871 1.40786
Professional Development Obstacles male 22 49.2381 5.49459 1.19902
Related to the nature of the work female 28 51.3077 5.41678 1.06232
Using Table4, it can be easily noticed there is a difference in the male and female teachers’ total means of their
perceptions of different constructs of the questionnaire. As can be seen in the above table, in terms of teachers’
perceptions of institutional professional development obstacles, male teachers had a higher total mean than female
teachers. The mean difference between the perceptions of the two groups was 6.56. However, as can be seen in Table 8,
which shows the t-test results, there was not any significant difference between male and female EFL teachers’

perceptions of institutional professional development obstacles. The reason for reaching such an interpretation was that
the p value [.069] (the value marked in red in Table5) was not less than .05.
According to Table4, the total mean of female teachers’ perceptions of self-directed professional development
obstacles was slightly higher than that of the male teachers. Moreover, the mean difference between the two groups was
[.89]. However, according to Table4, there was not any significant difference between male and female EFL teachers’
perceptions of self-directed professional development obstacles. The reason for reaching such an interpretation was that
the p value [.778] (the value marked in red in Table 8) was not less than .05.
Lastly, As Table 4 shows, the total mean of female teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles
related to the nature of work was slightly higher than that of the male teachers. Moreover, the mean difference between
the two groups was [2.06]. However, according to Table4, there was not any significant difference between male and
female EFL teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles related to the nature of the work.
TABLE4:
THE T-TEST RESULTS FOR MALE AND FEMALE TEACHERS
Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of Variances
F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. 95% Confidence
tailed) Difference Error Interval of the
Differe Difference
nce Lower Upper
Equal
variances 3.443 .070 1.865 48 .069 6.56 3.51 -.52 13.6
Institutional assumed
Professional
Development Obstacles Equal
variances 1.915 47.9 .062 6.56 3.42 -.34 13.4
not assumed
Equal
variances 1.541 .221 -.284 48 .778 -.89 3.16 -7.27 5.47
Self-directed
assumed
Professional
Equal
variances -.266 46 .792 -.89 3.37 -7.81 6.01
not assumed
Equal
Professional variances .029 .867 -1.294 48 .202 -2.06 1.59 -5.29104 1.15
Development Obstacles assumed
related to the nature of Equal
work variances -1.292 44.6 .203 -2.06 1.60 -5.30088 1.16
not assumed
The difference in EFL teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles with regard to their age
Table 5 shows the results of one way ANOVA, determining if there was any significant difference in the perceptions
of teachers with regard to their age. As can be noticed in Table5, there was no significant difference in the EFL
teachers’ perceptions of different categories of professional development obstacles, namely institutional and self-
directed professional development problems, as well as those related to the nature of the work, with respect to their age.
The reason for such an interpretation was that the p-value of each of the teachers’ perception categories was not less
than [.05].
TABLE5:
THE RESULTS OF ONE-WAY ANOVA FOR THE AGE
Between Groups 229.754 5 76.585 .488 .692
Institutional Professional
Within Groups 6744.714 45 156.854
Total 6974.468 50
Between Groups 63.062 5 21.021 .174 .913
Self-directed Professional
Within Groups 5187.917 45 120.649
Total 5250.979 50
Between Groups 87.178 5 29.059 .961 .420
Professional Development Obstacles Within Groups 1299.929 45 30.231
Total 1387.106 50
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This study consisted of 5 research questions and 4 research hypotheses. First, it was within the scope of this study to
determine the most and the least highly frequent problems that Iranian EFL teachers face during their professional
development. It was found that the item “Observers’ visits are rare” enjoyed the highest mean among institutional
professional development obstacles; (M= 3.91). This is the indicator of the fact that the participants of this study were

of the opinion that the most important institutional problem which both hinders and discourages teachers to develop in
their profession on a daily basis, is related to the number of times that their classes are observed during a semester.
Since Iranian EFL teachers are observed only once in a semester, they do not even think of developing in their
profession. It is, therefore, advised that EFL teachers be observed at least three times in a semester. This, in turn, would
force them to improve session by session. Among self-directed professional development obstacles, the item “Some
teachers cannot afford pursuing postgraduate studies” (M= 4.76) had the highest mean. In many cases, lack of money
and financial resources do prevent language teachers to pursue their postgraduate studies. This is due to the fact that
Iranian EFL teachers are not financially supported. This lack of support would mostly discourage them to develop
professionally. This problem can be solved in case institute managers start to raise language teachers’ salary. In addition,
some particular funds should be provided for teachers’ pursuit of theoretical knowledge in their field, so that they feel
that their efforts as language teachers are seen and valued by the administrative board in each institute. Finally, the
highest mean among professional development obstacles related to the nature of the work belonged to the item “English
language conferences in Iran are rare” (M= 3.74). Unfortunately, international and national ELT conferences are not
held much in the country. This might be due to the lack of attention paid to this field of study, by the educational policy
makers within the country, Iran.
On the contrary, the following problems were found to be the least highly frequent ones the participants were facing
during their professional development. First, among the institutional professional development obstacles, the item
“Institute administration considers English less important than other languages” (M= 3.04) enjoyed the lowest mean.
This shows that most teachers believed that language institutes pay a lot of attention to English language, rather than
other languages. This is obvious since, nowadays, English is considered as a lingua franca. Moreover, many Iranian try
to learn English to take international tests such as IELTS and TOEFL. They mostly tend to pursue their studies in
English speaking countries. Second, the lowest mean within self-directed professional development obstacles belonged
to the item “Some teachers always feel frustrated with most students” (M= 2.97). Lastly, among professional
development obstacles related to the nature of the work, the lowest mean belonged to the item “Teaching is a type of
work that rapidly becomes routine” (M= 2.85).
The first research hypothesis was “There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions of institute language
teachers with different academic qualifications, (Diploma, BA, MA or higher), concerning the obstacles they face
during their professional development”. Since, the result of one-way ANOVA for the participants’ academic
qualifications was not significant, it can be mentioned that the null hypothesis was confirmed. In other words, there was
no significant difference in the perceptions of teachers with respect to the academic degree they hold.
The second research hypothesis was “There is no statistically significant difference in the perceptions of institute
language teachers with different working experience, concerning the obstacles they face during their professional
development”. The second null hypothesis of this study was also confirmed, given that the result of one-way ANOVA
for teachers’ ELT experience was not significant, too.
The third research hypothesis was “There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions of male and female
institute language teachers concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development”. Like the previous
hypotheses, this null hypothesis was confirmed as well, since the result of t-test was not less than [.05].
The fourth research hypothesis was “There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions of institute
language teachers with different ages; concerning the obstacles they face during their professional development”. This
hypothesis was confirmed, too. The reason for this is that the result of one way ANOVA for participants’ age was not
significant.
The findings of this study were in contrast with those of Herzallah (2011), in that this study found no significant
difference within teachers’ perceptions of professional development obstacles with respect to their gender, ELT
experience and age. It should be mentioned that Herzallah (2011) found a significant difference within teachers’
perceptions of professional development obstacles with respect to their gender, ELT experience and age. However, this
study was similar to Herzallah’s research in that no significant difference was found within both studies, in the
perceptions of teachers with respect to their academic qualification.
REFERENCES
[1] Day, C. (1999). Developing teachers: The challenges of lifelong learning. London: Falmer Press.
[2] Dhanasobhon, S. (2006). English language teaching dilemma in Thailand. Retrieved January, 2013, from
http://www.Curriculumandinstruction.org/index.php?lay=show&ac=article&Id=539134523&Ntype=7.
[3] Farrell, T. (1998). Reflective teaching. English Teaching Forum, 36(4), 10-17.
[4] Fessler, L., & J. Christensen, M. (1992). (Eds.) Preparing teachers for a changing world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
[5] Hargreaves, A., &Fullan, M. G. (Eds.). (1992). Understanding teacher development. New York: Teachers College Press,
Columbia University.
[6] Herzallah AA (2011). Professional Development Obstacles Facing Primary English Language Teachers in Northern Gaza.
UnPublished MA thesis. The Islamic University of Gaza.
[7] Liberman, M., &Miller, R. (1991). Psychology for language teachers. A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
[8] Raths, J. D., &Kathz, L. G. (Eds.). (1986). Advances in teacher education. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing.

[9] Reece, I., & Walker, S. (1997). Teaching, training and learning: A practical guide. Sunderland: Business Publishers Limited.
Sara Rahimi was born in Iran. She received M.A in TEFL in Bushehr Islamic Azad University Branch of Science and Research
in Iran.

ISSN 1799-2591
A Study on Chinese EFL Learning of English

Pronunciation from the Perspective of Aesthetic
Linguistics
Fanghui Hu
School of Foreign Languages, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, Shandong Province, China
Abstract—English phonetic learning, as the beginning of learning a foreign language, is of great importance in
EFL learning. However, the present Chinese EFL learners’ phonetic learning is not satisfactory. Based on
theories of aesthetic linguistics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic attributes of English pronunciation and
intonation, including the beauty of sonority, rhyme, rhythm, intonation, and succession. And then pedagogical
implications are proposed about how to raise EFL learners’ aesthetic consciousness and creation of English
pronunciation.
Index Terms—aesthetic attributes, aesthetic awareness, English pronunciation, beauty, speech sounds
I. INTRODUCTION
In order to speak a language, people need to master one hundred percent of phonetic knowledge, fifty to ninety
percent of grammar knowledge and ten percent of vocabulary (Gimson, 1980). Hence, learning pronunciation is
extraordinary important in learning a foreign language. Meanwhile, teaching pronunciation is an important and difficult
part in teaching a foreign language.
In China, although EFL pronunciation teaching has attracted great attention of many EFL researchers, and EFL
teachers have made their great efforts to teach English pronunciation, effectiveness of teaching English pronunciation is
not guaranteed. A large majority of Chinese EFL learners pronounce with strong accent, significantly different from the
English native speakers (Gao, 2006).
During traditional English pronunciation teaching process, listening and imitating are regarded as two important links.
In recent studies, some pronunciation software like Praat is adopted to help English pronunciation teaching (Meng,
2014; Kong & Yue, 2014), and contributes a little to English pronunciation teaching. However, in four years of learning
English, Chinese EFL learners don’t obviously meliorate their English rhythm with the improvement of their English
proficiency (Chen, 2013). That is to say, generally speaking, there is not an effective way to improve Chinese EFL
learners’ English pronunciation and intonation.
On the basis of analyzing the current phonetic acquisition status in China, the paper will adopt concepts and theories
of aesthetic linguistics, analyze aesthetic characteristics of English pronunciation and intonation, and finally propose
some suggestions about English phonetic teaching.
II. PHONETIC ACQUISITION STATUS IN CHINA

Chinese researchers and teachers of English have proposed many ways to teach English pronunciation. For example,
based on audio-lingual method, English phonetic teaching mainly adopts ways of correction, imitation and comparison
to cultivate the habit of pronouncing English words and sentences; with communicative approach, teachers began to
play stress on teaching suprasegments of English (Gao, 2011). All in all, researchers and teachers made great efforts in
order to improve Chinese EFL learners’ phonetic proficiency. However, according to the study of Hu (2013), EFL
learners in China still speak English with strong Chinese accent, even dialectal accent. The present status of English
phonetic learning can be summed as follows.
1. Weak in English rhythm
First, the common problem of Chinese EFL learners with English rhythm is that they don’t distinguish the stressed
syllable and unstressed syllable. The result is that they pronounce every syllable with the same force. In fact, this is the
result of transfer of Chinese rhythm. The beauty of English rhythm is destroyed.
2. Monotonous and strange intonation
Generally speaking, students tend to adopt falling intonation to read every declarative sentence, and rising intonation

This paper is part of results of Planning and Research Project of Social Science granted by Social Science Planning and Management Office of
Shandong Province (15CWZJ21): Studies on EFL learners’ Aesthetic Ability in Phonetics and Phonetic Acquisition and is also supported by Project of
Reform in Education and Teaching granted by Jining Medical University (14054) and Scientific Research Project granted by Jini ng Medical
University (JY2013RW026).

to interrogative sentences. Flat intonation and rising intonation within a sentence are seldom adopted. Such makes their
intonation is dull, lacking in change of intonation. Some students don’t even follow the rules of English intonation,
uttering sentences in a free intonation.
3. Lack of linking
One important phonetic phenomenon of English pronunciation in a fluent speech is that some speech sounds will be
changed according to its phonetic context. So linking, loss of plosion, assimilation, and reduction are very common in
fluent English speech. Chinese EFL learners seldom use these rules of sound change. As a result, they clearly and
completely pronounce every phone and word, which bring about difficulties in understanding for the English native
speakers.
All in all, Chinese EFL learners haven’t mastered the natural and standard English pronunciation and intonation. The
present teaching and learning status is not satisfactory.
III. AESTHETIC LINGUISTICS AND PHONETIC LEARNING

Aesthetics is a scientific study of aesthetic relationship between human beings and reality. Aesthetics mainly studies
the laws of aesthetic activity and rules of beauty creation and appreciation, while language is an important social
phenomenon in human society. From the perspective of communicative function, language is a tool for communication.
From the perspective of ideational function, language is a special psychological behavior. From the perspective of
information function, language is a system of auditory symbols. And from the perspective of aesthetics, language is the
aesthetic object, because language has the aesthetic features which can arouse aesthetic sense.
Aesthetic linguistics is the study of aesthetic attributes of language and of properties and laws of daily speech events
and speech acts which serve as communicative activities as well as aesthetic objects (Qian, 2004). In this chapter, the
theoretical foundation for learning English pronunciation will be introduced.
A. Aesthetic Attributes of Speech Sounds
Pronunciation possesses its natural attributes and social attribute, of which the latter is represented by national or
regional features of pronunciation. Vocal sounds, as the tool for communication, can express meanings and attitudes
according to convention. However, this convention is the result of aesthetic choice. Language is the carriers of both
culture and beauty.
Language has not only the function of communication, but also aesthetic value. Qian (2004) believes that language
has aesthetic attributes which can arouse sense of beauty.
B. Aesthetic Psychology and Preference of Human Beings
According to Gardner (2011), human beings have eight intelligences, among which musical intelligence is the ability
of perceive, identify, change and express music, and also it is the sensitiveness to rhythm, intonation, prosody or timbre.
Aesthetic psychology and preference is universality of mankind. In a sense, the process of learning a foreign language
pronunciation is one of learning how to appreciate vocal beauty of that language.
C. Learning Pronunciation as an Psychological Process
The process of oral language communication can be divided into three periods: pronunciation, transmission and
perception. In the first period, the brain of the speaker guides speech organs to utter sounds, which is a process of
change psychological phenomenon into physiological phenomenon. In the second period, sound is transmitted into the
ears of the listeners, which is a physical process. In the third process, speech sounds are perceived by the brain of the
listeners through the auditory organs (Lin & Wang, 2013). Both the first process and third process involve the
psychological phenomenon. Therefore, the process of learning pronunciation of intonation of a language is a
psychological process, in which perception of speech sounds is one important link.
D. Aesthetic Process of Pronunciation
Aesthetic process is a psychological practice, which includes aesthetic experience and aesthetic cognition and
aesthetic perception. From Plato’s era, visual sense and auditory sense are recognized as windows for entering aesthetic
experience. Based on theories of aesthetic linguistics, learning pronunciation can be seen as a process of aesthetic
process of the sound system of a language, in which the learners experience and perceive the beauty of the speech
sounds of the language.
All in all, speech sounds has aesthetic attributes themselves; human beings have aesthetic preferences and
psychology; leaning speech sounds is a psychological process; and aesthetic process of pronunciation is a psychological
practice, in which aesthetic subjects perceive, identify, and evaluate aesthetic object—speech sounds.
IV. ANALYSIS ON AESTHETIC ATTRIBUTES OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

Sound world has its charm. However, not all sounds can create charm. Only if the sounds possess some attributes will
they have charm—pleasing the ears or forming the aesthetic pleasure. Then, what kind of attributes sounds have can
arouse aesthetic pleasure? Qian (2004) believes that only sounds that have rhythm, prosody and rhyme—musical

sounds—are melodious. Speech sounds have intrinsic attributes of forming rhythm, prosody and rhyme. Hence, speech
sounds produced by human being are musical sounds. That people can recite poems, sing songs and operas is the very
strong proof that speech sounds are musical sounds. What’s more, speech sounds under normal condition can also form
the attributes of musical sounds. In a word, phonological system has something similar to musical system in that speech
sounds have two musical elements—prosody and rhythm.
Every language is an art for collective expression, in which aesthetic factors such as pronunciation, rhythm, and
symbolism are not shared with other languages. That is to say, every language has its own aesthetic attributes. In this
chapter, aesthetic features of English pronunciation will be explored in terms of beauty of sonority, rhyme, rhythm,
intonation, and succession.
A. Beauty of Sonority
English speech sounds can be divided into two kinds—consonants and vowels. Consonants refer to those sounds that
are produced with airstream meeting with some obstruction this way or that way while vowels refer to those sounds that
are produced without airstream meeting with any obstruction. Vowels are important because they form the core of a
syllable. The most obvious feature of vowels is that they are very sonorous and also they can be prolonged. Sonority of
vowels makes them become musical sounds. The beautiful aria of Chinese Peking opera just depends on the
lengthening of vowels.
To sum up, vowels are a kind of musical sounds, and the tonal quality is one of important factors that generate beauty
of sonority. English has twenty vowels, so there are abundant resources for generating musical sounds in English speech
sounds. Besides, English has twenty-four consonants. Various consonants plus sonorous vowels forms plenty of clusters
of sounds. Beauty of English is reflected completely.
B. Beauty of Rhyme
A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (or the same sound) in two or more words. From the perspective of place of
rhyme, rhyme can be divided into alliteration, end rhyme and internal rhyme. Alliteration refers to rhyme formed
because of the sameness among the beginning consonants of several words. End rhyme consists of perfect rhyme and
imperfect rhyme. In the perfect rhyme, consonants and vowels are the same, while in imperfect rhyme, vowels are the
same but consonants are not, which is known as assonance; consonants are the same but vowels are not, which is
recognized as consonance. Now, let’s appreciate the beauty of English rhymes.
For example, there is a poem entitled song written by Christina Rossetti.
When I am dead, my dearest,
Sing no sad songs for me;
Plant thou no rose at my head,
Nor shady cypress three;
Be the green grass above me,
With showers and dew drops wet;
And if thou wilt, remember,
And if thou wilt, forget.
In this poem, “dead” and “dearest” in the first line alliterate, so do “sing” and “songs” in the second line, and “green”
and “grass” in the fifth line and “with” and “wet” in the six line. Alliteration brings about impressive beauty of echoing
each other in front and back.
End rhyme refers to the situation in which the rhymed words at the end of the line are the same in stressed vowels
and the following consonant. For example, here is a poem written by Joaquin Miller.
Above you gleaming skies of gold
One lone imperial peak is seen;
While gathered at his feet in green
Ten thousand foresters are told.
And all so still! So still the air
That duty drops the web of care.
In this poem, “gold” in the first line rhymes with “told” in the fourth line, so does “seen” in the second line and
“green” in the third line, and “air” in the fifth line and “care” in the sixth line.
Internal rhyme refers to the situation in which a word in a line rhymes the last word in the same line or a word in
another line. For instance, here is part of the poem entitled the cloud written by Percy Bysshe Shelley.
I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers,
From the seas and streams;
I bear light shade for the leaves when laid
In their noon-day dreams.
…
In this poem, “showers” rhymes “flowers”, so does “shade” and “laid”.
From above, we can see that English poems are beautiful partly because of the rhymes. It’s really difficult to express
the beautiful meaning or images created by the beautiful English rhymes. The best way to experience the beauty of

English poems is to read it and enjoy it carefully. Listening to the English poems is also a better way to perceive and
appreciate beauty of English pronunciation.
C. Beauty of Rhythm
English is a stressed-timed language, namely, intervals between two stressed syllables are equal (Zhou, 2005).
Variation of words or syllables that have strong stress with those that have weaker or reduced stress is typical and
contributes to the rhythm of English (Wang, 2005). That is to say, rhythm of English speech is formed by the recurrence
of stressed syllables at more or less regular intervals of time and by the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Beauty of rhythm refers to the beauty formed by comparison between rapidness and slowness of the sound, and stress
and weakness of sounds. For example:
3-1 I THINK1 he WANTS to GO.
3-2 I THINK that he WANTS to GO.
3-3 I THINK it was an EXcellent aFFAIR.
The rhythm patterns of the above sentences are shown one by one as follows.
3-4      
3-5        
3-6          
The symbol “” represent an unstressed syllable, while the symbol “” represents a stressed syllable. Although the
length of the utterances is of difference, it takes almost the same time to utter them, because they all have three stressed
syllables.
The te-tum te-tum rhythm of English creates beauty of sounds. Learners can enjoy the beauty of English rhythm
when reading them with the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables and rapidness and slowness. Moreover,
learners can perceive the beauty of English rhythm when they listen to English sentences.
D. Beauty of Intonation
English is a typical intonation language. Intonation refers to the total pattern of pitch changes, i.e. the rising and
falling of the voice when a person is speaking, within in an utterance (Wang, 2005). English has two basic intonation
patterns: rising and falling. When they go together, they can make a falling-rising tone. Sometime, there is flat tone in
English speech. For example:
3-4 –Is 2John in?
--No, John’s 3not in.
English has its own intonation beauty. The wave of English intonation can bring about great aesthetic enjoyment. In
order to show the beauty of English intonation, we use two lines to represent the pitch range of intonation. The lower
line represents lower intonation, and the closer to the higher line, the higher the intonation is. Let’s now use these
symbols to show the beauty of English intonation. For example:
3-5 Do you prefer tea or coffee?
3-6 Swimming, which is a good sport, makes people strong.
Intonations of sentence 3-5 and sentence 3-6 are shown in Fig.1.
Figure 1. Intonation of sentence 3-5 and sentence 3-6
The beauty of English intonation is displayed in the process of alternating high and low pitch, and high, low or flat
intonation.
E. Beauty of Succession
When speakers of a language utter, they don’t produce the speech sounds one by one. Instead, they link the sounds of
the words together, forming successive speech sounds. The beauty of successive speech sounds is displayed in the
dynamic process of producing sounds.
English form flow of speech through liaison, assimilation, loss of plosion and reduction. Here is this paper, only
liaison is analyzed. For example:
3-7 Look4at the one on the corner of the street.
1
Capitalized letters (except “I” at the beginning of the sentences) represent stressed syllables.
2
The symbol “” represents rising intonation.
3
The symbol “” represents falling intonation.
4
The symbol “” represents linking between two words.

In the above sentence, there are three linking when people utter it. Words of the sentence flow out of the mouth, just
like singing a song.
Based on what is discussed above, we are confirmed that English speech sounds are beautiful and they can create
beauty. English pronunciation has the aesthetic value. And the beauty of English pronunciation represent in its sonority,
rhyme, rhythm, intonation, and succession.
V. PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
Based on the discussion above, some suggestions are proposed in order to improve Chinese EFL learners’ aesthetic
ability of English pronunciation and intonation. According to Yang and Li (2004), cultivating aesthetic ability aims to
improving aesthetic ability of perception, appreciation and creation. So, in this part, some pedagogical suggestions will
be put forward about how to improve students’ aesthetic ability of English speech.
A. Improving Aesthetic Awareness of English Pronunciation and Intonation
As is elaborated above, English sounds possess aesthetic attributes. Only if Chinese EFL learners are aware of the
beauty of English sounds, can they become interested into it. Interest is the best teacher, and it is also the internal
motivation for learning a foreign language.
Hence, at the beginning of teaching English pronunciation and intonation, the teachers can provide students some
beautiful English poems, English songs, and so on. Once the aesthetic awareness of English is raised, learners can
perceive and enjoy the beauty of English, and it will be effective to learn English pronunciation and intonation.
B. Perceiving Beauty of English Pronunciation Instead of Correcting Pronunciation Mistakes
One the one hand, in traditional English pronunciation teaching class, teachers keep focusing on teaching English
segment. Namely, single speech sound, especially the one which is different from Chinese pronunciation, will be
received great attention. Teachers spend plenty of time correcting the pronunciation of speech sounds. Students are very
nervous, anxious and embarrassed when learning pronunciation, because their pronunciation will be corrected again and
again. They feel frustrated during process of learning English pronunciation and intonation. And finally, they gradually
lose interest in learning English pronunciation.
On the other hand, stress, rhythm and intonation of English are not paid sufficient attention in teaching pronunciation.
Rhythm formed by alternation between stressed syllables and unstressed syllables and waving intonation are exactly the
beauty of English pronunciation. Teachers should spend more time immersing students into the beauty of English
rhythm and intonation, which lead students to perceive the beauty of English pronunciation.
In summary, the process of teaching English pronunciation is not the process of correcting mistakes, but the process
of perceive and enjoy the beauty of English pronunciation.
C. Meticulously Choosing Teaching Materials
In traditional English pronunciation teaching class, it’s very common for teachers to choose words and sentences as
teaching materials. There is no context for reading these words and sentences. They are just isolated words or sentences.
So, it’s difficult for students to perceive the beauty of English pronunciation and the relationship between sound and
meaning.
English poems, songs, and actors’ lines can effectively reflect the beauty of English rhymes, rhythm, and intonation.
Beauty of English poems shows itself in its rhymes and rhythm. Teachers can guide students to enjoy the beauty of
alliteration, end rhyme and internal rhyme, and experience the artist images created by English sounds. Some of the
English songs, such as country music and Rhythm and Blues, are melodious. It is easier for students to deeply be drunk
in the beauty of the English songs. Even as for the rap in western songs, it shows the strong rhythm of English. In
addition, actors’ lines are often full of emotions, and they reflect the beauty of language by uttering sounds under a
certain situation. Excellent actors have strong line skills, making listeners or audiences immersing quickly in the
atmosphere through sonorous and forceful sounds or slow and expressive speech sounds.
In a word, English poems, songs, and actors’ lines can help students perceive the beauty of sounds in expressing
meaning. So, they should be chosen to enjoy the beauty of English during teaching Chinese EFL learners.
D. Creating Beauty of English Pronunciation
Awareness of the beauty of English pronunciation, enjoyment the beauty of it, and creation of beauty should be the
three objectives of English pronunciation teaching. Of the three objectives, creating beauty is the most important,
because the purpose of awareness and enjoyment of beauty of English pronunciation is to create it.
First, students listen to the chosen English poems, songs and actors’ lines, and then teachers can guide them to
discuss about the beauty of them. After perceiving and enjoying the beauty of rhymes, rhythm, and intonation several
times, student can imitate them. During imitation, students should experience the beauty of English sounds and be
immersed in it. The delight of aesthetic process is achieved, and students could be satisfied in reading or speaking
beautiful English.
VI. CONCLUSION

Phonetic learning is the beginning of learning a foreign language. Phonological acquisition is based on language
speech perception (Chen, 2013). English speech sounds are perceived as beautiful because of its sonority, rhyme,
rhythm, intonation, and succession. Perception and enjoyment of English speech beauty can, on the one hand, arouse
EFL learners’ interest in learning it; on the other hand, create accurate, natural and beautiful English speech. Hence, in
the process of teaching English speech sounds, EFL teachers can play emphasis on train leaners’ sense of perceiving
beauty of English pronunciation and intonation, raise their aesthetic awareness, and improve their English phonetic
proficiency through enjoying the beauty of English speech sounds. In a word, learners should discover beauty,
experience beauty and create beauty in the process of learning English phonetics (Wu &Ding, 2011).
Nevertheless, suggestions about how to raise EFL learners’ aesthetic awareness and creative ability of English speech
sounds should be limited to what is discussed in the paper. Hopefully, one the one hand, some experimental research
will be carried out to testify the effectiveness of English phonetic teaching based on aesthetic linguistics. On the other
hand, other ideas and methods will be sought and applied in the future teaching of English pronunciation and intonation.
REFERENCES
[1] Chen, Wenkai. (2013). Second language phonological acquisition: an aesthetic approach. Shandong Foreign Language
Teaching Journal 156.5, 52-55.
[2] Chen, Ying. (2013). Theoretical models and pedagogical implications of second language speech perception, Journal of
Foreign Languages 36.3, 68-76.
[3] Gao, Lin. (2011). A review of English phonetic acquisition of Chinese learners, Journal of Donghua 11.1, 31-35.
[4] Gao, Xia. (2006). A study of Chinese EFL learners’ oral reading miscues. Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages
29.5, 53-58.
[5] Gardner, H. (2011) Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences (3rd edition). New York: Basic Books.
[6] Gimson, A. C. (1980). An introduction to the pronunciation of English. London: Edward Arnold.
[7] Hu, Fanghui. (2013). Analysis on non-English majors’ pronunciation learning and approaches to improve their pronunciation
proficiency. Overseas English 252.21, 260-261.
[8] Kong, Haiyan. & Yue, Li. (2014). An experimental study on Praat-aided learning English rhythm. Journal of Shandong
University of Technology (Social Science) 30.3, 109-112.
[9] Lin, Tao. & Wang, Lijia. (2013). A course in phonetics (enlarged edition). Beijing: Peking University Press.
[10] Meng, Linlin. (2014). An experimental study on Praat-aided Chinese EFL learning of English liaison. Journal of Chongqing
University of Education 27.2, 164-166.
[11] Qian, Guanlian. (2004). Aesthetic linguistics—the beautiful: language & speech (2nd edition). Beijing: China Higher Education
Press.
[12] Wang, Guizhen. (2005). English pronunciation & intonation for communication (2nd edition). Beijing: Higher Education Press.
[13] Wu, Zhe. & Ding, Zhibin. (2011). An aesthetic recognition in English language. Journal of Jixi University 11.6, 106-107.
[14] Yang, Xianyu. &Li, Yue. (2009). English teaching and aesthetic ability cultivation. Foreign Language Education 25.4, 70-73.
[15] Zhou, Yuhua. (2005). The aesthetic characteristics of rhythm compared between English and Chinese. Journal of Hunan
University of Science and Engineering 26.6, 194-196.
Fanghui Hu, born in Jining, Shandong Province in 1981. She received her Master Degree from Hunan University in 2007.
She is currently a lecturer in School of Foreign Languages, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China. She has been teaching in
Jining Medical University for ten years; course taught include English listening, Introduction to Linguistics, English writing, and
Stylistics. Her research interests include second language acquisition and language testing.

ISSN 1799-2591
The Application of Vague Language in

International Business Negotiations from a
Cross-cultural Perspective
Jing Zhang
Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhou Shan, China
Yeli Shi
Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhou Shan, China
Abstract—in the environment of economic globalization, business negotiation becomes more and more frequent
than ever. International business negotiation has a significant role in international business trade. There are
many factors that can affect the negotiation, including language, culture, negotiators, and negotiation
strategies. Language as an important tool plays a great role in the negotiation strategies. It is commonly held
that precise language should be used in business negotiations in order to avoid misunderstanding. However,
people ignore the fact that language itself is vague in essence. Negotiators unavoidably use vague language in
business negotiations, for vague language can be used as a kind of politeness strategy. Appropriate use of vague
language will make the negotiation go smoothly, and avoid the conflict of business negotiation so as to achieve
the purpose of cooperation.
Index Terms—international business negotiation, vague language, culture
I. INTRODUCTION
Vague language is a kind of social language phenomenon. It is also a kind of cultural phenomenon, a kind of
embodiment of culture in language. It is an effective lubricant used by people to coordinate interpersonal relationships,
and also an important method to promote successful communication. The study shows that with frequent intercultural
communication, vague language is widely used in various fields, and the effective use of vague language in
international business negotiation can help people to reduce pragmatic failure and reduce cultural conflicts, and then to
further promote international trade development. From the cross-cultural perspective, this paper will use the principle of
cooperation, politeness principle and face theory as the theoretical basis, by means of case study, to explore the use of
vague language in the various stages of negotiation.
II. VAGUE LANGUAGE

A. The Definition of Vague Language
Ambiguity is the basic attribute of natural language. The ambiguity of language mainly refers to the fuzziness caused
by individual differences and the ambiguity of comprehension, and the ambiguity of the function of language. Vague
language as a flexible language, refers to a special language with the extension of uncertainty and uncertain connotation.
Compared with the precise language, vague language has greater generality and flexibility. The generality and
flexibility are reflected on the language extension. Wu Tieping (2002) argues that the words are the expression of the
concept. But when many well-defined concepts of a word are expressed, it may break these boundaries, resulting in a
lot of vague word1. For instance, “morning”, “mid-day”, “afternoon”, “night”, etc. There is no clear distinction between
these kinds of words, and there is a transitional area. Just like the blue and green colors in the palette, these two colors
are gradually formed with no absolute limit between them. There is also a kind of words, the meaning of which does not
have definite scope and depends on the situation to move within or outside the scope. People with different ages,
different sex, and different profession have different definitions of the words such as “almost”, “near” and “close”.
Therefore, vague language exists in all aspects of people’s lives, especially in interpersonal communication, which is
very important in negotiation.
B. The Study on Vague Language
L.A.Zadeh, the professor from University of California, Berkeley, in an article entitled "Fuzzy sets" of the journal
Information and Control in 1965, he pointed out that the object which encountered in the real world, often does not
have precise limits. And then, Lakoff, a famous American scholar, is the first one who introduced the "linguistic
1
Wu Tieping. (2002). Vague Language. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press.

hedges" in 1972, and defined it as "a vague word for things". He got the theoretical evidence from Rosch’s work on
category membership. In the view of Rosch (1973), the words like shape and time have their own internal structure,
which means that this kind of words has a core meaning. And the core meaning can express exactly the core part of the
words. Besides the core meaning, they also include other meanings which can increase difference to the core meaning.2
Based on the work of Lakoff, Crystal and Davy (1975) thought that the existence of some particular lexical items aims
to make the conversation not to be precise.3 From then on the pragmatic use of vague language has been studied in
depth. Channell (2000) believed that the vague language is related to cooperative principle in two aspects: vague
expression can be used to enable speakers to follow the maxims or vague expression is often used when one of the
maxims is flouted.4 Pragmatics specializes in specific discourses in specific contexts, especially in how to understand
and apply language in different language communication environments. It studies the appropriateness and decency of
language from the use of language with a view of getting the subaudition of the discourse. Vague language makes the
expression of language obscure “intentionally”, requiring the hearer to grasp the implication of vague expression, so as
to play the appropriate and decent role in the communication effectively.
From 1965 (when L.A.Zadeh published his paper “Fuzzy Sets”) to 1979, many Chinese scholars began their studies
in the area of vague language. China’s research on vague language began in the late 1970s, with the publication of
Professor Wu Tieping’s Vague Language, and later Vague Linguistics Re-exploration. Zhang Qiao (1998) defined vague
language as the words that can bring people into a vague reading (e.g. “around” in “around seven o’ clock”), or modify
vagueness to certain extent (e.g. “quite” in “quite much”).5 From the semantic perspective, vague language can give the
meaning of expression more roles in different conversations. It can be found that many vague words in our natural
conversation, such as some sentences introduced by “if”. It is just a word, but it can make the whole sentence uncertain.
On this point, Jaszczolt (2004) held that the “hedge” is just a word or phrase that is used to modify the verbal phrase,
the noun phrase and the sentence, so that it can make people trust the contained message more easily and can also make
the dialogue more acceptable.6 Thus it can be seen that vague language enables the interpersonal communication in
negotiation to go more smoothly. As in china, in recent 20 years, the linguistic research of vague language is mainly
studied from the perspective of semantics, and then to sociolinguistics, pragmatics and discourse analysis, cross-cultural
communication, discourse analysis and so on (Wu Tieping, 2002).7 After Wu Tieping and Zhao Qiao, the research of
vague language has become more and more popular in China. Vague language has begun to attract more and more
scholars’ attention. And various functions of vague language in different perspectives are introduced from time to time.
All in all, vague language was first studied from the perspective of semantics in the 1970s, and then it was extended
to the pragmatic perspective in 1980s. Although there is no certain agreement on the definition of vague language and
what definite role it can play in business negotiations, all the above studies demonstrate that vague language mainly
plays its role pragmatically. And the pragmatic functions of vague language can be generally divided into the following
aspects: being flexible, being persuasive, and being polite. With the research on vague language covering various
perspectives, it is now regarded as a way to realize communicative functions such as self- protection, politeness and
improving confidence etc.
III. CULTURE AND INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS NEGOTIATION

A. The Definition of Culture
When we talk about culture, we may think it is a wide and uncertain concept. Here is one of famous anthropological
consensus definition of culture from Kluckhohn (1952). “Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and
reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their
attached values”.8 People from different countries are bound to have different cultural backgrounds, usually in customs,
beliefs and cultural values. Geert Hofstede (1980) makes a concise definition based on this: Culture is the collective
programing of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.9
However, due to the existence of cultural difference, people from different country are bound to learn the
cross-cultural communication properly to achieve the goal of negotiation. The concept of “cross-cultural
communication” was first proposed by Edward. T. Hall (1976). It is a communicative activity between people with
different cultural senses. It specifically includes interpersonal communication, communication between different groups
within the same mainstream culture, transnational communication, and trans-regional communication.10 Negotiator’s
2
Rosch, E. (1973). ‘On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories’ in Cognitive Development and the Acquisition of Language.
Moore, T. E. (ed). New York: Academic Press.
3
Crystal, D. &Davy, D. (1975). Advanced Conversational English. London: Longman.
4
Channell, J. (2000). Vague Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5
Zhang Qiao. (1998). Fuzzy Linguistics Sets. Dalian: Dalian Press.
6
Jaszczolt, K. M. (2004). Semantics and Pragmatics: Meaning in Language and Discourse. Beijing: Pecking University Press.
7
Wu Tieping. (2002). Vague Language. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press.
8
Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
9
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations across Nations. California: Sage.
10
Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond Culture. New York: Doubleday.

cross-cultural communicative ability is an integral part of negotiating communicative ability. In international business
negotiations, in order to make the communication successful and avoid conflicts or misunderstandings, negotiators must
keep cross-cultural awareness in mind.
B. International Business Negotiation
Negotiation can be regarded as one of the commonly adopted communication skills. In China, negotiation refers to
discussing and making common agreement. In other foreign countries, there are other definitions of negotiation, such as
“a process in the public domain in which two parties, with supporter of various kinds, attempt to reach a joint decision
on issues under dispute”. It can be found that people from different cultural backgrounds have almost same points on
the definition of negotiation. Actually, in international business negotiation, cultural differences will probably exert
deep influences on the negotiators’ sensitivities to time, their forms of agreement and their willingness to take risks. It is
well known that the main goal of business negotiation is to exchange something or to reach some agreement. To reach
this goal, the two parties of negotiation need to use various strategies or skills. Among them, the most commonly used
and also most powerful skill is language. Language is the most intuitive and clearest method to express the requirements
or ideas of the negotiator. Different language skills have different roles in international business negotiation, of which,
vague language may be regarded as a skill or strategy, which is widely applied and conducive to the success of
negotiation. Maybe people think that vague language is too ambiguous for people to understand. However, under the
context of business negotiation, vague language is inevitable. For instance, we all know the price is very important in
business negotiations. In common sense, the buyers cannot give the exact price to the sellers, and naturally, the sellers
cannot give the bottom price directly to the buyers. Thus, the two parties need vague language to avoid a definite
answer and give some time and room for both parties to consider more. The proper use of vague language produces
effects that cannot be ignored in international business negotiation, not only in improving the flexibility and accuracy of
expression, but also in increasing the efficiency of negotiation.
How can we apply the vague language properly in international business negotiation under the influence of cultural
differences? The following section will introduce some application of vague language at different stages of
international business negotiations, and explore the reasons of the occurrence of vague language in intercultural
situation.
IV. THE APPLICATION OF VAGUE LANGUAGE IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS NEGOTIATIONS

A. Vague Language at the Initial Stage
The initial stage is the first time for the two sides of the negotiation to meet each other, a starting point of the entire
business negotiation. Whether it is good or bad to a large extent determines the direction of the whole negotiation and
the development trend. This stage often witnesses the sincerity and enthusiasm of the two sides. In some cultures,
negotiators regard the business negotiation as a problem-solving process and tend to take a comprehensive strategy.
However, in other cultures, people tend to regard it as a competition and do not want to compromise. In China, under
the influence of traditional Confucian ideology, most Chinese people have affection for modesty. Chinese business
negotiators believe that community of interest, long-term cooperation, and mutual trust are mostly significant. Therefore,
they are more likely to build trust and friendship with the counterparts before the formal negotiation. While in some
other western countries, people are more inclined to rational thinking and go straight to the point. So they regard a
business negotiation as a problem-solving activity, and are more likely to put the goal on the first priority. Therefore,
more often than not, they appear to be very confident, and willing to show their own advantages at first. But the
excessive boast may make the other side feel unreliable, so at this time we can use some vague language to adjust the
atmosphere of this situation, so as to achieve a good start. For example, “Our Company is very familiar with the recent
customer’s need and has already developed a quite good market.” In this sentence, the speaker used vague expression
like “very familiar”, “already”, and “quite good” to enhance the expression of the whole sentence. Obviously, we all do
not the exact extent of “very” and “quite”. These words can be regarded obscure or vague. However, it is just the
vagueness of this category of words that makes the whole sentence more acceptable. On the one hand, these vague
words successfully demonstrated the company’s good image of reliability. On the other hand, they strengthened the
company’s confidence to complete this transaction. Therefore, the use of vague language can show the confidence of
negotiators properly, ease cultural conflicts. It caters to the modesty of Chinese culture, and the pride or confidence of
the westerners. Besides, the proper use of vague language in this situation can strengthen the effect of being polite of the
speaker. And thus gives the other side a good first impression at the initial stage.
B. Vague Language at the Bargaining Stage
Bargaining stage is the most important stage of a negotiation. It refers to the whole process from the beginning to the
final. The two sides will discuss on the substantive issues at this stage. It is not only the specific contest stage between
the two sides of the strength, intelligence and technology, but also the compromise stage of seeking common ground
while reserving differences. In international business negotiations, as the parties to the negotiations were born with
different cultural influences, both parties have a fixed mode of behavior in business activities. Thus, once the mode of
behavior goes beyond its cultural context, conflicts may arise. As the definition in Hofstede’s cultural dimensions,

Chinese culture is characterized by high uncertainty avoidance. Under this kind of culture, people tend to avoid
uncertain situations. While American culture emphasizes individualism and self-realization, so the independence and
nonconformity are greatly encouraged. In the IBM’s research from Hofstede, the individualistic / collectivist tendencies
of a society are measured by the individualist index. The bigger the value of index is, the more obvious the
individualistic tendencies of the society will be, such as the United States; on the contrary, the smaller it is, the more
obvious the collectivist tendencies of the society will be, like China and some Asian countries. Negotiators from
different cultural backgrounds always have their own fixed view on the terms of business, such as payment, shipment
and date of delivery, etc. Therefore, the two parties of international business negotiation should use vague language
more carefully to avoid the occurrence of deadlock. Here is a short example:
A: This is our rock—bottom price, Mr. Li, we cannot make any further concession.
B: If that is the case, there is not much point in further discussion. We might as well call whole deal off.
A: What I mean is that we will never be able to come down to your price, The gap is too great.
Obviously, because Party A with a precise and absolute word "rock-bottom price" (lowest price), the negotiation
suddenly stalemated. Party B may not think you want to continue, and probably the negotiation will lead to failure. In
order to ease and restore the friendly negotiation atmosphere, party A resorted to the vague expression --- "gap is too
great" to save the negotiation. And at the same time, party B would no longer insist on the termination of the negotiation
so that the negotiation could move on, and the possibility of success would be increased as well. It can be seen that the
precise language with lack of flexibility tends to stiffen the negotiating atmosphere, while vague language can remove
this stiffness and avoid the deadlock. The appropriate use of vague language can strengthen the flexibility of words to
adjust some unexpected situations. Even when the deadlock occurs, we can also use vague language to give more time
and space for both parties. Such as “Under the circumstances, we had better discuss the matter when opportunity
arises.” The vagueness of “Under the circumstances” makes the discourse more objective, implying problems may
occur due to some unidentified factors which are not caused by subjective ones of the concerned parties. It also
decentralizes the responsibility of the speaker himself. “When opportunity arises” is a conditional commitment with
euphemistic tone, not a sure answer, and the other side is likely to be full of expectations and confidence. And in the
course of this stage, due to the uncertainty of some objective factors, the negotiators inevitably have inadequate
understanding. At this time, the proper use vague language can surely improve the accuracy of the speaker’s expression,
such as “It seems that the price on this level you will not accept.” In this example, the vague language “it seems” and
“on this level” roughly predict the intention of negotiating parties, taking into account that the negotiated price is
constrained by a number of uncertainties. The speaker does not say that it is not acceptable, so the seemingly vague
language in essence is more accurately expressed in this situation.
Proper use of vague language at this stage is critical to the whole business negotiation. It can maintain trade relations
between the two sides, and promote the negotiation to the final stage smoothly.
C. Vague Language at the Final Stage
After a substantive bargaining stage through the two sides, the basic content and conditions have been reached on the
agreement, and the main differences between each other have also been eliminated, at this time, the negotiation will
move to the final stage. At this stage, the negotiators will consolidate the results of previous stages, and proceed to
accept mutual conditions as soon as possible. So it is also important for the whole negotiation to get a good result. And
the method or strategy to express the cooperative willingness or specific requirements will affect the achievements of
the negotiation directly. It is well known that values are the core of a culture owned by a person, including worldview,
outlook on life, and moral standards etc. They also are beliefs that are universally accepted by members of society. For
western countries, individualism is the core of culture. Western culture emphasizes democracy and individual. They
always highlight personal values, personal interests, so their conversation are more results-oriented. China is committed
to “benevolence” and advocates a kind of harmony between man and man. Chinese people believe in collectivism,
always emphasizing the team goals, team interests. In the traditional Chinese culture, the Chinese people are inclined to
“leave a face” when talking to other people, so that the atmosphere of conversation will be friendlier. If we find
something improper in the final documents, we should not point it out directly, as it can make the other side feel
embarrassed. We can see the following example about the realization of avoiding embarrassment with vague language.
“We have already checked all the documents available and unexpectedly find each of them has doubtful points more or
less.” The sentence indicates that the speaker is not satisfied with the statement about the results of the examination.
However, by using two vague words “unexpectedly” and “more or less”, the whole sentence sounds more polite and
easier to accept. Thus, the embarrassment of directness and arbitrariness can be avoided masterly. Combination with
face theory and politeness principles, vague language can make expression more polite and better defend the interest of
both sides of the negotiation, so that the transaction will go smoothly. For more example, “Generally speaking, we pay
commission or not is based on the goods that are industrial products or traditional products.” As to what is “generally”,
is blur in terms of scope, extent and boundaries. The use of this vague language makes the discourse rigorous, and
moderately calm. With no imposing or absolute meaning, the buyer tends to accept his point of view. As the final stage
is the last step to the whole success of international business negotiation, the speed of the process should be well under
control. In business negotiations, sometimes it is not necessary to say something too precise. The use of vague language
may help to get better results. Vague language does not need the room of retreat, for the use of vague language can

increase the amount of communication information and transmit enough information with less cost. And it leaves more
time to make wise judgments and flexible management of complicated things. For example, “I do not deny that the
projector is of top quality. If you could go a little lower, I will give you the order right away.” In this sentence, the
expression “top quality”, “a little” and “right away” give the other side full imagination. Therefore, the use of vague
language in negotiations can improve the efficiency of language expression.
V. CONCLUSION
The main feature of international business negotiations lies in its multi-national, multi-ethnic context. Negotiations
from different countries, different regions and different nationalities cannot have a completely consistent position,
habits and values. They have different negotiating styles or strategies due to cultural differences. Therefore, in the
international business negotiation, there are not only shared economic interests and cooperation, but also cultural
collision and communicative failure between parties with different cultures. In fact, the particularity of English in
business negotiation lies in its strong purpose, and its communicative effect which is directly related to economic
benefits. And vague language can help negotiators achieve their goals, and can also help negotiators to establish friendly
relations of cooperation, so that negotiators in business negotiations can have an invincible position. Through the above
analysis of the application of vague language in different stages of international business negotiation, it can be seen that
the proper use of vague language has many positive functions like strengthening the effect of being polite and flexible,
and improving the accuracy of expression, etc.
With the development of economic globalization and advanced internet technology, the economic relations with
different countries become closer and closer. Therefore, in international business negotiations, it is of great significance
to understand the cultural difference between different countries, and use vague language properly in different stages of
negotiation, for vague language can play an unexpected positive role; it can maintain a harmonious atmosphere of
negotiations, guarantee the negotiation goes smoothly and ensure negotiators have more operating space, if the
following situations occur: some information is not convenient to speak directly, or someone does not want to reveal
their true thoughts to others; or in some cases, some problems are difficult to answer.
In a word, continuous improvement of language skills and proper application of vague language at every stage of
negotiation are conducive to international business negotiations and trade development.
REFERENCES
[1] Crystal, D. &Davy, D. (1975). Advanced Conversational English. London: Longman.
[2] Channell, J. (2000). Vague Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[3] Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations across Nations.
California: Sage.
[4] Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond Culture. New York: Doubleday.
[5] Jaszczolt, K. M. (2004). Semantics and Pragmatics: Meaning in Language and Discourse. Beijing: Pecking University Press.
[6] Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
[7] Rosch, E. (1973). ‘On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories’ in Cognitive Development and the
Acquisition of Language. Moore, T. E. (ed). New York: Academic Press.
[8] Wu Tieping. (2002). Vague Language. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press.
[9] Zhang Qiao. (1998). Fuzzy Linguistics Sets. Dalian: Dalian Press.
Jing Zhang was born in Huzhou, China in 1995. She is a college student of Zhejiang Ocean University, specializing in business
English.
She is currently a junior student in the Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan, China. Her research interests include business
English and language linguists.
Yeli Shi was born in Zhoushan, China. She received her M.A. degree in literature and language from Zhejiang University, China.
She is an associate professor in the Foreign Language College, Zhejiang Ocean University, China. Her current researches focus on
English Language and Business English teaching.

ISSN 1799-2591
Reading Comprehension Questions in EFL

Textbooks and Learners’ Levels
Nayer Adli
Department of English Language, Ardabil Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran
Asgar Mahmoudi
Department of English Language, Ardabil Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran
Abstract—This study investigated the reading comprehension questions in EFL textbooks and their
appropriateness to learners' levels. The data for the study were collected from four elementary and advanced
level EFL textbooks containing 44 chapters altogether. A checklist was designed based on Bloom’s Taxonomy
of reading comprehension questions to record the cognitive levels of the questions collected from the reading
comprehension sections of the mentioned textbooks. To assess the significance of difference between each kind
of the comprehension questions in elementary and advanced level textbooks, the Mann-Whitney U test was
used. Results indicated that there are significant differences between the two proficiency levels in terms of
question types in all categories except analysis and synthesis. To assess the overall proportions of question
types in the textbooks and to see if they are different from each other, a Kruskal-Wallis and the follow up
Mann-Whitney U tests were used which revealed significant differences between some pairs of categories of
question types. It is believed that the results of this study can be useful to textbook writers and EFL teachers.
Index Terms—Bloom’s Taxonomy, reading comprehension questions, EFL textbooks
I. INTRODUCTION
Almost all language programs, are reliant on teaching materials, especially textbooks, in one way or another.
Teaching materials are necessary for providing input to practice. They are also considered to be reliable sources by
students since they usually are written or prepared by experts in the field. Commercially available materials are in
particular important because they provide teachers with teaching ideas and plans in the classroom (McDonough & Shaw,
2003; Richard, 2001).
The role that textbooks play in teaching and learning English has not lost its importance even though our
understanding of effective teaching methods has become deeper during the past decades. Textbooks, according to Ç akit
(2006), provide a basis upon which teaching and learning are founded. This role is fulfilled by providing a road map or
syllabus for teachers' teaching and a self-study source for learners.
Not long ago, teaching was seen as a passive decoding process entirely based on bottom-up processes. In recent
decades, however, reading is conceptualized of as a more dynamic and interactive process between the text and the
reader (Eskey & Grabe, 1988; Perfetti, 1985; Samuels, 1994; Swaffar, 1988). This shift in perspective is a welcome
change but there seems to be issues that have not been addressed yet. For example, while texts in the textbooks have
become tailored to the needs of the learners and more interactive tasks are included in the reading sections, the
cognitive difficulty of the questions that follow them are not adjusted to the learners' proficiency levels.
Using Bloom's (1956) taxonomy of question types, this study investigated two questions. First, if there are any
differences between the textbooks written for the elementary and advanced level students in terms of the cognitive
difficulty of the reading comprehension questions asked. This issue could have been investigated by exploring the
relationship between the students' levels and the question types in the textbooks designed for them. However, exploring
the existence or non-existence of a relationship could not tell us much about the severity of the problem. Exploring
differences, but, could allow us to go beyond the relationship and have a closer look at where the problem or problems
rest. Second, the study tried to figure out if the overall proportions of the question types asked in both levels of the
textbooks differ from each other.
A. Statement of the Problem and Significance of the Study
Questioning is one of the most regularly used teaching strategies by teachers and textbook developers. Good quality
and cognitively appropriate questions will certainly lead to deeper understanding. Questions are the organizing means
of knowledge (Underhill, 1991). If there is a match between the reading proficiency of a learner and the text he or she
reads, an effective interaction will be established between the writer and the reader. It is also evident that the types and
the cognitive difficulty of the reading comprehension questions following a text should be in conformity with the ability
level of the students that are going to read that text. Then, it is necessary to analyze the nature of the questions in EFL
textbooks to find out if the needed compatibility between the questions asked and the levels of students is realized.

The importance of reading activities in EFL textbooks are not deniable when examining L2 reading. Reading sections
of textbooks are one of the major sources of content for teaching a foreign language (Hutchinson & Torres 1994;
Luukka et. al., 2008) and may considerably affect the readers' purpose of reading (Alderson, 2000). Therefore, it is
essential that learners really understand what they read.
The present study aimed at analyzing the demanded thinking levels of the reading comprehension questions in EFL
textbooks. More specifically, it aimed at comparing thinking levels required to answer the reading comprehension
questions in EFL textbooks with the levels of students for whom these texts are written and to figure out if the questions
match their levels.
The importance of this study lies in the fact that many Iranian EFL learners experience difficulty with answering
reading comprehension questions of English textbooks. This problem has two aspects to it. First, there is the likelihood
that the questions are not appropriate for the learners' levels. Second, there is the possibility that the proportions of the
questions are not right for their levels. For example, a textbook prepared for the elementary level learners may have too
many cognitively difficult questions. Alternatively, a book prepared for the advanced level learners may have few
cognitively challenging questions. Both of these situations are detrimental to the development of learners' reading
comprehension ability.
The findings of this study might be significant for those who are concerned with teaching reading comprehension,
selecting texts for EFL courses, and evaluating students’ performance in reading. The importance of the study also
stems from the importance of questioning as an instructional method in teaching reading skills and critical thinking.
Any inconsistency found could also raise a warning flag to textbook writers to review their books and do the needed
modifications to them.
B. Research Questions and Hypotheses
The research questions of this study were:
1. Is there any significant difference between each kind of the comprehension questions in the elementary and
advanced level EFL textbooks?
2. Are the overall proportions of question types in the elementary and advanced level EFL textbooks significantly
different from each other?
The null research hypotheses derived from the above research questions were:
H01: There is no significant difference between each kind of the comprehension questions in the elementary and
advanced EFL textbooks.
H02: The overall proportions of question types in the elementary and advanced level EFL textbooks are not
significantly different from each other.
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Improving learners' thinking has been one of the major goals of educators. For Houghton (2004) the most important
decision to be made is where to begin this process. Benjamin Bloom (1956) was one of the firsts to propose a model
that categorizes questions based on the degree of cognitive processing they require. The purpose of this classification
was to tailor questions to levels of the learners. This classification, in particular, helps program developers to write
questions which promote higher forms of thinking. Higher forms of thinking are those that involve analyzing,
synthesizing, and evaluating of concepts and procedures while lower forms only involve rote learning and memorizing.
Bloom divided the cognitive complexity of thinking required by questions to the six levels of knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Knowledge means remembering specifications;
comprehension refers to describing something in one’s own words; application is defined as applying information;
analysis is equal to being able to divide something to its parts; synthesis implies the ability to put parts together; and
finally, evaluation means making value-laden judgments about the issues questioned. Hopper (2009) believes that the
first three levels target lower-order thinking skills, whereas the other three levels need higher-order thinking skills to be
employed.
Rawadieh (1998) analyzed question types in Jordanian secondary textbooks using Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy. He
wanted to determine if lower level questions and higher level questions were distributed indiscriminately or adjusted to
the levels of the learners. The results indicated a significantly higher incidence for lower-level questions with almost no
recognizable pattern of presenting more cognitively demanding questions to the higher level students. For example, the
twelfth grade textbooks emphasized higher level questions less than the eleventh level textbooks.
The fact that questions are written with little attention to the processing complexity that they require seems to be a
universal phenomenon. Rinser, Nicholson and Web (2000), for example, used Bloom’s taxonomy to determine the
questioning levels of two series of textbooks. The point of interest for them was the extent to which higher order and
lower order questioning strategies were emphasized in these textbooks. The results indicated that elementary textbooks
presented questions that aimed at understanding, applying, synthesizing, and evaluating concepts. That is, the majority
of questions required higher cognitive abilities such as application and evaluation which were not appropriate for the
elementary level.

Similarly, using Barrett’s taxonomy for evaluating reading comprehension questions, Sunggingwati (2003) analyzed
English language textbooks in junior high schools. Barrett’s taxonomy has four levels of comprehension (literal,
inferential, evaluation, and application). Sunggingwati analyzed all questions in these textbooks and found that the last
and cognitively most challenging level of reading comprehension questions, i.e., application, is missing in all of the
textbooks he analyzed. This again suggests that the thinking levels of the questions were disregarded when the books
were prepared.
Ewies in his 2010 study of Islamic education textbooks for primary students in the United Arab Emirates found a
lack of balance in the kind of questions presented by the textbooks. Using a researcher-made tool working based on
Bloom's cognitive taxonomy, he found a preponderance to use lower-level questions. Only 36% of the questions he
analyzed were of the higher-order type while 64% requested lower-level thinking skills.
Although the finding by Ewies might be justifiable with respect to the level of the students for whom the textbooks
were written, Riazi and Mosalanejad's (2010) study shows a preponderance to use lower-level questions in Iranian
senior high school and pre-university English textbooks. Riazi and Mosalanejad used Bloom’s taxonomy of learning
objectives and showed that in all grades lower-order cognitive skills were more prevalent than higher order ones. This
inclination to use cognitively less demanding questions for higher level students is another problem which should be
addressed.
In much recent times, Igbaria (2013) used Bloom's taxonomy to analyze variety in the cognitive level of the WH-
questions in “Horizons” textbook. The results showed proportions similar to that of Ewies (2010) with 244 questions
emphasizing lower-order thinking skills and 137 questions emphasizing higher-order thinking skills.
III. METHOD
A. Participants
There were no human participants in this study. All the needed information was obtained from four EFL textbooks
the list of which is given in the next section.
B. Instruments
The instruments used in this study were of two types. The first instrument was a set of four EFL textbooks written for
elementary and advanced level learners containing 44 units. These textbooks included Inside Reading 1 (Arline
Burgmeier, 2012), Inside Reading 4 (Kent Richmond, 2012), American Headway starter (John & Liz Soars, 2012), and
American Headway 5 (John & Liz Soars, 2012). The second instrument used in this study was a checklist designed
based on Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of question types. It was composed of a table with seven columns. The first column
contained unit numbers; each of the following six columns contained one of the six cognitive levels of Bloom’s
Taxonomy placed in a sequence from low to high. This checklist was used to record and tally the number of questions
from reading comprehension sections of the textbooks that fell in each category.
C. Procedure
This study tried to assess the cognitive level of the questions in reading sections of the targeted textbooks. In other
words, it evaluated the nature of the questions that followed each reading and tried to find out if the cognitive demands
of the questions were appropriate for the students' levels. In order to meet this goal, all units of the targeted textbooks,
aggregating to 44, were analyzed. Using Bloom’s taxonomy as the framework, a checklist was designed to record and
tally the number of questions that fell at each cognitive level. Information from this checklist was used to see if the
questions were relevant to the levels of the students for whom the textbooks were intended and whether the proportions
of question in the two sets of textbooks were different or the same. Naturally, it was expected to find proportionally
more cognitively demanding questions in the advanced textbooks than in the intermediate textbooks.
D. Design of the Study
The design of this study was ex-post-facto because it did not involve any intervention, pretest, posttest, and control
group. There were also no human participants to be assigned to experimental and control groups randomly or to be
studied in the form of intact groups.
IV. DATA ANALYSIS

A. Examining the First Research Hypotheses
Since the distributions of values were not normal, as represented in Table 4.1 below, running independent-samples T-
tests to examine the first research hypothesis was not justified. Therefore, several Mann-Whitney U tests were used to
see if any significant differences could be found between the same question types in EFL textbooks of elementary and
advanced students. It is necessary to know that unlike T-test that compares means, Mann-Whitney U test compares
medians.

TABLE 4.1.
ONE-SAMPLE K-S TEST OF NORMALITY OF THE DISTRIBUTIONS
comprehen
knowledge sion Application analysis synthesis evaluation
N 44 44 44 44 44 44
Normal Parametersa,b Mean 2.82 .98 1.6818 .45 .2955 .86
Std. Deviation 1.063 .876 1.30781 .589 .55320 1.091
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000c .000c .001c .000c .000c .000c
Table 4.2 below, which shows the results of Mann-Whitney U tests run on the number of question types in the
elementary and advanced level textbooks, indicates that the probability values for four categories are smaller than .05;
so their results are significant; but, in two categories, that is, analysis and synthesis, the results are not significant,
because their probability values are larger than .05.
TABLE 4.2.
DIFFERENCES IN THE QUESTION TYPES BETWEEN ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED LEVEL TEXTBOOKS
knowledge comprehension Application analysis synthesis evaluation
Mann-Whitney U 76.50 139.50 79.00 170.00 226.00 114.50
Wilcoxon W 329.50 392.50 332.00 423.00 479.00 367.50
Z -4.08 -2.54 -3.97 -1.96 -.50 -3.29
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .00 .011 .00 .05 .62 .001
We can, therefore, conclude that there are significant differences between the two sets of textbooks developed for the
elementary and advanced level students in terms of question types in all cognitive categories except analysis and
synthesis. In other words, there are no statistically significant differences between elementary and advanced level
textbooks in terms of these two types of questions. These findings compel us to reject our first hypothesis partially
because while there are significant differences between four categories of questions in the elementary and advanced
level textbooks, differences between two types of the questions, namely, analysis and synthesis, do not reach statistical
significance.
Of course, the P value related to the analysis questions is equal to .05 which shows a trend. Looking at the Mean
Ranks column in Table 4.3, we can see that there indeed is a difference in the numbers of this type of questions in the
two sets of textbooks to the advantage of the advanced level, but perhaps because of the sampling limitation it has failed
to reach statistical significance.
Statistically speaking, a series of Mann-Whitney U tests revealed significant differences between four types of
questions in the elementary and advanced level textbooks and non-significant differences between the two other types
of the questions. The relevant Sig and r values (effect sizes) were respectively as follows: knowledge (P = .0, r = .61),
comprehension (P = .011, r = .38), application (P = .0, r = .59), analysis (P = .05, r = .294), synthesis (P = .061, r
= .075) application (P = .00, r=.49).
TABLE 4.3.
RANKS OF QUESTION TYPES IN ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED TEXTBOOKS
level N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
knowledge elementary 22 30.02 660.50
advanced 22 14.98 329.50
Total 44
comprehension elementary 22 17.84 392.50
advanced 22 27.16 597.50
Total 44
application elementary 22 29.91 658.00
advanced 22 15.09 332.00
Total 44
analysis elementary 22 19.23 423.00
advanced 22 25.77 567.00
Total 44
synthesis elementary 22 23.23 511.00
advanced 22 21.77 479.00
Total 44
evaluation elementary 22 16.70 367.50
advanced 22 28.30 622.50
Total 44
B. Examining the Second Research Hypothesis

The second null hypothesis targeted the overall proportions of question types in the elementary and advanced level
EFL textbooks and wanted to see if differences in their proportions reach statistical significance. Note that in the case of
this hypothesis it was not the proportion of one type of questions at one level to be compared with the proportion of the

same kind of questions at the other level. Rather the hypothesis was formulated to test the overall proportions of the
question types (collectively in elementary and advanced textbooks) against each other. We already know that the data
distributions were not normal. Table 4.4, too, indicates that homogeneity of the error variances was also not met, P
< .05.
TABLE 4.4.
TEST OF EQUALITY OF ERROR VARIANCES
Levene's Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
9.589 5 258 .000
Therefore, with respect to nature of the variables (one categorical independent variable with six levels and one
continuous dependent variable) there was no choice but running a Kruskal-Wallis test which is the non-parametric
alternative of One-way ANOVA.
Table 4.5 shows the result of the Kruskal-Wallis test run. In the output, the significance value for the Chi-square test
is .000. This is less than the alpha level of .05, meaning that there is a statistically significant difference between
frequencies of the question types in the textbooks. This finding by itself rejects our second null hypothesis.
TABLE 4.5.
RESULT OF THE KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST
number
Chi-Square 111.006
Df 5
Asymp. Sig. .000
Kruskal-Wallis, however, is an omnibus test and does not tell us the proportions of which categories of questions
differed from each other. To know about the differences, it is necessary that we conduct follow up Mann-Whitney U
tests with Benferroni adjustment between the groups. For Benferroni adjustment we have to divide the value of alpha by
the number of comparisons which gives .0033 in the case of our study for fifteen comparisons. Table 4.6 shows the
results of these comparisons.
TABLE 4.6.
RESULTS OF FOLLOW UP MANN-WHITNEY U TESTS
knowledge comprehension application analysis synthesis evaluation
knowledge .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
comprehension .009 .004 .000 .348
application .000 .000 .003
analysis .136 .172
synthesis .012
evaluation
Results in this table show that the difference we have found for the Kruskal-Wallis test stems from the differences
between the following categories of questions: (Knowledge and
comprehension/application/analysis/synthesis/evaluation), (Comprehension and synthesis), (Application and
analysis/synthesis/evaluation). Other comparisons are non-significant.
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions that can be drawn from the findings of this study are that the analyzed EFL textbooks, though
incorporating both lower-level and the higher-level thinking skills, are not in conformity with Bloom’s Taxonomy of
learning objectives. This lack of conformity demonstrated itself in two forms. First, there was no clear-cut separation of
question types between the textbooks in terms of the processing demands that the questions required. That is, textbooks
of both levels incorporated the low-level and high-level question types almost indiscriminately. At the same time, some
question types were nearly neglected at the cost of incorporating less demanding questions in the advanced level
textbooks. The results also indicated a preponderance for the lower-level thinking skills in both series. These findings
are consistent with the findings of Rawadieh (1998), Sunggingwati (2003), Ewies (2010), Riazi and Mosalanejad (2010),
and Igbaria (2013) who concluded that in the EFL textbooks the emphasis is on the lower-level questions more than on
the higher-level questions.
To sum up, after analyzing the data based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, the following results were obtained: (1) there are
significant differences between the two proficiency levels in terms of question types in all categories except analysis
and synthesis; (2) there is a statistically significant difference between frequencies of the question types in the textbooks.
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What the future hold for elementary students. Paper presented at The Annual Meeting of the Mid-south Educational Research
Association, Bowling Green, Kentucky, United States.
[17] Samuels, S. J. (1994). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading, revisited. In R. B. Ruddell, M. R.
Ruddell & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (pp. 816–837). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
[18] Sunggingwati, D. (2003). Reading questions of junior high school English textbooks. Bahasa Dan Seni, 31(1), 84–105.
[19] Swaffar, J. K. (1988). Readers, texts, and second languages: The interactive processes. The Modern Language Journal, 72,
123–149.
[20] Underhill, N. (1991). Testing Spoken English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nayer Adli is an MA graduate of ELT from Islamic Azad University, Ardabil Branch, Iran. Her areas of interest are methodology,
linguistics, and sociolinguistics.
Asgar Mahmoudi is an assistant professor of ELT at Islamic Azad University, Ardabil Branch, Iran. He teaches different courses
for PhD and MA students at this university. His areas of interest are research methodology, studies in second language acquisition,
applied linguistics, and curriculum development.

Call for Papers and Special Issue Proposals
Aims and Scope
Theory and Practice in Language Studies (TPLS) is a peer-reviewed international journal dedicated to promoting scholarly
exchange among teachers and researchers in the field of language studies. The journal is published monthly.
TPLS carries original, full-length articles and short research notes that reflect the latest developments and advances in both
theoretical and practical aspects of language teaching and learning. We particularly encourage articles that share an interdisciplinary
orientation, articles that bridge the gap between theory and practice, and articles in new and emerging areas of research that reflect
the challenges faced today.
Areas of interest include: language education, language teaching methodologies, language acquisition, bilingualism, literacy,
language representation, language assessment, language education policies, applied linguistics, as well as language studies a nd other
related disciplines: psychology, linguistics, pragmatics, cognitive science, neuroscience, ethnography, sociolinguistics, sociology,
and anthropology, literature, phonetics, phonology, and morphology.
Special Issue Guidelines

Special issues feature specifically aimed and targeted topics of interest contributed by authors responding to a particular Call for
Papers or by invitation, edited by guest editor(s). We encourage you to submit proposals for creating special issues in areas that are of
interest to the Journal. Preference will be given to proposals that cover some unique aspect of the technology and ones that include
subjects that are timely and useful to the readers of the Journal. A Special Issue is typically made of 15 to 30 papers, with each paper
8 to 12 pages of length.
A special issue can also be proposed for selected top papers of a conference/workshop. In this case, the special issue is usually
released in association with the committee members of the conference/workshop like general chairs and/or program chairs who are
appointed as the Guest Editors of the Special Issue.
The following information should be included as part of the proposal:
 Proposed title for the Special Issue

 Description of the topic area to be focused upon and justification
 Review process for the selection and rejection of papers
 Name, contact, position, affiliation, and biography of the Guest Editor(s)
 List of potential reviewers if available
 Potential authors to the issue if available
 Estimated number of papers to accept to the special issue
 Tentative time-table for the call for papers and reviews, including
o Submission of extended version
o Notification of acceptance
o Final submission due
o Time to deliver final package to the publisher
If the proposal is for selected papers of a conference/workshop, the following information should be included as part of the
proposal as well:
 The name of the conference/workshop, and the URL of the event.

 A brief description of the technical issues that the conference/workshop addresses, highlighting the relevance for the
journal.
 A brief description of the event, including: number of submitted and accepted papers, and number of attendees. If these
numbers are not yet available, please refer to previous events. First time conference/workshops, please report the estimated
figures.
 Publisher and indexing of the conference proceedings.
If a proposal is accepted, the guest editor will be responsible for:
 Preparing the “Call for Papers” to be included on the Journal’s Web site.
 Distribution of the Call for Papers broadly to various mailing lists and sites.
 Getting submissions, arranging review process, making decisions, and carrying out all correspondence with the authors.
Authors should be informed the Author Guide.
 Providing us the completed and approved final versions of the papers formatted in the Journal’s style, together with all
authors’ contact information.
 Writing a one- or two-page introductory editorial to be published in the Special Issue.
More information is available on the web site at http://www.academypublication.com/tpls/

(Contents Continued from Back Cover)
An Investigation into the Effect of Individual Differences on Iranian EFL Teachers’ Perceptions 570
Concerning Professional Development Obstacles
Sara Rahimi
A Study on Chinese EFL Learning of English Pronunciation from the Perspective of Aesthetic 579
Fanghui Hu
The Application of Vague Language in International Business Negotiations from a Cross-cultural 585
Perspective
Jing Zhang and Yeli Shi
Reading Comprehension Questions in EFL Textbooks and Learners’ Levels 590

Nayer Adli and Asgar Mahmoudi

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Theory and Practice in Language Studies

Volume 7, Number 7, July 2017

What is EAP? — From Multiple Literacies to a Humanistic Paradigm Shift 497

George Eliot’s Feminine Assertion in Middlemarch 540

The Exploring Practice of Grading Model in College English Teaching 546

Reading Comprehension Questions in EFL Textbooks and Learners’ Levels 590

What is EAP? — From Multiple Literacies to a

II. PROFFERED DEFINITIONS OF EAP

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

III. REDEFINITION OF EAP AS MULTIPLE LITERACIES

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

helps students become more attuned to social justice.

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

IV. CALLING FOR A HUMANISTIC PARADIGM SHIFT IN EAP

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

Quest to Freedom: Reclaiming Individuality

Kamelia Talebian Sedehi

Index Terms—Faggots, freedom, individuality, masochism, sadism, socialization

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

Integrating Thinking into L2 Learning: What do

Index Terms—higher-order thinking, L2 learning, attitudes & perceptions

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

B. Attitudes towards the HOT Approach

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

“I improve with that pressure.”

Figure 1. Perceptions of the effect of the HOTS approach on student performance

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

VII. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

APPENDIX A. AN E XAMPLE OF A HOT LESSON PLAN

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

APPENDIX B. AN E XAMPLE OF A THINKING TASK

Travel package 1: Build homes for street children in Peru

Travel package 2: Hiking in Himalayas

Travel package 3: Learning to surf

Travel package 4: Community work with children in Kenya

Travel package 5: Wild animal safari in South Africa

Travel package 6: Sightseeing in Europe

APPENDIX C. QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

learning. Markham, Ont.: Pembroke.

© 2017 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

Metacognitive Knowledge and Metacognitive