Table of Contents

1.1 DEFINITION.......................................................................................................................3
1.2 COMPOSITION OF THE ENVIRONMENT ..................................................................3
1.2.1 Lithosphere (Rocks) .......................................................................................................4
1.2.2 Hydrosphere (water) ......................................................................................................4
1.2.3 Atmosphere (air) ............................................................................................................5
1.2.4 Biosphere (Life) ...........................................................................................................10
1.3 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ..........................................................................................10
1.3.1 Definitions....................................................................................................................10
1.3.2 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM ....................................................................12
1.4 ECOLOGICAL ADAPTION ...........................................................................................15
1.4.1 HUMAN POPULATION ............................................................................................16
2 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................23
2.1 Specific objectives ..............................................................................................................23
2.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT......................................................................................23
2.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................24
2.4 RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND SUSTAINABILITY..............................................25
2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY APPROACHES ...........................................................26
2.5.1 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS (C.B.A) .......................................................................26
2.5.2 COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS (C. E .A) .......................................................27
2.5.3 POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE (P. P. P) p3 .............................................................28
3 IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL PROJECT ON ENVIRONMENT .....................................29
3.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................29
3.2 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES ...........................................................................29
3.3 IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL PROJECTS ON ENVIROMENT ........................30
3.4 THREATS RELATED TO DESTRUCTION OF CATCHMENT AREAS ................33
3.4.1 Conservation of Water Catchment Areas ....................................................................33
3.4.2 Cultivation of Trees and Forests. .................................................................................34
3.4.3 Conservation of soil and water ....................................................................................34
3.4.4 Protection of Water Resources Against Pollution .......................................................35
3.4.5 Conservation and Storage of Water .............................................................................35
3.4.6 Conservation of Egriculture Ecosystem.......................................................................35

Page 1 of 92
 3.4.7 Rehabilitation of Mine Areas .......................................................................................36
3.4.8 Signing of Treaties/Conventions and Agreements. .....................................................36
3.5 CONSERVATION OF AGRICULTURE RELATED ECOSYSTEMS ....................36
3.5.1 WETLANDS................................................................................................................36
3.5.2 MANGROVE SWAMPS ............................................................................................38
4 SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT ...................................................................40
4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES. ...............................................................................................40
4.2 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................40
4.3 WATER POLLUTION .....................................................................................................42
4.4 ATMOSPHERIC (AIR) POLLUTION...........................................................................43
4.5 COMPOSITION OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE ...................................................44
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................44
4.6 RISKs OF WASTE MISMANAGEMENT .....................................................................46
4.7 STORAGE OF WASTE MATERIALS ..........................................................................48
4.8 WASTE COLLECTION ..................................................................................................49
4.9 WASTE TRANSPORTATION........................................................................................49
4.10 WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS ....................................................................................50
4.11 SAMPLE QUETIONS ......................................................................................................59
5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (E.I.A) ..........................................................61
5.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................61
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT E.I.A ..................................................63
5.3 USEFULNESS/ BENFITS /PURPOSE OF E.I.A ..........................................................64
5.4 PROJECTS REQUIRING E.I.A .....................................................................................66
5.5 ISSUE CONSIDERED IN AN E.I.A. ..............................................................................68
5.6 PARTICIPANTS IN E.I.A ...............................................................................................69
5.7 PRINCIPLES USED IN MANAGING AN E.I.A. (GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF A
GOOD EIA PRACTICE) ............................................................................................................73
5.8 STAGES IN PROJECTS CYCLE ...................................................................................74
5.8.1 THE RELEVANT E.I.A. ACTIVITIES FOR EACH STAGE IN THE PROJECT
CYCLE. .....................................................................................................................................76
5.9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS ........................................77
5.10 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING ...................................................................................88
5.11 SAMPLE QUETIONS ......................................................................................................90

Page 2 of 92
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

Specific objectives

At the end of this topic the trainee should be able to:

a) Define the term environment

b) Outline the composition of an environment

c) Explain various ecological concepts.

1.1 DEFINITION
• Environment – refers to the surrounding of an object. Environment can either be natural
or built environment.
• The natural environment encompasses all living and non living things occurring naturally
on earth. It is an environment that encompasses the interaction of all living species.
Natural environment – Mt Kenya forest, Karura forest
• The natural environment is contrasted with a built environment e.g. built environment is
human made space in which people live, work and recreate on day to day basis. It is
everything around us that is man made such as houses, roads, airports, sports stadium,
cities and towns.

1.2 COMPOSITION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

1) Environment is composed of four spheres namely:
a) Lithosphere (rocks)

b) Hydrosphere (water)

c) Atmosphere (air)

d) Biosphere (life)

2) Others - crysosphere (ice)

- Pedosphere (soil)

Page 3 of 92
1.2.1 LITHOSPHERE (ROCKS)
• Is the earth’s crust, the outer most solid surface of the planet that is chemically different
from underlying mantle.
• It has been generated largely by igneous processes in which magma (molten rock) cools
and solidifies to form solid rock.
• Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive
elements.
• The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic (slow creeping motion) convection. This
convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move albeit slowly. The resulting
processes are known as plate tectonics.
• Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or, of rising
mantle at mid – ocean ridges and mantle plumes.

1.2.2 HYDROSPHERE (WATER)

Water appears in the following form:

a) Ocean
An ocean is a major body of saline water; approximately 71% of the earth’s surface is covered
by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans
and smaller seas e.g. Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Pacific Ocean etc.

b) Rivers
A river is natural water course usually fresh water, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea or
another river. In few cases a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before
reaching another body of water.

c) Lakes
A lake is a body of water that is localized to the bottom of a basin. A body of water is considered
a lake when it is inland is not part of an ocean, is large and deeper than a pond and fed by a river.

d) Ponds
A pond is a body of standing waters either natural or man made that is usually smaller than a lake.

Page 4 of 92
1.2.3 ATMOSPHERE (AIR)
1. The atmosphere of the earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin
layer of gases that envelops the earth is held in place by the planet’s gravity.
2. Dry air consists of:
• 78% Nitrogen
• 21% Oxygen
• 1% Argon and other inert gases such as carbon dioxide.
3. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases among which are the Green
houses gases such as
• water vapour
• carbon dioxide
• methane
• nitrogen oxide
• ozone
• Fluorinated gases e.g Chlorofluocarbons (CFCs), Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs and
HFCs)
4. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds.
5. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapour and suspensions of water droplets and ice
crystals seen as clouds.
6. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amount in unfiltered air sample including dust,
pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash and meteoroids.
7. Various industrial pollutants also may be present such as chlorine (elementary or in
8. compounds) fluorine compounds, elementary mercury and sulphur compounds such as sulphur
dioxide (SO2)

Ozone
• The ozone layer of the earth’s atmosphere plays an important role in absorbing the of ultra violet
(UV) sun radiation thus preventing from reaching the earth surface.
• The DNA is readily damaged by UV light.
• The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature
extremes.

Page 5 of 92
1.2.3.1 Atmospheric Layers
Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into five main layers; these layers are mainly determined by
whether temperature increase or decreases with altitude from the highest to lowest those layers are:
1. Exosphere
The outmost layer of earth’s atmosphere extends from the exobase upwards, mainly
composed of hydrogen and helium.
2. Thermosphere
The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase. Its height
varies with solar activity and ranges from about 350 – 800 km . the international space station
orbits in this layer between 320-380km.
3. Mesosphere
Mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80 – 85km. it is the layer where most meteors
burn up upon entering the atmosphere.
4. Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends from the stratopause to about 51km. the stratopause is the boundary
between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.
5. Troposphere
The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 7km at the poles and 17km at
the equator, with some variations due to weather, the troposphere is mostly heated by transfer
of energy from the surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and
temperature decreases with altitude. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere
and stratosphere.
Diagram Showing Atmospheric Layers

Page 6 of 92
Other Layers:
Within the five principal layers determined by temperatures are several layers determined by
other properties.
a) The Ozone Layer
Is contained within the stratosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the
stratosphere from about 15 – 35 Km though the thickness varies seasonally and
geographically.
b) The Ionosphere
The part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation stretches from 50 to 1,000
km and typically overlaps both the exosphere and the thermosphere.
It forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere.
c) The Homosphere and Heterosphere
The homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere, the upper
part of the hydrosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen the highest
elements.
d) The Planetary Boundary Layer
Is part of the troposphere that is nearest the earth’s surface and is directly affected by
it, mainly through turbulent diffusion?
Diagram Showing Other Atmospheric Layers

Page 7 of 92
1.2.3.2 Global Warming
Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the greenhouse effect
caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.

1. Causes of Global Warming

Following are the major causes of global warming:

a) Man-made Causes of Global Warming

i. Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby
maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and
commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global
warming.

ii. Use of Vehicles

The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles
burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere
resulting in a temperature increase.

iii. Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into
the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth
surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs has led to ozone layer
depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

iv. Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The
harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.

In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global
temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees
Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial mean temperature.

Page 8 of 92
 v. Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.

vi. Overpopulation
Increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of
carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.
b) Natural Causes of Global Warming
i. Volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke
emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

ii. Water Vapour

Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s temperature more
water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global
warming.

iii. Melting Permafrost

Permafrost is there where glaciers are present. It is a frozen soil that has environmental gases
trapped in it for several years. The soil is continuously under 00 Celsius. As the permafrost melts,
it releases the gases back into the atmosphere increasing the earth’s temperature.

iv. Forest Blazes

Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are
released into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming.

2. Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:
a) Rise in Temperature
Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1880, the earth’s
temperature has increased by ~1 degrees. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of
glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on
coastal regions.

Page 9 of 92
 b) Threats to the Ecosystem
Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to a loss of plant and animal lives.
Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even worse.

c) Climate Change
Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at some places
and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.

d) Spread of Diseases
Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led to the
movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.

e) High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average death toll usually
increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases that can hamper human life.

f) Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and animals. In this
case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of them even become
extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.

1.2.4 BIOSPHERE (LIFE)

Is the part of the earth and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. It is also called ecosphere.
The study of interrelationships of organisms to each and to their environment is called Ecology.

1.3 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

1.3.1 DEFINITIONS
i. Ecosystem
▪ It’s a natural area/unit consisting of all living (biotic factors) and non-living elements (abiotic
factors) working together as a functional unit in a self-sustaining system.
▪ Biotic factor is defined as living parts in an ecosystem.
▪ Abiotic are non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect living
organisms and the functioning of ecosystems. Examples of Ecosystems
✓ Ponds

Page 10 of 92
 ✓ Caves
✓ Forests
✓ Deserts

BIOTIC FACTORS ABIOTIC FACTORS

• Plants • Sunlight
• Animals • Water
• Fungi • Temperatures
• bacteria • oxygen
• • soil

ii. Habitat
• Is the specific locality with particular set conditions where an organism lives
• It is the home of an organism e.g.
✓ Aquatic habitat
✓ Terrestrial habitat
✓ Edaphic habitat
iii. Ecological niche
Are the physical space and the role organisms play within a habitat.

iv. Population
Refers to all members of a given species in a particular habitat at a particular time

v. Community
Consist of a collection of population of different species interacting within a specific area
functioning more or less as a unit with certain identifiable characteristics.

vi. Carrying capacity

Is the maximum number of organisms an area/space can support.

vii. Biomass
Is the total dry weight of living organisms at particular living levels or per unit area (within
one acre?)

Page 11 of 92
1.3.2 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
• The living elements and non-living elements are connected through the flow of energy and the
recycling of chemical elements.
• Energy flows through living things within an ecosystem.
• The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of such a
great number of organisms.
• For almost all organisms on earth, the primary source of energy is solar energy. It is amusing to
find that we receive less than 50 per cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth. The effective
radiation, refers to the radiation, used by plants to carry out photosynthesis.
• The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms. This
energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain.
• All living organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and
consumers can further be organized into a food chain.
• Each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic level. In order to more efficiently show the
quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these food chains are then organized into trophic
pyramids.
• The arrows in the food chain show that the energy flow is unidirectional, the head of the arrows
show the direction energy is moving in, and that energy is lost as heat at each step along the way.

a) Sun
• The sun being the source of all energy. The sun provides energy to the plant through
photosynthesis.
• This energy is used throughout the ecosystem to carry out various functions.
• Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space by the
earth’s atmosphere.
• Overall, about 40 to 50 percent of the energy received on earth contains Photosynthetically
Active Radiation but only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process of
photosynthesis. This effective radiation is termed as the Photosynthetically Active Radiation
(PAR).

Page 12 of 92
• Thus, this percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are the producers in the
ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or indirectly dependent on them for
their survival.
• The energy flow takes place via the food chain and food web. During the process of energy
flow in the ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the
chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into chemical energy in the process
of photosynthesis.
• Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to this law,
only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other; rest is lost into
the atmosphere. This is clearly explained in the following figure and is represented as an
energy pyramid.

b) Trophic level
The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be arranged into different feeding groups and
are known as trophic level or the feeding level.

i. Primary Producers
The plants become primary producers
ii. Primary consumers
The herbivores feed on these plants and are described as primary consumers
iii. Secondary Consumers
Herbivores are then eaten by carnivores
iv. Tertiary consumers
Carnivores are eaten by other carnivores
v. Quaternary Consumers
Omnivore eats primary consumers and secondary/tertiary consumers.
vi. Decomposers
Break down producers and consumers to release energy.

Page 13 of 92
 A DIAGRAM SHOWING ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Sun

Energy input
Dead
Producers Heat loss

Dead
Primary
Heat loss
Consumers
Decomposers

Dead
Secondary
Heat loss
Consumers

Dead
Tertiary
Consumers Heat loss

Dead
Quartenary
Consumers Heat loss

1.3.2.1 FOOD CHAIN

Definition – is a linear representation of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from from
one organism to another. Food chain is composed of producers – consumers – decomposers

• Grass – rabbit – dog – leopard – vulture

• Cabbage – caterpillar – bird – snake – vulture
• Cabbage – caterpillar – chicken – man

Page 14 of 92
1.3.2.2 FOOD WEB
A food web is all of the interactions between the species within a community that involve the transfer
of energy through consumption. It mainly considers interactions of food chains in a community
e.g. When all the food chains in an ecosystem are joined up together, they form a food web. Here is
an example of a food web

A diagram Showing A food Web

Chicken Grass

Grass Grass Gazelle

Grass Leopard

Snake Vulture

1.4 ECOLOGICAL ADAPTION

It is an evolutionary process whereby – population becomes better suited to its habitat. This process
happens over many generations and some organisms may change their physical structure, habitat,
generate mutations etc. associated with the environment. e.g. Charles Darwin theory of evolution.

Page 15 of 92
1.4.1 HUMAN POPULATION
• The study of human population is called demography.
• It studies the size, growth, density and distribution of human beings.
• The current world population is six billion people (1999 census). The human population is
commonly studied through a census.
• About 4-5 children are born in one second while only about two people dies per second.
• Population growth rate is therefore 2.5 people per second, 150 persons/minutes 9000 people per
Hour.

1.4.1.1 Characteristics of Population Change

✓ Growth i.e. birth rate >death rate
✓ Stability i.e. birth rate = death rate
✓ Decline i.e. birth rate < death rate
✓ Growth rate =birth rate - death rate + immigration/ emigration.

1.4.1.2 Sigmoid Curve of Population Growth

• A pattern of growth in which, in a new environment, the population density of an organism
increases slowly initially, in a positive acceleration phase; then increases rapidly, approaching an
exponential growth rate as in the J-shaped curve; but then declines in a negative acceleration
phase until at zero growth rate the population stabilizes.
• This curve shows typical characteristics of population curve. This is a case where a few
individuals enter unoccupied area and assuming that there is no food shortage and no predators

Page 16 of 92
A Diagram Showing Sigmoid Curve of Population Growth Rate

Phase A
There is low population and it starts picking slowly because there is shortage of reproducing
individuals.

Phase B
It’s the exponential population growth/explosion. It’s the maximum rate of growth probably because:
• No competitions
• No predators
• No struggle for existence
• No environmental resistance

Phase C
• Population growth rate decelerates
• Environmental resistance set in
• The environmental has reasonable population carrying capacity

Page 17 of 92
Phase D
• Population growth rate starts declining
• Environmental has reached its maximum carrying capacity and cannot carry any more
• The birth rate and death rates starts to balance/state of equilibrium

1.4.1.3 Environmental Factors that Influence Population (Resistance to Population Growth)

Several factors contribute to any population depending on species
• Shortage of food, water and oxygen. These are resources that organisms compete for in a
habitat. If they are not adequate some organisms will die.
• Lack of light – its vital in regard to plants which requires it for photosynthesis. Plants compete
for light where they grow tall to get it.
• Predators – these are animals/plants that prey on particular species. Predators in any habitat
will slow down the population of certain organism.
• Lack of shelter – it could be physical where some organisms shelter from predators.
Organisms compete for shelter.
• Diseases – when population is over crowded it encourages spread of diseases that controls it.
• Accumulations of toxic wastes – most organisms produce their wastes matter and where they
accumulate, they limit the population of other organisms or of same species.
• Psychological factors – over crowding brings stress. This may hider breeding of species.

1. Maintenance of Population
• It is a situation when the population reaches a constant level, in normal situation the
population fluctuates due to environmental resistance.
• The fluctuations are in ups and downs in a process called Homeostasis.
• Experiments with organisms called paramecium and yeast.
• Homeostasis – ability and tendency of a certain system to maintain a relatively constant
internal state in spite of the changes in external condition example – animal which maintain
relatively constant blood temperature in spite of variations in external temperature

Page 18 of 92
A Diagram Showing Maintenance of Population

Once population is normal it increases where competition and predation bring down population.

Where less decreased population, decreases competition and predators with a decreased
environmental pressure and population returns to normal

Increased population—increased competition---increased environmental---normal.

Resistance

Decreased population---decreased competition---decreased environ. ------normal

Resistance

2. Causes of Over Population

• Overpopulation is a condition where the number of organisms exceeds the carrying capacity of
their habitat.
• Higher population has impacted on the life of a common man and is the biggest problem for
modern time because it implies scarce resources and economic inflation that makes life miserable.
This is caused by:

Page 19 of 92
 a) Rise in birth rate – due to discovery of nutritional science and medicine enhancing good
health.
b) Good health – decline in death rate due to:

· Discovery of medicine and cure for fatal diseases

· Diseases cures has increased life expectancy of individual

· Prolonged life span

· Decline in child mortality

· Some diseases that killed people are treatable.

c) Nutrition – has prolonged fertility period and reduced death rate.

d) Migration/Emigration - movement of population from one country to another or one area to
another. This could be due to

· Conflicts
· Droughts
· Wars
e) Lack of education – illiteracy and lack of information on family planning.
f) Increased food production – food productions able to feed and sustain the population.
g) Cultural traditions and religious beliefs – some cultures belief in many children as a source
of wealth or protection. Catholics don’t believe in use of contraceptives in family planning.

1.4.1.4 Consequences/Impact of Population on Environment

• Each person requires energy, space and resources to survive which results to environmental
losses.
• If the human population were maintained at suitable levels, it would be possible to balance those
environmental losses with renewable resources and regenerations.
• The present world population is rapidly rising beyond the earth’s ability (carrying capacity) to
regenerate and sustain the resources thus lowering the quality of life in the following ways:
a) Public health – due to increased population the environment get polluted and this provides
poor sanitation conditions.

Page 20 of 92
 b) Reduced food supply – the population is growing faster than the rate of food production. A
higher population exerts pressure on arable land thus reducing food supply.
c) Fresh water deficiency – there is deficiency of clean water especially in towns.
d) Exploitation Oceans – in the Oceans there is over exploitation of fish. There is
pollution/damping of wastes of coastlines and beaches.
e) Declining forest land – the wild forests have been cleared to make room for settlement and
also to get resources like fibres, posts and timber.
f) Loss of biodiversity – population pressure exerted on environment has resulted in loss of some
animals and plants.
g) Global climate change – due to human activities brought about increased populations the
world is becoming warmer due to greenhouse effects.
h) Gases gotten from human activities and wastes etc. cause several consequences e.g. lanina
(very dry spell for sometime) Elnino (heavy rains in a season)

1.4.1.5 Remedial Measures Against Over Population

Overpopulation could be controlled to ensure sustainable use of resources. This could be done
through
a) Delayed birth – As members are engaged in other social activities such as school they marry late
and end up with few children.
b) Education – knowledge on knowing the importance of getting children that one can afford to cater
for. Knowledge on the need for education in relation to economy of country.
c) Family planning methods
· Natural method
· Sterilization
· Condoms
· Birth pills etc.
d) Government policy (set laws on population e.g. restrictions of certain benefits i.e. insurance to
cover maximum number of children
e) War – during wars men die and also at this time children are not conceived hence controlling
population.

Page 21 of 92
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Q1. Discuss environmental protection with respect to energy use. 20 marks

Q2. Discuss environmental conditions under the following sub-headings:

a) Acid rains

b) Greenhouse effects

c) Global warming. (Global climate change)

d) Ozone layer depletion 12marks

Q3. List four greenhouse gases and briefly explain their effects on the earth. 8marks.

Q4. Outline the sources of renewable energy in Kenya. 10marks

Q5. Briefly explain why environmental resources are increasingly under pressure in Kenya despite
the government efforts to control their over exploitation. 10marks

Q6. Briefly explain the factors determining the distribution of plants and animals in

Different biomes on earth 10marks

Q7. Explain the following terms as used in an ecosystem:

i. Ecological niche
ii. Carrying capacity
iii. Food chain
iv. Ecological adaptation
v. Biotic factors 10marks

Q8. With the aid of a diagram, explain the energy flow in an ecosystem 10marks

Q9. a) Explain the causes of over population of human beings in an ecosystem

c) Explain the consequences/impacts of over populations on an environment

Biomes is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the environment.
they exixts in e.g lakes, rivers and wetlands. Marine biomes include coral reef and the oceans

Page 22 of 92
2 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

2.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

At the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain the relationship between economy and environment

b) Outline environmental policy approaches.

ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT

• Define economic development
• Define sustainable development
• Resource utilization and sustainability

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY APPROACHES

• Cost benefit analysis
• Cost effectiveness
• Polluter pay principles

2.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Definitions:
• Economic development is the increase in the standard of living of a nation’s population with a
sustained growth. Its scope includes process and policies by which a nation improves the
economic, political and social well being of its people.
• Economic development refers to a sustainable increase in living standards of a nation’s
population; it implies increased per capital income, better education, better diet, good health as
well as environmental protection.

Standard of living
Is generally measured by standards such as real (i.e. inflation adjusted) income per person and poverty
rate.
Other measure includes:
• Access and quality of health care
• Educational standards

Page 23 of 92
 • Access to certain goods e.g. mobile phones vehicles, refrigeration, shelter etc.
• Life expectancy etc.

It is also an ease by which people living in time or place are able to satisfy their needs.
Economic development is also used synonymously with terms such as modernization, westernization
and industrialization.

2.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Definitions:
i. Is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so
that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations.
ii. Brundtland commission defined sustainable development as – development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
iii. Sustainable development – It has been defined as balancing the fulfilment of human needs with
the protection of the natural environment so that these needs can be met today as well as in the
indefinite future.
• Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with
the social challenges facing humanity.
• Sustainability is employed to describe an economy in equilibrium with basic ecological support
system.
• The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituent parts.
i. Environmental sustainability
ii. Economic sustainability
iii. Social political sustainability

Page 24 of 92
• Sustainability is a term that can be applied to almost every stage of life on earth from a local to a
global scale.
• Long lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems.
• Invisible chemical cycles redistribute water, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon through the worlds
living and non living systems and have sustained life for million of years.
• As the earths human population has increased natural ecosystems have declined and changes in
balance of natural cycles has had a negative impact on both human and other living systems.
• Sustainable development= consuming only as much as we need while making sure the resources
are not over utilized in a way that they cannot renew themselves for future use.

2.4 RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

This is the process of evaluating the appropriateness of resource exploitation from a resource
efficiency point of view, throughout the entire life cycle of that resource. The theory attempts to
evaluate resource utilization and sustainability in three perspectives namely:
i. The accumulation of by products, emissions and wastes is attributed to inefficient resource
exploitation. A line solution to the pollution problem lies not in the isolated, corrective
treatments of waste and emissions but rather in the appropriate treatment of resources at the
onset of production process as well as throughout their life cycle.
ii. The concepts also promote a resource economy into which appropriate resource utilization
may be achieved.
iii. The continued threat to the world’s land resources is worsened by the protracted food crisis
in sub – Saharan Africa. Per capital food production continues to decrease even though this
region compares favourably with other tropical regions in terms of climate and soil resources.
The main determinant of this situation is the widely recognized need for an enabling policy
environment that favours smallholder rural development. Other key determinant to food
security and environmental sustainability in Africa are:
• Need to tackle soil fertility depletion
• Need for more intensive and diverse land use.

Page 25 of 92
3 R – the waste management procedures are employed following the principles of reduce, re-use and
recycle while methods of economising or reducing resource consumption are practiced.

2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY APPROACHES

2.5.1 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS (C.B.A)

• CBA is a technique used in environmental protection and management.
• it is used in the appraisal of projects and policies that have a direct implication on environmental
conservation, examples in siting dams, factories, national parks, and pollution controls.
• It is used in the appraisal and design of an activity that could have direct and indirect effects on
the environment e.g. intensive use of agricultural chemicals, setting up of industries, clearing of
catchment areas for cultivations.
• Cost benefit analysis (CBA) could be used to analyze both economic and ecological gains or
impacts and then sound decisions can be made based on the analysis. CBA is commonly used to
refer to:
✓ Helping to appraise or assess the case for a project or a proposal which itself is a process
known as project appraisal
✓ An informal approach to making economic decisions of any kind
• These processes involves weighing the total expected costs against the total expected benefits of
one or more actions in order to choose the best or most profitable option.
• Benefits and costs are often expressed in money terms. CBA therefore is typically used by the
government to evaluate the desirability of a given intervention.
• It analysis cost effectiveness of different alternatives in order to see whether the benefits
outweighs the cost.
• The aim is to gauge the efficiency of the intervention relative to the status quo

Page 26 of 92
Uses of cost benefit analysis in environmental decision making.

Recycling of solid wastes

ECONOMIC IMPACTS ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS

• New items acquired • Reduction in environmental degradation
• Reduction in cost of reclaiming damaged • Aesthetic value of the environment
environment enhanced
• Reduction in human health hazards • Habitat for living organisms protected
• New source of energy • Natural resources conserved

Replacement of natural forest with an exotic • Losses in biological diversity of forest

forest ecosystem
• Changes in water and climatic regions
• Ready source of forest products
• Fast growing species obtained

Decision criteria for project

• If the discounted present value of benefits exceeds the discounted present value of the cost them
the project is worth while.
• There are equivalent to the condition that the net profit must be positive.

2.5.2 COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS (C. E .A)

• This is a form of economic Analysis that compares the relative costs and outcomes (effects) of
two or more courses of action.
• Cost effectiveness analysis is distinct from cost benefit analysis (C B A) which assigns a monetary
value to the measure of effect.
• Cost effectiveness analysis is often used in the field of health services, where it may be
inappropriate to monetize health effect.
• Typically, the CEA is expressed in terms of a ratio where the denominator is a gain in health from
a measure in:
✓ years of life
✓ premature births averted
✓ Sight – years gained etc
and the numerator is the cost associated with the health gain.

Page 27 of 92
2.5.3 POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE (P. P. P) P3
• Also known as Extended Polluter responsibility (EPR)
• Is a principle in international environmental law where the polluting parties are made liable to
pay for the damages they cause to the natural environment.
• The objective of this principle is to shifts responsibility of dealing with waste from governments
to the entities producing it.
• As the polluters receive no subsidies to help in this process over time much of that cost is passed
along to consumers in the price of the goods involved.
• Under the same principles the world wildlife fund for nature demanded that industrialized
countries should compensate the developing countries which were struck by climate related
disasters, the way they compensate their own country men.
• Developing countries account for 1/3 of the energy related carbon dioxide emissions but bear the
brunt of pollution and climate change consequences.
• At the international level the Kyoto protocol is an example of application of the PPP parties that
have obligations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions must bear the costs of reducing
prevention and control of such polluting emissions.

Limitations of polluter pay principle

• The environmental protection agency E.P A has observed that the polluter pays principles have
typically not been fully implemented in the U.S laws and programs.
• Example drinking water and sewerage treatment services are typically subsidized and there are
limited mechanisms in place to fully assess polluters for treatment costs.

2.5 SAMLE QUESTIONS

Q1. Distinguish between economic development and sustainable developments (4marks).

Q2. Define the term polluter -pay principle, stating its importance and its limitations (6marks).

Q3. Discuss the cost benefit analysis (C.B.A) as an approach to environmental Management policy
(6marks).

Page 28 of 92
3 IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL PROJECT ON ENVIRONMENT
3.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic trainees should be able to:
a) Describe the environmental effects of utilization of agricultural resources.
b) Explain the threats related to destruction of catchments areas and how they should be protected.
c) Explain the conservation of agricultural related ecosystem.
Key points/outline
Environmental effects of utilization agricultural resources
• Use of river water for irrigation
• Management of range lands
• Cultivation of large scale farms for cash crops.
Threats related to destruction of catchments areas
• Cultivation of forest areas
• Protection of catchments areas
• Construction of dams for reservation development
• Treaties/convention to reduce conflicts
Conservation of agricultural related ecosystem
• Coastal wetlands e.g. estuaries mangroves, coral reefs
• Inland wetlands e.g. fresh water streams drainage basins, fresh water lakes and reservoirs.

3.2 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

1) In exhaustible resources- Are those resources not depleted through usage e.g. air, land, water.
2) Renewable resources- Are resources that can be replaced by natural or artificial processes e.g.
crops, forests, animals, grasslands, and fertile soils. These resources are also exhaustible.
3) Non-renewable- Are those resources that cannot be replaced by natural processes at the rate at
which they are used. They are vulnerable to depletion. The resources can be re-used or recycled.
They include non energy mineral resources examples:
a) Metallic minerals such as copper, iron etc
b) Non metallic minerals such as phosphates, phosphate rocks, soil nutrients and fossil fuels.

Page 29 of 92
3.3 IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL PROJECTS ON ENVIROMENT

INTRODUCTION
• The practices of high input farming have resulted in a number of environmental problems.
According to the environmental protection agency, Agricultural chemicals including fertilizers
and pesticides are the single largest cause of water pollution; detected in ground water, deep
under-ground, as well as in surface waters.
• Fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by pesticides.
• Many insects, weeds and disease causing organisms have developed resistance to pesticides
forcing farmers to apply progressively large quantities.
• Residue due to pesticides and antibiotics contaminate our food supply and reduce the number and
diversity of beneficial micro-organisms in the soil.
• Soil erosion and losses of soil fertility persist as important problems; improper irrigation has
resulted in declining soil productivity as salts have accumulated in the soil. Aquifers have been
depleted by irrigation withdrawals.
• Clearing grasslands, forests and draining wetlands to grow crops have resulted in habitat losses
that reduce biological diversity. Many plants and animal species have become endangered or
threatened as a result of habitat loss caused by agriculture. A reduction of genetic diversity in
agriculturally important crops and livestock has also occurred as a result of selective breeding.

Some of these Environmental Effects of Utilization of Agricultural Resources are Analyzed

Below;

1. Use of River Water for Irrigation

• Irrigation generally makes inefficient use of water.
• Traditional irrigation methods, which have been practiced for more than 5,000 years involve
flooding the land or diverting water to fields through open channels.
• Water flow must be increased to guarantee that the field receives water.
• Less than 50% of water applied to the soil by such methods is absorbed by plants the rest usually
evaporates into the atmosphere.

Page 30 of 92
 Solutions
(a) Drip irrigation
• The use of Micro-irrigation (drip/twinkle irrigation) in which pipes with tiny holes bored in
them convey water directly to individual plants.
• This reduces the water needed to irrigate crops by a substantial amount.
• It also reduces the amount of salts left in the soil by irrigation water.
(b) Uses of a Laser to Level the Field
• A laser beam sweeps across a field.
• A field grader receives the beam and scrapes the soil levelling it.
• Since farmers must use extra water to ensure that plants on higher elevations of a non level
field receive enough, lasers levelling of the field reduces the water required for irrigation.
• Although advances in irrigation technology are improving the efficiency of water use, many
challenges are prohibitively expensive. Few farmers are able to install them.
2. Water pollution from Agriculture
• Agriculture is a major source of non point pollution throughout the world and agricultural
practices produces several types of pollutants that contribute to water pollution.
• Chemical pesticides that run off or leach into water are highly toxic and can adversely affect
human health as well as the survival of aquatic organisms.
• Fertilizers run off cause’s water enrichment. Animal wastes and plant residues produce high
suspended solids level as well as water enrichment.
• Soil erosion from fields and rangelands causes sediment pollution in water ways. In addition,
some agricultural chemicals are not very soluble in water and find their way into water ways
by adhering to sediment particles.

Solution
This soil conservation method not only conserves the soil but reduce water pollution.

3. Cultivation of large scale farms for cash crops.

• In temperate areas of the world almost all the fertile land with an adequate supply of water is used
for agriculture. Although in some regions, the loss of prime farmland to urbanization is of

Page 31 of 92
 concern, in temperate areas very little prime farmland not already under cultivation remains.
Tropical areas on the other hand have little prime agricultural land.
• From 1940s to 1980s the amount of agricultural land was greatly increased through irrigation of
dry land. During the last few years, however there has been a world wide decline in the rate of
expansion of irrigation and amount of irrigated land has declined. This change is due to depletion
of aquifers, the abandonment of salty soil and the diversion of irrigation water to residential and
industrial use.

Solutions to agricultural problems

Introduction
• Food production poses an environmental quagmire. We must increase food production in order
to eliminate world hunger, but growing more food damages the environment which lessens our
chances of increasing food production in the future.
• Fortunately, farming practices and techniques exists that ensure sustainable agriculture. Farmers
who have been practicing high input agriculture can adopt these alternative agricultural methods,
which cost less and are less damaging to the environment. They include sustainable shifting
agriculture, new technologies such as genetic Engineering and adoption of new crop plants.

a) Alternative agriculture sustainable/low input agriculture

• It relies on beneficial biological processes and environmentally friendly chemicals rather than
conventional agriculture techniques.
• Enhancement of natural predators prey relationships can substitute the heavy pesticide use.
• Important goals are to sustain the quality of agricultural soil and conserve water and energy.
• Alternative agriculture is not a single program but rather a series of programs that are adapted for
specific land climate and farming requirements.

b) Making shifting agriculture sustainable

• Traditional slash –and- burn agriculture is sustainable as long as there are few farmers and large
areas of forest.
• Since relatively small patches of forest are cleared for raising crops, the areas quickly return when
the land is abandoned and the farmer has moved on to clear another plot of forest.

Page 32 of 92
• If the abandoned land lies fallow for a period of 20-100 years the forest recovers to the point
where subsistence farmers can again clear the forest for planting. Burning the trees releases
another flush of nutrients into the soil so that crops can again be grown there.
• Shifting cultivation, enhanced by heavy mulching with organic materials such as weed and grass,
chippings lessen soil infertility and erosion. The composted mulch piled into rows that follow the
contours of the land further reducing erosion.
• Planting several crops together, reducing insect damage. One of the crops is always a legume
which helps restore nitrogen fertility to the soil.

c) Genetics engineering (biotechnology)

• This is the ability to take a specific gene from one cell and place it into another cell where it is
expressed.
• The goals of genetic engineering in agriculture are not new since traditional breeding methods
have similar goals.
• The genetic engineering reduces the time taken to transfer a characteristic greatly.
• In addition, using this technology a desirable gene can be transferred from a species to different
species.

d) Eating new foods.

This is a situation where new types of crops and animal species could be tried as food substances in
order to avoid overreliance on traditional and conventional foods. e.g eating of rats, squirrels, moles,
etc

3.4 THREATS RELATED TO DESTRUCTION OF CATCHMENT AREAS

• Cultivation of forest areas
• Protection of catchments areas
• Construction of dams for reservoir developments
• Treaties/convention to reduce conflicts

3.4.1 CONSERVATION OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS

• Ecology is the study of living organisms in relation to their physical and biological environment.
• It’s a fundamental decision of productive and sustainable land use.

Page 33 of 92
• Therefore, maximizing useful cover is essential for production and land use. Maintaining
vegetation cover is the first step to minimizing soil erosion and conserving water. The
maintenance of cover is critically dependent upon:
✓ Availability of water and soil fertility
✓ Water and cover are closely related in that lack of water leads to poor cover and lack of
cover leads to loss of water as runoff.

3.4.2 CULTIVATION OF TREES AND FORESTS.

Examples: agroforesry, reafforestation, afforestations etc.

• Agro forestry: is a land use system in which trees are cultivated in partial or temporary
arrangement with crops and livestock.
• Afforestation: is planting of exotic or indigenous trees in a given piece of land as a pure stand
• Re-afforestation: is a land use system in which land where trees had been harvested are planted
again.

Assignment

1) Read and make notes on agro forestry

2) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of trees in an environment

3.4.3 CONSERVATION OF SOIL AND WATER

Soil and water need to be conserved because of the following:

✓ Reduce loss of fertile soil

✓ Maintain soil productivity hence increased crop yields
✓ Conserved water for use during dry times and droughts
✓ Prevents accumulation of toxic substances in the soil e.g. salts
✓ Prevents water logging by appropriate drainage.
✓ Maintain soil structure etc
The above objectives can be achieved through: -
✓ Minimum tillage
✓ Terracing
✓ Gully control

Page 34 of 92
✓ Mulching
✓ Cut off drains
✓ Water harvestings etc

Assignment:
Read and make notes on measures to conserve soil and water.

3.4.4 PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES AGAINST POLLUTION

Water resources should be protected from any contaminations arising from land use examples:

• Proper treatment of domestic sewage and industrial waste before directing them to the rivers.
• Emphasis on organic farming with less use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and having
proper application rates.
• Adopting biological and mechanical pest, weed and disease control

3.4.5 CONSERVATION AND STORAGE OF WATER

A storage, impounding or conservation reservoir stores water in excess of demand from a natural
source in periods of high flow for use in periods of low flows. These reservoirs could be provided
by:
• Water dams
• Water tanks
• River and stream intakes
• Roof and rock catchments
• Ponds and pans
• Water retention ditches etc

Assignments:

Read and make notes on methods of water conservation and storage

3.4.6 CONSERVATION OF EGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEM

Conservation of rivers, lakes, streams, forests, rangelands etc

Page 35 of 92
3.4.7 REHABILITATION OF MINE AREAS
Areas where quarrying or extraction of minerals had taken place can be rehabilitated for other land
use purposes. This could be done through earth fillings and planting of trees and vegetations.

3.4.8 SIGNING OF TREATIES/CONVENTIONS AND AGREEMENTS.

Different parties concerned with conservation and utilization of environmental resources could sign
treaties, conventions and agreements in order to avoid conflicts
Examples:
a) Polluter pays principle can be done through legislation
b) Adoption of agricultural laws and acts such as:
• Land acts
• Forest acts
• Soil and water conservation acts
• Water abstraction acts etc

3.5 CONSERVATION OF AGRICULTURE RELATED ECOSYSTEMS

3.5.1 WETLANDS
Are lands that are transitional between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They are usually covered
by shallow water and have characteristics soils and water tolerate vegetation.

3.5.1.1 FORM OF WETLANDS (INLAND)

i. Fresh water wetland may be marshes in which grass like plants dominate
ii. Swamps in which woody plants/trees/shrubs) dominates.
iii. Hardwood bottom land forests -lowlands along streams and rivers that are periodically flooded
iv. Prairie potholes – small shallow ponds that formed when glacial ice melted at the end of the last
ice age.
v. Peat moss bog – peat accumulating wetlands where mosses dominate.

NB

Wetlands are not wastelands and should be protected by the law to avoid their draining or dumping.

Page 36 of 92
 3.5.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS
i. Wetlands plants which are highly productive provide enough foods to support a wide variety of
organism. Wetlands are valued as wildlife habitat for migratory water fowl and many other bird
species and game fish.
ii. Wetlands help in controlling flooding by acting as holding areas for excess water when rivers
flood their banks. The flood waters stored in wetlands then drains slowly back into the river
providing a steady flow of water throughout the years. Wetlands also serve as ground water
recharging areas one of their most important roles is to help cleanse and purify water run off,
even water that is polluted. They do this by acting as a sink, a reservoir of trapping and holding
pollutant in the flooded soil. Other pollutants such as nitrogen from fertilizers run off are absorbed
by wetland plants.
iii. Fresh water wetlands produce many commercially importance products including wild rice, black
berries, blue berries and peat moss. They are also sites for fishing, hunting, bonding, photography
and nature study.

3.5.1.3 THEATS TO WETLANDS

i. Wetlands are increasingly threatened by agriculture, pollution, engineering (dams and
urbanization). Most of the loss has been the result of farmers converting wetlands to crop lands
urban and sub urban developments dredging (to remove mud, stones etc from bottom of canals,
river etc to make it deeper) and mining account for most of the remainder of the loss.
ii. Policy making on wetlands is confused by the major factors namely; of confusion and dissent
about the definition of wetland. (not spelt out in many acts)

The question of who owns wetlands.

NB wetlands are a breeding place for mosquitoes thus viewed as a menace to public health but
advantages of wetlands outweighs the disadvantages.

Page 37 of 92
COASTLINES ESTUARIES

• Estuaries are coastal bodies of water that connect to oceans. They include tidal marshes and tidal
rivers.
• In estuaries fresh water from the land mixes with salty water from the oceans, resulting in high
productivity many ocean fish and shell fish spend all or portions of their lives in estuaries
supported by the many producers which range from microscopic algae to seaweeds and marsh
grasses.
• Coastal estuaries provide food and protective habitat, could be considered the oceans nurseries
because so many different marine organisms spend the first parts of their life there.
• Historically coastal wetlands are also called salt water wetlands and have been regarded only
good for breeding large population of mosquitoes.
• Coastal wetlands throughout the world have been drained, filled in, or dredged out to turn them
into productive structures such as industrial parks of marines.
• Coastal wetlands should be protected by the law for their preservation.

3.5.2 MANGROVE SWAMPS

• Densely vegetated wetland at the shorelines of the tropics.
• Mangroves are certain trees and shrubs that require salty water and grow best in the intertidal
zone where they are alternately submerged to their trunks at high tides and exposed to their roots
at low tides.
• They help to build soil along the shorelines by holding sediments in place. In some places as the
soil accumulates other plants invades the area and the mangroves continues their slow expansion
into ocean.
• Mangrove roots provide habitat for oysters fiddler crabs and other marine organisms and
mangrove branches provide nesting sites for many shorebirds.
• Mangrove swamps are often destroyed to provide firewood and space for coastal development
and agricultural land.

Assignments

Read and make notes on coral reefs and rain forests.

Page 38 of 92
3.4 Sample questions

Q1. Outline ten human activities that have led to environmental degradation in Kenya (10marks)
@Knec June/July 2009.
Q2. Explain any five measures which can be undertaken to protect environmental Resources
(10marks) @knec June/July 2009.
Q3. Describe three categories of natural resources (6marks) @ knec June/July 2009.
Q4. Describe any four effects of resource use on the environment (16marks) knec June/July 2008.
Q5.a) Explain the meaning of agro forestry (2marks).
b) Outline any:
i. Six benefits of agro forestry (12marks).
ii. Three disadvantages of agro forestry in Kenya (6marks) Knec June /july2010
Q6. Discuss the strategies used in conservation and management of wetlands (20marks) knec
Oct/nov.2010.
Q7. Outline the socio-economic factors that influence the rate of environmental degradation through
soil erosion (20marks). @knec June/July 2007
Q8.a) Explain any four roles of public participation in water resources planning (4marks)
b) Describe any four constituents of an ecological system (8marks) @knec June/july2007
Q9.a) State eight benefits of agro forestry as far as environmental protection is concerned (8marks),
b) The Kenya government had introduced a” shamba” system in the Commercial Forest reserves
in an attempt to solve the problems of landless People. Explain six negative impacts of this
system on the environment (12marks) @knecoct/nov2005.
Q10. Discuss the following with respect to their impacts on the environment:
i. the practices of high –input farming
ii. use of river water for irrigation 10marks

Page 39 of 92
4 SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT
4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.
By the end of this topic, the trainees should be able to:
a) Describe the composition of solid and liquid wastes
b) Outline the risks of waste mismanagement
c) Describe the storage systems for waste collection and transportation
d) Describe methods of handling different types of wastes.

4.2 INTRODUCTION
Pollution
• The process of introducing substances in the environment that will altar the biological balance of
that particular environment.
• The introduction by man of waste matter or surplus energy into environment . such an introduction
directly or indirectly causes damage to him and his environment his household and those in direct
relationship to that environment. Examples of such damage include:
✓ human health
✓ natural environment
✓ aesthetic quality
✓ insidous/long term damage

Waste
• Super flow materials with little or no worth value that result from a production process. Waste
becomes a pollutant when added in excess to an environment.
• Any gaseous solid or liquid materials discarded into the environment because it has no further
apparent use for the owner, industrial process or manufacturers.

Pollutant
• Any substance when added in quantities above certain levels deteriorates or lowers the quality of
the environment to which it is added e.g. if milk is added in excess in a waterway it can deteriorate
the quality of water. Thus the substance is not necessary originally harmful.
• Materials or substances discarded into the environment and which causes damage to man and his
environment e.g.so2, co, sewage etc.

Page 40 of 92
Contaminant
• Is any situation that is harmful or toxic to the environment to which it is added.

Environmental Conservations
Is the exploitation of natural resources in a manner that is sustainable and maintaining equilibrium of
biotic components consisting of living matter and abiotic component consisting of non living organic
and inorganic matter such as gases, water, minerals etc

Generation of Waste

Depending on where wastes are deposited, we have water, air and land pollution.

Page 41 of 92
4.3 WATER POLLUTION
Some major threats to ground & surface water.

THREATS SOURCES EFFECTS TO HEALTH AND ECOSYSTEM

Pesticides Run offs from farms, -Organochlorines linked to reproductive damage
and backyards, golf course and to wildlife.
fungicides land fills. -organophosphates and carbonates linked to
nervous systems damage and cancers.
nitrates Fertilizers runoffs, manure -Causes algae blooms, and eutrophication in
from livestock, septic surface waters.
system. -Linked to digestive tract cancers
-Restrict amount of oxygen reaching brain which
can cause death in infants(blue baby syndrome)
Petro- Underground petroleum Benzene and other petro-chemicals can be cancer
chemical storage tanks. causing even at low exposure
Chlorinated Effluents from Linked to reproductive disorders and some
solvents metals&plastics, degreasing, cancers
fabric cleaning, electronics
and aircraft manufacture.
Arsenic Naturally occurring, -Nervous system and liver damage,
chemicals possibly exacerbated by over
pumping aquifers and by -skin cancer
phosphorous fertilizers
Other heavy Mining wastes, land fills, -Nervous system and kidney damage
metals hazardous wastes
-Metabolic disruption.
fluorides Naturally occurring -Dental problems
-Crippling spinal and bone damage
salts Sea waters intrusions -Fresh water unusable for drinking or irrigation

De-icing salts for roads

Nb: to minimize pollution from chemical substances into the water bodies, we need to use
biodegradable pesticides e.g. organophosphates made from pyrethrum. They are unstable and
therefore do not persist in the environment

There is also need to use biological control of pests as it does not lead to environmental pollution.

There should be wise and careful use of synthetic fertilizers coupled with the use of organic manures.

Page 42 of 92
4.4 ATMOSPHERIC (AIR) POLLUTION
Main sources are:

1) Combinations of fossil fuels in commercial and industrial premises

2) Exhaust emissions from transport vehicles that use petrol, diesel or paraffin

3) Waste gases and dusts from such sources as chemical manufacturing, iron and steel
works, cement and brick works, quarries and electrical power generating plants

ITEM POLLUTANT EFFECTS

i) Heat due to high concentration of Causes an increase in temperatures near the ground due to
co2 green house effects of co2
ii) aerosols -have insidious effects
-lowers visibility and cause discomfort when breathing.
iii) Carbon monoxide formed from -causes suffocation because when combined with blood
incomplete combustion of fossil haemoglobin it forms carboxy-haemogrobin which deprives
fuels the body oxygen supply.
iv) Nitrogen oxides due to reactions -combines with rain waters to form acidic precipitation i.e.
between atmospheric oxygen and rain with a ph value of less than 5.6ph.
nitrogen in vehicle exhaust -acid rains destroys plants, corrodes buildings, kills fish
&manufacturing processes. -when breathed through vapours it forms nitric acid in the
lungs
v) Suphur oxide (so2) from petrol - Major cause of acidic rain
and diesel combustion - Causes respiratory diseases
- Causes coughing and shortness of breath
vi) Chlorofluorocarbons (cfcs) used - Break down of ozone layer and therefore more harmful as
as propellants in aerosol sprays ultra violet rays pass through causing both body and
and foaming agents genetic effects.
vii) Hydrogen sulphide - Causes acidic rain precipitations
viii) Lead oxide due to combustion of - Damages human liver, kidney and central nervous system.
lead which as an anti -knock - Damages reproductive systems
agent in fuels - Brings mental retardation.

NB:

Some natural processes like volcanicity and geothermal emissions also produce oxides of sulphur,
hydrogen sulphides carbon dioxide, volcanic and oxides of nitrogen whose effects are as discussed.

To minimize the amount of atmospheric pollution we need to recycle the pollutants and also ensure
that they meet international standards.

Page 43 of 92
4.5 COMPOSITION OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Any material that is thrown away or discarded as useless and unwanted is considered as a waste.
Solid waste is synonymous with the word refuse. These wastes are classified as follows:

i. Agricultural wastes
Are wastes and residues resulting from diverse agricultural activities these include:
• farm residues (crop and field materials)
• Waste from food processing e.g. milk and slaughter house liquids and solids e.g. slurry and
manure.
• Dead livestock
• Used products and packaging materials
• Agricultural chemical products and residues e.g. residues from pesticides, herbicides.
• Nursery and green house waste
• Old machinery and equipments.
ii. Domestic and residential waste
Wastes generated from household activities including

• Garbage -solid wastes/food fruit/vegetables residues

• Sewage – solids and waste waters from sinks, showers and toilets
• Combustible and non combustible solid waste.
iii. Municipal wastes
Waste generated from commercial activities with exception of mining and industrial wastes. It
includes:

• Residential and domestic wastes

• Commercial wastes from town centers e.g. hotels, market stores.
• Institutional wastes e.g. schools, universities colleges.
• Commercial shops
• Sludge waste from treatment plants
• Run off waters
• Sewage wastes

Page 44 of 92
 iv. Industrial wastes
Waste generated from factories it includes:

• Construction works and demolition waste

• Workshop wastes
• Laboratory and scientific research wastes
• Chemical plants
• Detergents and laundry
• Photographic development

NB these wastes are more hazardous to living organisms

v. Mines and Quarry wastes

Waste generated from stone quarrying and mineral mining sites. It includes

• soils
• rocks
• minerals
vi. Hazardous wastes
These are waste generated from factories and manufacturing processes that can result in serious
illness, injury or even death of organism.

vii. Open areas waste

Are wastes generated from open grounds such as parks, vacant lands playgrounds and beaches. They
include:

• Combustible materials e.g. papers, cardboard, leather, cloth etc

• Non-combustible – aluminum cans, tin cans, glass etc.
• Street sweepings, roadside litter
• Tree leaves
• Materials remaining from burning of wood coal and other combustible waste (ashes and
residues)

Page 45 of 92
 4.6 RISKS OF WASTE MISMANAGEMENT
Summary/key points

• Unpleasant smell and odours

• Public nuisance a bad scene to look at, brings house fries
• Diminishes landscape aesthetics -loses natural beauty
• Clogs drains and sewers
• Public health impacts e.g. outbreaks of diseases causing germs i.e. bacteria, fungi, viruses.
• Contamination of soil, ground and surface water and air. Diminishes landscape aesthetics
loses natural beauty.

When waste is improperly managed i.e. it is disposed using wrong methods, it finds it way to the
environment where its impacts negatively to the components of the ecosystem i.e. biotic and abiotic
factors. It poses great risks to the environment in the following ways:

i. Agricultural wastes and residential wastes if left unattended normally forms baits to attract micro-
organisms. The micro – organism’s breakdown the organic molecule to gain energy and building
materials for their bodies during this process there are some odourly gases such as hydrogen
sulphide (H2s) that are released. The gases normally add a characteristic smell to the
environment causing public unrest.
ii. Heaping of waste e.g. demolition and construction wastes, special waste, rubbish etc on any
landscape normally changes the perception of that particular landscape resulting to not only a
• Bad view but also a reduced space for any economic and social function
• Original flora and fauna of that landscape usually are subjected to various strains such as
physical pressure, reduced oxygen, increased temperatures and reduced light leading to their
diminishing
• Radio active, explosive hazardous wastes can be a source of fire that would consume the flora
and fauna of a landscape changing it outlook.
• Increased deposition of the soil from a surface run off normally burry deep the original flora
of a landscape. In water bodies the flora is not only buried but also eutrophication is
caused leading to displacement of flora and fauna that requires sufficient oxygen for their
metabolic roles

Page 46 of 92
 • There is also increased turbidity denying green water plants sunlight
iii. Some waste such as rubbish in water ways normally reduces the rate of flow of the water
through clogging the water ways. This would cause flooding up streams and lack of water down
streams. Floods creates anaerobic conditions for the flora and fauna through submergence and
posse’s great risk of drowning to animals.
Properties are destroyed by flood too. Water shortages down stream leads to a moisture stress to
the flora and soil fauna impairing physiological roles. This can check their number or destroy them
completely.
Larger animals normally find it hard to cope with the water shortage e.g. crocodiles hippo, large
type of fish.
iv. Pathogenic microbes would perpetuate their roles if not checked especially when they find their
way into susceptible hosts. Some of the pathogens that can be found in unmanaged wastes and
disease they transmit are:
• Disease – pathogen
• Typhoid – salmonella typose
• Paratyphoid fever – salmonella paratyphoid
• Dysentery - shigella dysentriae
• Amoebic dysentery – entamoeba histolytica
• Polioniyelitis – polio virus
v. Mismanaged special waste such as:
• Dead animals can spread highly contagious diseases such as anthrax that are airborne and
can be spread through contacts.
• Mismanaged clinical waste pose a great risk to any animal coming into contact with the
infected tissues and used equipments
• Radioactive elements normally interfere with the nervous system of the human being and
other animals.
• Rubbish acts as breeding zone for some parasitic organisms such as Mosquitoes – malaria,
Tsetse fly – trypanosomiasis
• Gases emitted by wastes e.g. those of industrial source can cause not only nausea but chronic
changes in the physiological roles of an organism.

Page 47 of 92
4.7 STORAGE OF WASTE MATERIALS
Knowledge of the sources and types of solid wastes along with the data on the composition and rate
of generation is basic to the design and operation of the functional elements associated with the
management of solid wastes. Solid waste management systems include:
• Waste generations
• Collection of wastes
• Segregation of waste
• Disposal of waste.

Requirement of waste storage facility

• Should be as far as possible from residential places
• Should be animal proof -no scavenging
• Should be insect proof (covered)
• Should be water proof -no water entry
• Should be washable (easy to clean)

Factors affecting design of waste storage facilities

• Rate of waste generation
• The family size
• Frequency of collection

Waste storage facilities are classified into two:

✓ primary storage facilities (individual)
✓ secondary storage facilities (communal)

Primary storage facilities

Includes cartons, bucket, plastic bags, bins and they vary in size.

Secondary storage facilities

Can be stationery or portable they can be uncovered masonry or galvanized bins and covered. The
portable bins are used with automatic lifting devices fetching to waste collection vehicles e.g. 2

Page 48 of 92
 meters cubed waste containers which is used in conjunction with dumped base container waste
vehicles.

4.8 WASTE COLLECTION

Waste collection is classified into four:

i). Communal collection

The house holder discharges the waste into a predetermined location containing communal storage
facilities. Refuse collection vehicles visits the sites at frequent intervals i.e. once daily to remove the
accumulated waste.

ii). Block collection

Collection vehicles travel at predetermined route at pre described interval usually 2-3 days and stop
at specified locations where a bell is rung and the waste is emptied into the waste vehicle and they
return their containers.

iii). Kerbside collection

Collection crew collects bins and bucket deposited at, kerbsides and empties them into collection
vehicle. Collection interval is about 2 days/week it requires a regular and well organized collection
service so that the residents know when to pile or leave their waste in kerbsides.

iv). Door to door collection

The collecting groups enters each premise take waste in container and empty it into waste collecting
vehicles and return it to the premise e.g. wastes from areas of business.

4.9 WASTE TRANSPORTATION

1. Human powered carts
2. Animal drawn carts
3. Motorized vehicles e.g.
a) tractor driven trailer
b) conventional trucks
c) tip - loading trucks
d) Skip vehicles – a vehicle containing a waste carrying container.

Page 49 of 92
Basic considerations when selecting waste collection vehicle.

i). consider the purpose of vehicle i.e. not for carrying other things/people
ii). type of waste to be transported considered by weight
iii). The area to be served road size conditions etc.
iv). Budget available for vehicle purchase i.e. cost
v). Availability of mechanics – skilled labours
vi). Dumping site – condition verses the height of vehicle
vii). Time taken in loading and unloading the trucks.

4.10 WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

The following are methods of handling waste
a) Open dumping
b) Sanitary land fill
c) composting
d) Incineration
e) Recycling waste materials
f) Management of hazardous waste
a) Open Dumps
The wastes are heaped up. There are various disadvantages associated with this method including:
• They form unsanitary places in which disease carrying vermin such as rats and flies proliferate
• They release methane gas into surrounding air
• The burnt material create fires that pollute air with acid smoke
• Liquids that ooze and seeps through the garbage ultimately find it way into the soil surface
water and ground water.
• Hazardous materials that are dissolved in liquid often contaminate soil and water.
b) Sanitary land fills
The wastes are placed in a whole trench or pits, compacted and covered with a thin layer of soil.
This system has the following advantages over the open dump.
i. Prevent flies, emergency rats and other vermin’s usually associated with garbage.
ii. Lessens the danger of fires
iii. Decreases the amount of odours

Page 50 of 92
 iv. Enables anaerobic decomposition to take place thus killing pathogens
v. Minimizes ground water pollution by carefully selecting disposal site i.e. from a water
source
vi. Restores the site to the original or better condition i.e. after 2-3 years solid waste volumes
shrink by 25- 30% and land can be used for parks roads and also putting small buildings

Factors that determine choice of land fill site

i). Availability of land for disposal
ii). Access to the site (road condition)
iii). Final use of the field e.g. constructions, agriculture etc.
iv). Geology of the area – drainage and hydrology of area. Clay soils are good while leached soils
are unsuitable
v). Distance to bodies of water and wetlands to avoid seepage
vi). Away from centre of dense population to avoid being offensive i.e. public concern
Advantages of sanitary land fill
i). Simple and economical
ii). Segregation/sorting of waste not required
iii). Land fill areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes.
Disadvantages of sanitary land fill
i). Bad smell /odours if landfills are not properly dealt with.
ii). There is uneven settlement of the land
iii). There can be leaching of waste water and chemicals into the adjoining areas leading to soil
and water pollution
iv). There is poor surface water disposal that can also get contaminated
v). They are not a long-term remedy since they fill up with time and new landfills need to be
opened up.
vi). Plastics and polyethene’s pose a great risk since they are non-biodegradable.
c) Composting
Is the process where organic and solid wastes are converted to soil conditioners such as compost
or mulch? They can then be used in public parks and play grounds for landscaping or as part of

Page 51 of 92
 the daily soil cover of sanitary landfills or can be sold to gardeners as manure. The following
parameters are required for micro-organisms to turn the wastes to compost.
i). Removal of non-degradable matter
ii). Seeding with partially decomposed matter
iii). Moisture content is between 30-50% moisture content below 20% slows composting while
moisture content above 60% inhibits oxygen content hence slow composting.
iv). Temperatures- optimum composting temperature range is between 50-60 temperatures
above 60 0C kills pathogens responsible for composting while at lower temperatures
composting slows down.
v). Oxygen content optimum should be between 15 – 20%
vi). PH concentration of acid & alkaline the optimum PH range is between 6-8.
vii). Carbon nitrate ratios C2: N2 – 30:1 activity of microorganisms is higher in legumes than
in carbohydrates materials
viii). Time- the longer the time of decomposition the higher the quality of manure. In a period
of 3-4 months manure is ready for use.
ix). In aerobic composting frequent turning helps in rapid decomposition of organic matter.

Benefits of composting
i). Improves soil physical conditions e.g. structure, colour, texture etc.
ii). Increase organic matter content in the soil
iii). Improves soil permeability/infiltration/drainage
iv). Soil retains a higher moisture content
v). Reduces soil erosion
vi). Soil becomes easy to till
vii). Provides plant nutrients depending on type of wastes e.g. nitrogen, manganese etc.
d) Incineration (burning)
• This is a chemical oxidation set higher temperature where organic materials are converted to
energy.
• Burning of combustible refuse is the safest process of disposal and quite affective when garbage
content is 50-60% of the total refuses.

Page 52 of 92
 • The incinerators can be allocated in different parts of the town or big farms to reduce the cost of
transportation of refuse.
• Sometimes incinerators need addition fuel or proper air supply to maintain high temperature in
burning place. Hospital wastes may be safety disposal by the process of incineration.

Advantages of incinerations
i). The volume of solid wastes is reduced by up to 90% and ash that remains is much more compact.
ii). Incineration produces heat that if properly channelled can produce steam to warm buildings or
generate electricity

Disadvantages of incinerations
i). Some materials have to be sorted out before incineration e.g. glass do not burn. food materials
reduces efficiency of burning
ii). Burnt material have the potential to produce toxic compounds which might be emitted in
atmosphere e.g. Dioxinsone very toxic carbon monoxides,
iii). Incinerators produce large quantities of ash that must be disposal off properly.

Types of incinerators
i). Mass burn incinerators – large furnaces that burn as solid waste except for unburnable items
ii). Molecular incinerators – smaller incinerators that burn all solid wastes. They are assembled at
local factories and are less expensive to build.
iii). Refuse driven fuel incinerators – only the combustible portion of solid waste is burnt.
e) Recycling waste material
• In re-cycling the materials may be changed from one use to another e.g. a book to a
newspaper.
• In re use the container is cleaned and used once more to package the product e.g. soda bottles
• Using the waste e.g. malts and kitchen wastes to feed animals
• Volume reduction through chemical reactions e.g. animal waste in productions of bio-gas
f) Hazardous waste management

Page 53 of 92
HAZARDOUS WASTE
• The hazardous wastes can result in serious illness injury or even death of the animals and
population exposed to them; they can also pose an immediate and significant effect to
environmental quality when improperly stored transported or disposal off.
• Hazardous wastes differ from other wastes in form as well as behaviour. They are often are
generated as liquids, but they can occur as solids, sludge or gases. The wastes are often contained
and confined in metal drums or cylinders. There are hundreds of incidents on record in which
illegal or inadequate handling and disposal of such hazardous wastes caused harm to the public
and the environment.

Management
1. Eliminate or reduce waste quantities at their source by modifying industrial processes and other
techniques.
2. Reclaim and recycle the waste using it as a resource for some other industrial or manufacturing
process
3. Stabilize the waste rendering it non hazardous by using appropriate chemical, biological or
physical processes.
4. Incinerate the waste at temperatures high enough to destroy or detoxify it.
5. Apply modern land disposal method, preferably after providing some form of containerization
or appropriate treatment.

Hazardous waste – is a substance or by-product of some process or activity

Hazardous material – is new or unused

Nonspecific source waste commonly generated by industrial process include materials such as
degreasing solvents, dioxin wastes and other very dangerous materials that come from a wide variety
of manufacturing plants, source specific wastes on the other hand come from identifiable industries
such as petroleum refining or wood-preserving facilities and include wastewaters, sludge and other
residues, commercial chemical products include discarded acids chloroform creosote and pesticides
such as DDT.

Page 54 of 92
The four primary characteristics of hazardous waste/materials are based on
• the physical or chemical properties of toxicity
• reactivity
• ignitability and
• corrosively

Two additional types of hazardous materials include waste products that are either infectious or
radioactive.

Characteristics of hazardous wastes

1. Reactive wastes are unstable and tend to react vigorously with air, water or other substances. The
reactions cause explosions or form very harmful vapours and fumes. Ignitable wastes are those
that burn at relatively low temperature (less than 60c)and are capable of spontaneous combustion
(i.e. they present an immediate fire hazardous)during storage ,transport ,or disposal.

Many waste oils and solvent are ignitable corrosive wastes, including strong alkaline or living
tissues chemical reaction.

The PH value is used as an indicator of these characteristics typically liquids with PH less than 2
or greater than 12.5 are considered to be corrosive.

Such wastes rust or corrode unprotected steel at a rate more than 6mm per year at a temperature
of about 55c.

2. Infections or medical wastes includes human tissue from surgery used bangles and hypodermic
needles, microbiological material and other substances generated by hospitals and biological
research centre. This type of material must be handled and disposed of property to avoid infection
and spread of communicable disease.
3. Radioactive waste, particularly high – level radioactive waste from nuclear power plants is also
of special concern as a hazardous waste excessive exposure to ionizing radiation can harm living
organisms.

Page 55 of 92
 Radioactive material may persist in the environment for thousands of years before it decays
appreciably. Because of the scope and technical complexity of this problem radioactive waste
disposal is always considered separately from other forms of hazardous waste.

Recyclable waste e.g. lead acid battery

Only about 10% of hazardous waste is normally disposed of in an environmentally sound manner
much of it get disposed of in unlined landfills, waste pipes or lagoons and poses a potential threat
to public health and environment quality.

Hazardous waste treatment methods

Some types of hazardous waste can be detoxified or made less dangerous by

• Physical
• Chemical
• Biological treatment methods

Treatment of hazardous waste may be costly but it can serve to prepare the material for recycling or
ultimate disposal in a manner that is safer than disposal without treatment. It can also reduce the
volume needing final disposal.

1. Physical treatment
Physical treatment processes
• Physical treatment can be used to concentrate, solidify or minimize the volume of hazardous
waste material.
• Solidification can be accomplished by encapsulating the waste in concrete asphalt, or plastic.
This produces a solid mass of material that is resistant to leaching. Hazardous wastes can
also be solidified by mixing them with lime, fly ash, and water to form solid cement like
product. This involves the melting and fusion of the materials at high temperature.
• The simplest physical process that can concentrate and reduce waste water volume is
evaporation which may be facilitated by using mechanical sprayers.
• Other physical processes utilized to separate hazardous waste from a liquid include
✓ sedimentation
✓ floatation and
✓ filtration

Page 56 of 92
 Two examples of physical processes used to remove specific hazardous components from a
liquid waste include activated carbon absorption and air/gas stripping. Hazardous substances can
be adsorbed onto a porous granular or powdered carbon matrix used or spent carbon is
regenerated or activated for reuse.

Air/gas stripping in cascade or counter current towers has been used to remove volatile organics
from waste water and contaminated ground water.

Storage tanks and impoundments

• Proper storage of hazardous waste is very essential and should be a must because of the
potential for serious harm to public health and environmental damage in the event of an
accidental discharge.
• Many generators of hazardous waste store the material on site for varying periods of time
relatively large quantities may be stored in above ground basins or lagoons above ground
basins may be constructed of steel or concrete but they are subject to corrosion or cracking
and are not suitable for storing reactive or ignitable waste.
• Corrosive material is stored in fiberglass or glass lined containers to reduce deterioration and
leakage.
• Toxic chemical liquids may be stored in metal drums.
• Containers or drums of hazardous waste must be labelled properly before transport to a
proceeding or disposal facility. The label must identify the contents as an explosive,
flammable, corrosive or toxic material.
• Appropriate signs or placards must be placed on the transport vehicle to warn the public of
potential danger and to assist emergency response workers if there is an accidental spill along
the transport route.
2. chemical treatment processes
• Chemical processes often used for treatment of hazardous waste include.
- incineration
- ion exchange neutralization and
- precipitation reduction

Page 57 of 92
• Incineration is thermal chemical processes that detoxify certain organic wastes and destroys
them as well.
• It is preferred by some people in the waste management industry over most other hazardous
waste treatment processes particularly because of the economic and public pressures to reduce
or eliminate land disposal.
• The burning of organic wastes at very high temperatures converts them to an ash residue and
gaseous emissions.
• Combustion detoxifies hazardous waste materials by altering its down into simpler chemical
substances. Although the ash itself may have to be treated as a hazardous waste (if so indicated
after a test) a much smaller volume of waste is left for ultimate disposal.
• Stack emissions from a properly designed and operated incinerator burning organics such as
chlorinated incinerator burning organics such as chlorinated hydrocarbons for example
include CO2 water nitrogen and H2CO3 (hydro carbonic acid) only the H2CO3 is hazardous
but it is readily reacted with lime to produce no hazardous salts which can be land filled.
• Not all hazardous wastes can be incinerated; heavy metals for example are not destroyed, but
enter the atmosphere in vapour from. However, incineration has been successfully applied to
potent hazardous wastes such as chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides PCB and many other
organic substances.
• Special types of thermal processing equipment such as the rotary kiln the fluidized bed
incinerator, the multiple hearth furnace and the liquid injection incinerator are available for
burning hazardous waste in either solid, sludge, or liquid form (for liquid is doubtful due to
technical difficulties)
• Hazardous waste incinerators must be licensed and must follow state environmental rules and
regulations. They generally must conduct a trial burn to determine the optimum operating
methods for incinerator. As much as 99.99% of organic waste constituents must be destroyed
or removed.
3. Biological treatment processes
Biological treatment involves the action of living micro organisms. The microbes utilize the
waste material as food and convert it, by natural metabolic processes into simpler substances, it
is most commonly used for stabilizing the organic waste in municipal sewage, but certain types
of hazardous industrial waste can also be treated biologically. It is necessary though to inoculate

Page 58 of 92
 the waste with bacteria that are readily acclimated to it and can use it for food. In some cases,
genetically engineered species of bacteria may be used.

Inoculate-to introduce into the body in order to induce immunity.

Acclimate-to adapt/become accustomed to new climate or environment.

4.11 SAMPLE QUETIONS

Q1. State any three:
i. benefits of composting organic matter
ii. sources of municipal waste 6marks knec June/July 2009
Q2. State four sources of municipal waste 4marks knec June/July 2008
Q3. Describe four methods of disposing waste materials 16marks knec June/July 2008
Q4. Outline four requirements of a waste storage facility 4marks knec June/July 2008
Q5. Describe any five causes of air pollution and their effects 10 marks @ Knec June/July 2010
Q5.a) Describe any two waste management systems under the following headings:
i. collection
ii. transport 8marks
b) Describe any three methods of handling farm waste 12marks @ Knec oct/nov.2010
Q6.a) Differentiate between organic and inorganic wastes (5marks).
b) Describe the stages of handling solid waste 15marks @knec oct/nov 2008
Q7. Outline any four factors to consider when locating a site for a waste disposal
facility. 4marks@knecjune/july2007
Q8.a) Describe the causes and effects of air pollution. 15marks
b) Outline the measures that can be taken to control air pollution 5marks @knec oct/nov2007
Q9.a) explain the sources and effects of water pollution 12marks
b) Describe any four measures taken to control water pollution 8marks @knec oct/nov2007
Q10.a) Differentiate between solid and liquid waste 5marks
b) Discuss advantages of the solid waste recycling for the environmental protection. 15marks
@knec June/july2006.
Q11.a) Explain any three methods of handling solid waste 6marks

Page 59 of 92
 b) Discuss the main environmental effects of agricultural waste mismanagement 4marks @knec
Oct/Nov2006.
Q12. Outline three economic impacts and three ecological impacts of recycling solid Waste 12marks
Q13. Outline five methods of managing hazardous wastes 10marks
Q14. Explain the possible effects of ineffective sewage treatment on portable water sources in
Kenya 10marks.

Page 60 of 92
5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (E.I.A)
5.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to;

a. explain the environmental impact assessments

b. outline participants in the E.I.A process
c. outline principles of E.I.A
d. describe the stages in project cycle and its relationship to E.I.A
e. outline resources needed for on E.I.A

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

KEY POINTS

• Definitions
• Usefulness/benefits

PARTICIPANTS IN E.I.A
• Developer and investor
• Competent authority
• Government authority
• Regular
• Regional planner
• Local community and politicians

PRINCIPLES USED IN MANAGING AN E.I.A.

• Focus main issues
• Involves appropriate people
• Link information to agricultural project decisions
• Present clear options for the mitigation of impacts and for sound environmental management
• Provide information in a form useful to the decision makers

Page 61 of 92
STAGES IN PROJECT CYCLE
• Project concept
• Pre- feasibility study
• Feasibility study
• Design and planning
• Implementation
• Monitoring and evaluation
• E.I.A and project cycle

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS

• Screening
• Preliminary organization
• Preliminary assessment
• Scoping
• Identification
• Prediction
• Evaluation
• Mitigation
• Documentation

RESOURCES NEEDED FOR E.I.A

• Quality multi – disciplinary staff

• Technical guidelines agreed with competent authority
• Information about environment
• Analytical capability
• Administrative resources
• Institutional arrangements
• Reviews
• Monitoring and enforcement powers
• Funds and time

Page 62 of 92
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT E.I.A
Definition -what is E.I.A.?
• Environmental impact assessment E.I.A is a critical examination of the effects of a project on
the environment. It identifies both negative and positive impacts of any development activity or
project, how it affects people, their property and the environment. E.I.A also identifies measures
to mitigate the negative impacts while maximizing on the positive ones.
• E.I.A- is an assessment of the possible positive or negative effects that a proposed project may
have on the environment together consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects.
• E.I.A- is the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social
and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to the major decisions being taken and
commitment made by international association for impact assessments (IAIA)
• E.I.A. -is a formal study process used to predict the environmental consequences of a proposed
major development project (UNEP 1988)
• E.I.A. is basically a preventive process. It seeks to minimize adverse impacts. If a proper E.I.A.
is carried out then the safety of the environment can be property managed at all stages of a project
planning.
• E.I.A. is a study that should be done before a proposed project to help Planners and decision
makers determine environmental consequences of project and to identify measures to minimize
consequences.
E.I.A. should answer the following questions
• What changes will the project cause on the environment
• Will the identified changes matter?
• What can be done about changes should they occur?
• How can decision makers be informed of what need to be done?
In response to the above questions E.I.A activities include identification of impacts called scoping
from the list of impacts the ones that need further investigation are selected. The selection is based
on the following criteria:
i). Magnitude of change that will be caused
ii). Geographical extent
iii). Significance
iv). Special sensitivity e.g. air pollution

Page 63 of 92
 v). Developing countries – congestion housing and solid waste disposal
vi). Sudan – sahelian is desertification
vii). Kenyan highlands is destruction of catchments areas
viii). Kenyan coastal – marine & cultural pollution.

5.3 USEFULNESS/ BENFITS /PURPOSE OF E.I.A

Why on E.I.A.?
The ultimate goal of E.I.A. is to ensure that decisions on proposed projects and activities are
environmentally sustainable. The E.I.A. is conducted with the following benefits as purposes:
i). Identity impacts of a project on the environment
ii). Predict likely changes on the environment as a result of the development
iii). Evaluate the impacts of various alternatives on the project
iv). Propose mitigation measures for the significance negative impacts of the project on the
environment
v). Generates baseline data for monitoring and evaluating impacts including mitigation measures
during the project cycle
vi). Highlight environmental issues with a view to guiding policy makers, planners, stakeholders
and government agencies to make environmentally and economically sustainable decisions

Reasons why EIA fails

1. EIA is supposed to be informative document but not a marketing tool.
2. It should not be used as a promotional tool. It is supposed to present an objective assessment
of environmental effects that a project may cause however many statements are used as a basis
for promotion.
3. Should not be too long. In most of the cases, long EIA’S keep on repeating a point and fails to
focus on key issues
4. Lack of public involvements- developers are reluctant in involving the public at the initial stages
of the process however the EIA and the designer of the project could be out of touch with the
local community concerned. If no attempts is made to involve those whose environment is likely
to be affected.
5. EIA should not be treated as a regulatory hurdle. EIA was created as an aid to project planning
and design however it’s often treated as a legal huddle that must be overcome in order to gain

Page 64 of 92
 planning permission rather than the process by which to reduce the environmental impacts of a
project.
6. `Inadequate project identification
It needs to be specific in the identification of what the project will entail. Clear identification of
the elements of the projects is required in order to identify the possible impacts and gain the
preliminary estimate and their possible extent.

Factors to consider for the success of an EIA

1. For smooth running of an EIA process, it’s necessary to involve local, regional, national and
international co operations in the environmental process.
2. The projects which are likely to have significant environmental effects should be subject to
consistent environmental assessment where thy are located.
3. The environmental assessment process must be recognized and all parties involved should adopt
a range of cooperating mechanism to facilitate harmonized environmental assessment. The
following factors should be considered:
i. Consultation-with other parties to determine the extent of scope of the environmental
assessment.
ii. Flexibility of the process-should change depending on other parties involved in EIA
process or use of a joint process in the information gathering mechanism.
iii. Administrative agreement-developing administrative agreements between parties to set
out principles for cooperation on both general projects and to include such topics as
project screening ,formation of membership panels, cost sharing arrangements ,having
procedures and participants assistance
iv. Communication-establish a clearly defined point of contacts between environmental
assessment offices to ensure that any administrative or procedure or difficulties can be
dealt with quickly and efficiently.
v. Scoping and timing-establish the scope of assessment to set a reasonable time frame for
the EIA process.
vi. Public participation-designing mechanisms for public participation to allow cooperative
environmental assessment.

Page 65 of 92
5.4 PROJECTS REQUIRING E.I.A
WHICH PROJECTS REQUIRE E.I.A.?

GENERAL
• Any activity out of character with it surrounding.
• Any structures of scale not in keeping with its surrounding
• Major changes in land use.

URBAN DEVELOPMENTS
• Designation of new townships
• Establishments of recreation areas
• Shopping centres and complexes.

TRANSPORTATION
• Major roads
• Railway lines
• Airports and airfield
• Oil and gas pipelines
• Water transport

DAMS, RIVER AND WATER RESOURCES

• Storage dams
• Floods control schemes
• Drilling for ground water resources and geothermal energy

AERIAL SPRAYING

MINING INCLUDING QUARRYING AND OPEN CAST EXTRACTION.

FORESTRY RELATED ACTIVITIES

• Timber harvesting
• Clearance of forest areas
• Reforestation and afforestation

Page 66 of 92
AGRICULTURE
• Large scale agriculture
• Use of pesticides
• Introduction of new crops and animals
• Use of fertilizers
• Irrigation

PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

• Mineral processing
• Cement works
• Oil refineries and chemical work
• Bulk grain processing
• Brewing and malting
• Manufacturing plants

ELECTRICAL INFRASTRUCTURES
• Electricity generation
• Electricity substations
• Electricity transmission lines

WASTE DISPOSAL
• Hazardous waste disposal
• Sewage disposal sites
• Solid waste disposal
• Works involving major atmospheric emissions
• Works emitting offensive odours

NATURAL CONSERVATION AREAS

• National parks, game reserves
• Modification of forests management
• Modification of water catchment management policies
• Commercial exploitation of natural flora and Fiona

Page 67 of 92
Nuclear reactors
Major developments in biotechnology including the introduction and testing of genetically
modified organisms
5.5 ISSUE CONSIDERED IN AN E.I.A.
ECOLOGICAL CONCIDERATIONS
a) Biological diversity
b) Sustainable use
c) Ecosystem maintenance

SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS
a) Economic impacts
b) Social cohesion or disruption
c) Effects in human health
d) Immigration or emigration
e) Communications -roads opened up, closed or rerouted
f) Effects on culture and cultural values

LANDSCAPE
a) Views opened up or closed
b) Visual impacts
c) Compatibility with surrounding area
d) Amenity opened up or closed e.g. recreation possibilities

LAND USE
a) Effects of proposal on current land use
b) Effects of proposal on surrounding area
c) Possibilities of multiple land use

WATER
a) Water sources/quantity, quality, rivers springs, lakes, underground and oceans
b) Drainage patterns/drainage systems

Page 68 of 92
5.6 PARTICIPANTS IN E.I.A
WHO ARE THE PARTICIPANTS IN E.I.A?

Introduction

1. The E.I.A. is administered by the national environment management authority (N E M A) which

is mandated by the environmental management and coordination act (e m c a) number 8 of 1999.
2. The entire E.I.A. process is paid by the proponents of the project and fee paid
3. To NEMA at a rate of 0.1% of the project cost
4. The public participates by either submitting written or making oral comments such comments are
considered in reviewing E.I.A. study report
5. The law requires that during the E.I.A. process a proponent shall in consultation with the authority
seek views of persons who may be affected by the project or activity through posters, newspapers
and radio, hold at least three public meetings with the affected parties and communities.

Generally, the participants in E.I.A. are:

a) The developer, investor, proposal
b) Government authority – local authority country council, municipal council city council.
c) Competent authority – environmental consultant/experts – person trained in E.I.A
d) A regulator – NEMA
e) Regional planner – district or provincial physical planner
f) Local community – public and politicians e.g. members of public living around the project
location/site, politicians such as councillors members of parliaments
1. Role of the Developer/Investor/Proponent
i). Take responsibility for preparing the case required for assessment of the proposal
ii). Consult the assessing authority and community as early as possible
iii). Incorporate environmental factors fully into proposal ,planning including proper
examinations for reasonable alternative
iv). Agree on proposal specific evaluation timetable and commit to using it
v). Take the opportunity offered by E.I.A process to improve the proposal environmentally
vi). Make commitment to avoid where possible or otherwise monitor and engage environmental
impacts and implement this commitments

Page 69 of 92
vii). Amend environmental management practices responsibly following positions and
disseminations of the environmental monitoring results.
2. Role of the government authority
i). Provide policy and planning framework which states the procedures for environmental
assessment for proposals
ii). Based decisions on the proposals having potential significant environmental impacts and
management of the environment
iii). Apply E.I.A process equally to proposals from both the public and private sector
iv). Provide for coordinated government decision making policy for which the outcome of EIA
can be directed
v). Ensure assessment reports are available to the public before and at the time of decision making
vi). Establish one national agreement to ensure a single orderly process is impressed where the
EIA responsibility of several governments are involved
vii). Provide opportunities for reasonable public and proponent’s objections environmental advice
is given to decision makers.
viii). Implement this national approach including where appropriate progressive amendments,
participatory provisions to increase consistency in the process.
ix). Maintain integrity of the EIA process
3. Role of the public
i). Participate in the evaluation of the proposals through offering advice, expressing opinions,
providing local knowledge, proposing alternatives and commenting on how the proposal
might be changed to better protect the environment
ii). They become involved in early stages of the process as the most effective and efficient time
to raise the concerns
iii). Take responsible approach to opportunities for public participation in the EIA process
iv). Become involved and informed in their administration and the outcomes of the environmental
impacts assessments process including assessment, reports, policy determinations approvals,
and setting conditions, monitoring and compliant audit activities, environmental advice and
reasons for acceptance or rejection by decision makers.

Page 70 of 92
 4. Role of the regulator

Role of NEMA in the EIA process

i). Provide clear guidance to the type of proposal likely to attract EIA and the level of assessment
ii). Provide proposals specific guidance or a procedure for the generation on key issues and in
cooperating public concern and a clear outline of the EIA process
iii). Provide guidance to all participants in the EIA process in the criteria for environmental
acceptability of potential impacts including such things as principles of ecological and
sustainable developments, maintenance of environmental health, relevant local and national
standards and guidance, code of practices and regulations.
iv). Negotiate with key participants to set up a assessment timetable on a proposal specific basis
and commit to using it
v). Seek and promote public participation through the period with techniques and mechanisms
tailored appropriately to specific proposals and specific public.
vi). Ensure that the total and accumulative effects of using and altering the community
environmental access receive explicit considerations.
vii). Ensure predicted environmental impacts are monitored and the results accessed by a nominated
responsible authority and feedback provided to improve community environmental
management of proposal
viii). Monitor properly the effectiveness and efficiency of the process plan from the past streamlined
requirements and help to maintain consistency.
ix). Ensure that educational opportunities inherent in the EIA process are actively pursued.

Formation of NEMA
The national environmental management authority NEMA is established under the environmental
management and coordination act emca number8 of1999 as the principle instrument of government
in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment.

Section 3 of emca1999 states that= every person in Kenya is entitled to a clean and healthy
environment and has the duty to safeguard and enhance the environment.

The act is intended to ensure that our activities do not compromise the capacity of the resource base
to meet the needs of the present generations as well as those of future generations

Page 71 of 92
Mandate of NEMA
The national environmental management authority NEMA is a government parastatal established to
exercise general supervision and coordination over all matters relating to the environment. The
authority is the principal instrument of government in the implementation of all policies relating to
the environment. Section 9(2) of EMCA details 17 statutory functions that NEMA shall undertake.

Core functions:
a) Coordinating the various environmental management activities being undertaken by the lead
agencies
b) Promote the integration of environmental considerations into development policies, plans,
programmes and projects, with a view to ensuring proper management and rational utilization of
environmental resources, on sustainable yield basis, for the improvement of the quality of human
life in Kenya.
c) To take stock of the natural resources in Kenya and their utilization and conservation.
d) To establish and review land use guidelines
e) Examine land use patterns to determine their impacts on the quality and quantity of natural
resources.
f) Carry out surveys, which will assist in the proper management and conservation of the
environment.
g) Advice the government on the legislative and other measures for the management of the
environment or the implementation of relevant international conventions, treaties and
agreements.
h) Advice the government on regional and international conventions, treaties and agreements to
which Kenya should be a party and follow up the implementation of such agreements.
i) Undertake and coordinate research, investigations and surveys, collect, collate and disseminate
information on the findings of such research, investigations or surveys.
j) Mobilize and monitor the use of financial and human resources for environmental management.
k) Identify projects and programmes for which environment audit or environmental monitoring must
be coordinated under this act. Initiate and evolve procedures and safeguards for the prevention of
accidents, which may cause environmental degradation and evolve remedial measures where
accidents occur. E.g. floods, landslides and oil spills.

Page 72 of 92
l) Monitor and assess activities, including activities being carried out by relevant lead agencies, in
order to ensure that the environment is not degraded by such activities. Management objectives
must be adhered to and adequate early warning on impending environmental emergencies is
given.
m) Undertake, in cooperation with relevant lead agencies, programmes intended to enhance
environmental education and public awareness, about the need for sound environmental
management, as well as for enlisting public support and encouraging the effort made by other
entities in that regards.
n) Publish and disseminate manual codes or guidelines relating to environmental management and
prevention or abatement of environmental degradation
o) Render advice and technical support, where possible, to entities engaged in natural resources
management and environmental protection, so as to enable them to carry out their responsibilities
satisfactorily.
p) Prepare and issue an annual report on the state of environment in Kenya and in this regard, may
direct any lead agency to prepare and submit to it a report on the state of the sector of the
environment under the administration of that lead agency.

5.7 PRINCIPLES USED IN MANAGING AN E.I.A. (GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF A

GOOD EIA PRACTICE)
i). Purposive
• E.A should meet its aims of informing decision making and ensuring an appropriate level of
environmental protection and human health.
• Link information to agricultural projects decisions
• It should in principle be applicable to a wide range of activities including urban developments,
agricultural, industrial development, transportation and energy generation, development and
operation of physical infrastructures, natural resources exploitation, treatments storage and
disposal of waste. Provide information in form useful to the decision makers
ii). Focused – E.A. should concentrate on significant environmental effects taking into account
the main issues that matters

Page 73 of 92
 iii). Participative (involve appropriate people)
E.I.A. should provide appropriate opportunity to inform and involve the interested and
affected publics and their inputs and concerns should be addressed explicitly.

iv). Practical – E.I.A. should identify measures for impact mitigation that works and can be
implemented i.e. present clear options for mitigations of impacts for sound environmental
management
v). Transparent- E.I.A. should be clear easily understood and open process with early
notification procedure access to documentation and public record of decisions taken and
reasons for them.
vi). Adaptive – E.I.A. should be adjusted to the realities, issue and circumstances of the proposals
under review.
vii). Rigorous – E.I.A. should apply the best practicable methodologies to address the impacts and
issues being investigated.
viii). Credible- E.I.A. should be carried out with professionalism, rigor, fairness, objectivity,
impartiality and balance.
ix). Efficient – E.I.A. should impose the minimum cost burden on proponents consistent with
meeting process requirement and objectives.

5.8 STAGES IN PROJECTS CYCLE

WHEN SHOULD AN EIA DONE?

INTRODUCTION
• E.I.A. is part of the project development process and is usually done at the initial stages of the
project development. It is a decision making tool and should guide whether a project should
be implemented, abandoned or modified prior to implementation.
• A proponent or investor shall not implement a project likely to have a negative environmental
impact or for which an E.I.A is required by the environmental management and coordination
act (EMCA) or regulations issued under it unless an E.I.A has been concluded and approved
in accordance with the law.
• No licensing authority under any law in force in Kenya shall issue a trading, commercial or
development permit or licence for any project for which an E.I.A. is required or for a

Page 74 of 92
 project/activity likely to have cumulative significant negative environmental impacts unless
the applicant produces an E.I.A. license issued by the authority.

Environmental impact assessment project cycle and project management

A diagram showing the project cycle

Concept/Identification

Pre-feasibility
Operation and
Maintenance

Feasibility

Evaluation Design and

Engineering
Plans

Appraisal and
Decision

Implementation of Projects

Page 75 of 92
5.8.1 THE RELEVANT E.I.A. ACTIVITIES FOR EACH STAGE IN THE PROJECT
CYCLE.
i). Project concept/identification
At this stage information on the detailed project designs will not be available but the basic nature of
project will be known e.g. type of project such as a highways, area of land in site etc.

At the initial stages of the project, quick environmental overview or preliminary E.I.A. can indicate
the environmental implications of any proposed alternatives. At this stage a project may be
subjected to screening to decide whether a full and comprehensive report must be prepared.

ii). Pre-feasibility stage

This stage identifies issues and impacts for investigations which is equivalent to scoping.

iii). Feasibility stage

E.A. study is carried out during this stage. Economic technical and design work should be included
of this stage. The phase involves actual collection of data for analysis.

iv). Project appraisal and decisions

A decision on whether a project is feasible or not will be made at this stage. Done to assess whether
the proposal is appropriate or sound (testing worthness and practicability of project) leads to approval
or rejection of projects.

v). Implementation of the project (constructions)

If the project is feasible, it will be implemented. E.I.A. report will be used as guidelines during this
phase e.g. E.I.A. report recommendations can form part of contract tender documents.

Management of E.I.A study

Conducting on E.I.A. report that can be understood by all the related stakeholders. These includes
• Project proponents
• Financial backers or supporters
• Exports authorizing or supporters
• Experts authorizing agencies
• Members of public

Page 76 of 92
This E.I.A. report unlike other project related reports has many audiences. This makes it to differ in
scope and breadth of the work as it usually includes a diversity of topics. This therefore is a challenge
of facilitating open communications and understanding of main issues.

vi). Evaluation stage

After the project is completed, an audit can be made to determine how close the E.I.A. predictions
were to the actual impacts of the project. This forms a valuable records for others conducting E.I.As
on similar projects in future.

vii). Operation and maintenance

The project is producing outputs that were in the project goal. An overview is carried to indicate
whether activities of the project have any disaster into the environment as the outputs are being
realized.

5.9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS

WHAT STEPS ARE INVOLED IN E.I.A?

(THE KEY ELEMENTS IN THE E.I.A PROCESS).

INTRODUCTION
The particular components stages and activities of E.I.A. processes will depend upon the
requirements of the country or donor. However, most E.I.A. processes have a common structure and
application of the main stages is a basic standard of good practice. Typically, these processes are
divided into:

▪ Preliminary assessment

Carried out in early stages of planning

▪ detailed assessment

Carried out during project planning until the project plan is completed and are reported formally as
on environmental statement

Page 77 of 92
 i). SCREENING
• This process is done to ensure time and resources are directed at the proposals that matter
environmentally and ends with some form of follow up on the implementations of the decisions
and actions taken as a result of an E.I.A. report
• It is used to decide whether an E.I.A. is required. If the project is likely to give rise to significant
environmental effects by virtue of factors of their nature size or location
• Screening should occur as early as possible in the development of the proposal so that the
proponent and participants are aware of E.I.A. obligations,

Screening methods

1. Category A
A full EIA is needed for projects that are likely to have significant adverse environmental impacts
that are serious i.e.
• Irreversible
• Affects ethnic minority
• Affects cultural heritage sites.
• Diverse or affects an area broader than the site subject to the physical works.

The following are some of the typical proposals that require full EIA:
• Dams and reservoirs
• Re/settlements and urban developments
• Infrastructure/transport and sanitations
• Industrial facilities
• Mineral extractions e.g. oil, coal gas.
• Waste management and disposal of hazardous and toxic materials
• Energy developments (power stations, transmission lines, pipelines)
2. Category B
• EIA is required but its scope corresponds to the limited environmental impacts of the project. The
impacts of category B projects are site specific in nature and do not significantly affects human
populations or alter environmentally important areas, including wetlands, native forests,
grasslands, and other major natural habitats.

Page 78 of 92
• In most cases mitigatory measures can be designed more readily than for category A projects.
• The following projects and components may have environmental impacts for which more limited
EIA is appropriate.
i). Agro-industries (small scale)
ii). Electrical transmissions
iii). Energy efficiency and energy conservation
iv). Irrigation and drainage (small scale)
v). Protected area and biodiversity conservation
vi). Rehabilitation or maintenance of highway or rural roads.
vii). Rehabilitation or modification of existing industrial facility (small scale)
viii). Renewable energy(other than hydro-electric)
ix). Rural electrification
x). Rural water supply and sanitation
xi). Tourism
xii). Watershed projects (management or rehabilitation)
3. Category C
• No EIA is required, the selection of the category should be based on the professional judgment
and information available at the time of the project identification
• In order for the project to be classified into category C, It must be considered likely to have no
adverse impacts at all or the impacts would be negligible. Examples:
i). Educational
ii). Family planning
iii). Health
iv). Institutional developments
v). Most human resources projects

Outcomes of screening

i). Full or comprehensive EIA required

ii). More limited EIA required
iii). Further study needed to determine EIA required
iv). No further requirements for EIA.

Page 79 of 92
 ii). SCOPING

WHAT IS SCOPING?
1. Scoping is a process used to identify the key issues of concern at an early stage in the planning
process. Scoping should be carried out at on early stage in order to aid site selection and identify
any possible alternative site or alternative techniques.
2. Sometimes this is not always the case some projects are site specific such as mining. The
extraction can only occur where the mineral is sited.
3. Under such conditions other measures such as scale mitigation measures and traffic management
are addressed.
4. The scoping process should involve all interested parties such as the proponents, planners,
environmental agencies and members of public. The results of scoping will determine the scope,
depth and terms of reference (tor) to be addressed within the environmental statement.
5. Why carry out scoping?
• To identify key issues and concerns of interested parties
• Identify people concerned
• Identify main concerns
• State why they areas of concern
• Identify the thresh hold of concern where change becomes un acceptable
6. Scoping involves:
a) Drawing up terms of reference (tor) for the study.

b) Gathering of baseline information through investigation/research and subsequent submission

of EIA study report to the authority.

c) Review of EIA study report by the authority and relevant lead agencies.

Based on the results of screening exercise, proponents and analysts should agree on significant
impacts for assessments

Scoping is a method of ensuring that an EIA focuses on important issues and avoids those that are
considered to be less significant. In so doing it is an opportunity to ensure that the EIA is a cost-
efficient process.

Page 80 of 92
Objectives of scoping

a) Inform the public about the proposal and possible alternative

b) Identify the main stakeholders and their concerns and values

c) Focus on important issues and significant impacts to be addressed by EIA

d) Define the boundaries for an EIA in time, space and subject matter.

e) Set requirements for the collections of baseline and other information

f) Establish the terms of reference for an EIA study.

Scoping should commence once there is enough information on the project, the proposed site and
potential alternatives to draw up an initial list of issues that will need to be addressed.

iii). IDENTIFICATION OF IMPACTS AND METHOD STATEMENT

Considerations should be given to impacts which may be positive or negative, cumulative short or
long term, permanent or temporary, direct or indirect. Logic used to identify key impacts for
investigation and for rejection of others should be clearly explained.

The impacts of the developments on human beings, flora and Fiona, soil water air, climate, landscape,
material assets cultural heritage or their interaction should be considered. The method statement
should also describe the relationships between the promoter the planning. Engineering and design
teams

Example
Positive impacts of dam project
• Provision of access to clean water
• Reduce distance of fetching water
• Reduce water speed hence reduce water erosion
• Reduce flooding in down stream areas
• Possibility of beak outbreak]
• Land may submerge

Page 81 of 92
Negative impacts
• Outbreak of water borne disease
• Less water down stream
• Water conflicts arise due to water competition
• Water reservoir will head to accumulation of moisture in air due to evapotranspiration and
frost formation.
• Possibility of bank outbreak
• Land may sub-merge.
iv). PREDICTION OF IMPACTS MAGNITUDE
1. The size of each impact should be determined as the predicted deviation from the baseline
conditions, during the construction phase and during normal operating conditions.
2. The information and data used to estimate the magnitude of the main impacts should be clearly
described and any gaps in the required data identified.
3. The methods used to predict impact magnitude should be described and should be appropriate to
the size and importance of the projected disturbance.
4. Predictions of baselines are necessary and may include:
• Where there is need to compare the impact of the project in the longer terms with the
environmental conditions that would assist in these same timeframes but without the proposed
development
• Where rapid natural environment changes will cause the baseline to significantly alter by the
time the proposal development would be implemented.
• When the project has a long lead in time e.g. construction may commerce in five years’ time.
• Where an existing activity is likely to cease prior to the proposal being implemented
• When other consented development will have been implemented before the proposal
• The proposal may rely on other changes taking place in order for it to proceed e.g.
construction of a new access road
• Where predictive techniques may be less time consuming and more economic than surveys
e.g. air quality and noise resulting from traffic.

Noise levels ecology of site and traffic levels are just some of the environmental factors that could
alter considerably in relatively short time scales depending on other influencing factors.

Page 82 of 92
v). EVALUATION
The following guidance should be followed for evaluating significance of impacts
• Identify the methods or criteria to be used to access significance early on in E.A.
• Establish agreement with stakeholders on methods and criteria to be used
• Initially assess the significance of the impacts as predicted in order to help prioritise the issues,
which require further mitigation
• Evaluate the significance of the impact with the effects of the mitigations measures taken into
account
• Where uncertainly is associated with a prediction or the effectiveness of the mitigation
measures the worst case impact should be evaluated.
vi). MITIGATION
• The purpose of mitigation is to find a way of achieving the primary objective of the project
in a manner that is less damaging to the environment. This is achieved through avoiding,
reducing or compensating for adverse impacts of the projects
• Mitigation is also an opportunity to enhance the benefits of the projects this may be in terms
of economic benefit to the location or in terms of environmental benefits

PRINCIPLES OF MITIGATION
• Give preference to avoiding and preventing adverse environmental impacts
• Consider feasible alternatives to the proposal and identify the best practicable environmental
option
• Identify customized measures to minimize such of the main impacts predicted
• Ensure they are appropriate environmentally sound and cost effective sound and cost effective
• Use compensation or remedial measures as the last resort.

Mitigation methods considered should include

• Modification of project
• Compensation
• Provision of alternative facility
• Pollution control

Page 83 of 92
vii). DOCUMENTATION/REPORTING
Environment impact statement (E.I.S) is the main communication tool for the findings of the E.I.A.
it is the most visible part of the process and one that visible part of the process and one that tends to
receive attention of the affected public and other potential objectors to a project

An E.I.S should be on objective document which sets out the environmental effects of the project and
the measures to be taken to mitigate them.

It contains essential information for

• The proponent to implement the proposal in an environmentally and socially responsible way.
• The responsible authority to make on informed decision on the proposal including the terms
and conditions that should be attached to an approval or authorization
• The public to understand the proposal and its likely impacts on people and the environment.

A successful E.I.A. report meets the following aims

i). Actionable – a document that can be applied by the proponent to achieve environmentally sound
planning and design
ii). Decision relevant – a document that organisms and present information necessary for project
authorization permitting and licensing
iii). User friendly – A document that communicates the technical issues to all parties in a clear and
comprehensible way.

CONTENTS OF AN E.I.S

All E.I.A. report typically include the following headings and items

• Executive summary
• Statement of the need for and objectives of the proposal
• Reference to the applicable legislative regulatory and policy frameworks
• Description of the proposal and how it will be implemented (construction)
• Operation and decommissioning
• Description of baseline conditions and trends (biophysical, socio – economic etc) identifying any
changes anticipated prior to project implementation

Page 84 of 92
 • Review of the public consultation process the views and concerns expressed by stakeholders and
the way these have been taken into account
• Consideration of the main impacts positive and adverse that are identified as likely to result from
proposal their predicted characteristic e.g. magnitude occurrence timing etc. and proposal
mitigation measures.
• Evaluation of the significance of the residual impact preferably for each alternative with an
identification of the best practicable environmental option
• Environmental management plan that identifies how proposal mitigation and monitoring
measures will be translated into specific actions as part of impact management.
• Appendices containing supporting technical information description of methods used to collect
and analyze data list of references etc.
viii). REVIEWING
To examine the adequately of E.I.A. report to set if it meets the terms of reference and provide the
information necessary for decision making

ix). DECISION MAKING

To approve or reject the proposal and to set the terms and conditions under which it can proceed. The
decision makers also have the option to defer (pend) approval till certain conditions are met or to
require a proponent to redesign the project so that the environmental effects are minimized.

x). FOLLOW UP
Comprises of monitoring, managing and auditing. To check on the implementation of the terms and
condition of approval during the constructions and operation phases.

To monitor the impacts of the project and the effectiveness of the mitigation measures.

Public involvements
To involve the public about the proposal so as to gain inputs of those directly affected or intervene
in the proposal, public involvement in some form may occur throughout the E.I.A. process although
it tends to be focused in scoping and review phases of E.I.A.

Page 85 of 92
The information from the process contributes to effectiveness of future E.I.A. typically the E.I.A.
process begins with screening to ensure that time and resources are directed at proposals that matters
environmentally and action taken as a result of an E.I.A. report.

GENERALIZED EIA PROCESS CHART

Page 86 of 92
EIA PROCESS CHART CONTINUED

Page 87 of 92
5.10 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING
What is an environmental audit?
Is a methodical examination of the environmental; information about an organization, a facility or a
site to verify whether or to what extent they conform to specified audit criteria/environmental
registration. The criteria may be based on local, national or international environmental standards,
national laws and regulations, permits and concessions, internal management systems specifications,
corporate standards or guidelines of organizations such as the World Bank.

The reasons for undertaking an audit and the aims to be achieved will determine the audit criteria.

Environmental audits can be useful to assess the implementation of a project against requirements
derived from an environmental impact assessment

Audits may also serve as a source of baseline information for an environmental assessment study
whenever o relationship or expansion is planned at an industrial facility.

The environmental audit primarily uses existing documentation of the company being audited,
interviews with the managers and personal and observation of practices at the facility

Spot checks in the form of tests and samples are often included in the audit assignment to variety that
a company is in compliance and that the information provided by the company is correct.

Types of environmental audits

Environmental audits are often classified according to who request them. Audits can be internal e.g.
an in house evaluation of the adequacy of controls to ensure regulatory compliance. Audits can also
be external e.g. audits done by a customers to check environmental quality or audit conducted for a
lender to assess the environmental risks of an investments.

If an external audit is done by an independent entity, it is sometimes called a third party audit.

i). COMPLIANCE AUDIT

The compliance audit is the type of audit that most directly assesses compliance against criteria
derived from laws and regulations, applicable standards, permits and concessions or guidelines from
organizations such as the World Bank.

Page 88 of 92
The compliance audit will seek assurance that the company is carrying out all activities which affects
the compliance issue under controlled conditions,

If compliance is documented and implemented the greater the level of assurances that the company
not only meets but will contains to meet applicable requirements.

Example.
When evaluating the discharges from a sewage treatment plant, the auditor should check the
concentrations of key pollutants are correctly measured and analysed, that the procedures for
sampling and treatments of samples are adequately described and adhered to, that’s results are
reported in a log, and that appropriate personnel know what corrective actions to implement

ii). LIABILITY AUDIT

Involves investigations to identify actual or potential site contamination. It is also
called environmental site assessments. It is done in phases depending on the scope of investigation.

PHASE 1
Used for investigation that involves collection of information from interviews by studying available
historical information and by performing visual inspection of the site.

PHASE II
Is used for investigation that involves detailed physical sampling and testing of contaminants in
laboratories

The findings to be reported in phase 11 audit should either state that

• No contamination is suspected
• Contamination is suspected or likely
• Contamination is observed

This approach can limit the need for drilling, sampling and analysis to those sites where it is necessary
thereby reducing cost. If contamination is identified through this process the question of remediation
and clean up will be directed by a number of factors such as legistration, future land use, risk of
contaminant spreading and possible impacts on human health and the environment

Page 89 of 92
The remediation activities are sometimes termed the phase 3 of the process

The environmental audit involves reviews of independent experts assessing whether companies
operated in line with the demands of the environmental legist ration.

Companies decide to undertake environmental audits in order to obtain an independent external

assessment whether the management has created efficient environmental attitude.

The most important results of the environmental audits are recommendations on how a company can
be reducing the damaging impacts on the environment in an efficient and cost benefit manner and
how it can in the long run save funds by using environmental friendly technology.

5.10 RESOURCES NEEDED FOR E.I.A.

• Quality multi disciplinary staff
• Technical guidelines agreed with component authority
• Information about environment
• Analytical capability
• Administrational arrangements
• Review
• Monitoring and enforcement powers
• Funds and time.

5.11 SAMPLE QUETIONS

Q1. Explain the importance of environmental impact assessment in Kenya 14marks @ knec June/July
2009

Q2. Describe the stages of a project cycle. 14marks @knec June/July 2009

Q3. Describe the following stages of a project cycle:

i). Project identification

ii). Design and planning
iii). Appraisal
iv). Implementation
v). Monitoring and evaluation 20marks @knec June/July 2008

Page 90 of 92
Q4.a) i. define the term environmental audit 2marks

ii. Explain the purpose of environmental audit 2marks

b) Explain the principles of environmental auditing 8marks

c) Describe the two types of environmental auditing 8marks

Knec @June/July 2010

Q5. Describe the processes of environmental impact assessment (E.I.A) Knec @June/July 2010

Q6.a) Explain five benefits of environmental impacts assessments (E.I.A) 10marks.

b) Outline five elements of environmental impact assessment (E.I.A) 10marks Knec oct/nov
2010.
Q7. Describe the steps followed when conducting an environmental impact assessment
(E.I.A). 20marks @knec oct/nov2008.
Q8.a) Outline any three challenges in using participatory approach in
environmental management 3marks.
b) Describe the main characteristics of participatory rural appraisal as a tool of identifying and
investigating environmental problems17marks@knecoct/nov2008

Q9.a) Outline any seven roles of the Kenya national environmental management Authority
(NEMA) 7marks

b) Explain any five environmental considerations for ensuring safe water supply 10marks

c) Outline any three factors considered in a project formulation for water Resource
planning. 3marks @knec June/july2007.

Q10.a) outline four factors that must be considered when conducting an environmental Impacts
assessment (E.I.A) 4marks

d) Describe the procedure for carrying out an environmental impact assessment (E.I.A) 16marks
@knec oct/nov2007

Q11 a).outline the participants in an environmental impacts assessment (E.I.A) 10marks

b) Outline five principles of conducting an environmental impacts assessment (E.I.A) 10marks

Page 91 of 92
Reference books

1. Principles of environmental science and engineering by S. Chand

2. Environmental impacts assessment EIA manual by Mr. Cyrus M. Kilonzi
3. Department of environmental science Egerton university-njoro@2011
4. Environmental science By United Nations @2003
5. Environmental management and coordination (EMCA) @1999
6. Kenya national examinations council past papers (Agricultural Engineering 111& Environmental
management)
7. Environmental health international conference manual. @2009 Abu Dhabi.
8. DAILY NATION Tuesday January 31, 2012

Page 92 of 92