Python tutorial 1m

Python Tutorial
Python is a simple, easy to learn, powerful, high level and object-oriented programming
language.
Python is an interpreted scripting language also. Guido Van Rossum is known as the founder of
python programming.
Python Introduction
Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high level and interpreted programming language. It
supports Object Oriented programming approach to develop applications. It is simple and easy to
learn and provides lots of high-level data structures.
Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language which makes it attractive
for Application Development.
Python's syntax and dynamic typing with its interpreted nature, makes it an ideal language for
scripting and rapid application development.
Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object oriented, imperative and
functional or procedural programming styles.
Python is not intended to work on special area such as web programming. That is why it is
known as multipurpose because it can be used with web, enterprise, 3D CAD etc.
We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed so we can
write a=10 to assign an integer value in an integer variable.
Python makes the development and debugging fast because there is no compilation step included
in python development and edit-test-debug cycle is very fast.
Python Features
Python provides lots of features that are listed below.
1) Easy to Learn and Use
Python is easy to learn and use. It is developer-friendly and high level programming language.
2) Expressive Language
Python language is more expressive means that it is more understandable and readable.
3) Interpreted Language
Python is an interpreted language i.e. interpreter executes the code line by line at a time. This
makes debugging easy and thus suitable for beginners.
4) Cross-platform Language
Python can run equally on different platforms such as Windows, Linux, Unix and Macintosh etc.
So, we can say that Python is a portable language.
5) Free and Open Source
Python language is freely available at offical web address.The source-code is also available.
Therefore it is open source.
6) Object-Oriented Language
Python supports object oriented language and concepts of classes and objects come into
existence.
7) Extensible
It implies that other languages such as C/C++ can be used to compile the code and thus it can be
used further in our python code.
8) Large Standard Library
Python has a large and broad library and prvides rich set of module and functions for rapid
application development.
9) GUI Programming Support
Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.
10) Integrated
It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, JAVA etc.
Python History
• Python laid its foundation in the late 1980s.
• The implementation of Python was started in the December 1989 by Guido Van Rossum at CWI
in Netherland.
• In February 1991, van Rossum published the code (labeled version 0.9.0) to alt.sources.
• In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features like: lambda, map, filter, and reduce.
• Python 2.0 added new features like: list comprehensions, garbage collection system.
• On December 3, 2008, Python 3.0 (also called "Py3K") was released. It was designed to rectify
fundamental flaw of the language.
• ABC programming language is said to be the predecessor of Python language which was capable
of Exception Handling and interfacing with Amoeba Operating System.
• Python is influenced by following programming languages:
o ABC language.
o Modula-3
Python Version
Python programming language is being updated regularly with new features and supports. There
are lots of updations in python versions, started from 1994 to current release.
A list of python versions with its released date is given below.
Python Version Released Date
Python 1.0 January 1994
Python 1.5 December 31, 1997
Python 1.6 September 5, 2000
Python 2.0 October 16, 2000
Python 2.1 April 17, 2001

Python 2.3 July 29, 2003
Python 2.4 November 30, 2004
Python 2.6 October 1, 2008
Python 2.7 July 3, 2010
Python 3.1 June 27, 2009
Python 3.2 February 20, 2011
Python 3.4 March 16, 2014
Python 3.6.4 December 19, 2017
Python Applications Area

Python is known for its general purpose nature that makes it applicable in almost each domain of
software development. Python as a whole can be used in any sphere of development.
Here, we are specifing applications areas where python can be applied.
1) Web Applications
We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries to handle internet protocols
such as HTML and XML, JSON, Email processing, request, beautifulSoup, Feedparser etc. It
also provides Frameworks such as Django, Pyramid, Flask etc to design and delelop web based
applications. Some important developments are: PythonWikiEngines, Pocoo,
PythonBlogSoftware etc.
2) Desktop GUI Applications
Python provides Tk GUI library to develop user interface in python based application. Some
other useful toolkits wxWidgets, Kivy, pyqt that are useable on several platforms. The Kivy is
popular for writing multitouch applications.
3) Software Development
Python is helpful for software development process. It works as a support language and can be
used for build control and management, testing etc.
4) Scientific and Numeric
Python is popular and widely used in scientific and numeric computing. Some useful library and
package are SciPy, Pandas, IPython etc. SciPy is group of packages of engineering, science and
mathematics.
5) Business Applications
Python is used to build Bussiness applications like ERP and e-commerce systems. Tryton is a
high level application platform.
6) Console Based Application
We can use Python to develop console based applications. For example: IPython.
7) Audio or Video based Applications
Python is awesome to perform multiple tasks and can be used to develop multimedia
applications. Some of real applications are: TimPlayer, cplay etc.
8) 3D CAD Applications
To create CAD application Fandango is a real application which provides full features of CAD.
9) Enterprise Applications
Python can be used to create applications which can be used within an Enterprise or an Organization.
Some real time applications are: OpenErp, Tryton, Picalo etc.
10) Applications for Images
Using Python several applications can be developed for image. Applications developed are:
VPython, Gogh, imgSeek etc.
There are several such applications which can be developed using Python
HOW TO INSTALL PYTHON
To start with Python, first make sure that the Python is installed on local computer.
To install Python, visit the official site and download Python from the download section.
To install Python on Ubuntu operating system, visit our installation section where we have
provided detailed installation process.
For Windows operating system, the installation process is given below.
1. To install Python, firstly download the Python distribution from www.python.org/download.
2. After downloading the Python distribution, double click on the downloaded software to
execute it. Follow the following installtion steps.
Click the Finish button and Python will be installed on your system.
SETTING PATH IN PYTHON

Before starting working with Python, a specific path is to set.
• Your Python program and executable code can reside in any directory of your system,
therefore Operating System provides a specific search path that index the directories
Operating System should search for executable code.
• The Path is set in the Environment Variable of My Computer properties:
• To set path follow the steps:
Right click on My Computer ->Properties ->Advanced System setting ->Environment Variable -

>New
In Variable name write path and in Variable value copy path up to C://Python(i.e., path where
Python is installed). Click Ok ->Ok.
Path will be set for executing Python programs.
1. Right click on My Computer and click on properties.
2. Click on Advanced System settings
3. Click on Environment Variable tab.

4. Click on new tab of user variables.
5. Write path in variable name

6. Copy the path of Python folder
7. Paste path of Python in variable value.
8. Click on Ok button:
9. Click on Ok button:
Python Example
Python is easy to learn and code and can be execute with python interpreter. We can also use
Python interactive shell to test python code immediately.
A simple hello world example is given below. Write below code in a file and save with .py
extension. Python source file has .py extension.
hello.py
1. print("hello world by python!")
Execute this example by using following command.
1. Python3 hello.py
After executing, it produces the following output to the screen.
Output
hello world by python!

Python Example using Interactive Shell
Python interactive shell is used to test the code immediately and does not require to write and
save code in file.
Python code is simple and easy to run. Here is a simple Python code that will print "Welcome to
Python".
A simple python example is given below.
1. >>> a="Welcome To Python"

2. >>> print a
3. Welcome To Python
4. >>>
Explanation:
• Here we are using IDLE to write the Python code. Detail explanation to run code is given in
Execute Python section.
• A variable is defined named "a" which holds "Welcome To Python".
• "print" statement is used to print the content. Therefore "print a" statement will print the
content of the variable. Therefore, the output "Welcome To Python" is produced.
Python 3.4 Example
In python 3.4 version, you need to add parenthesis () in a string code to print it.
1. >>> a=("Welcome To Python Example")

2. >>> print a
3. Welcome To Python Example
4. >>>
How to execute python

To execute Python code, we can use any approach that are given below.
1) Interactive Mode
Python provides Interactive Shell to execute code immediatly and produce output instantly. To
get into this shell, write python in the command prompt and start working with Python.
Press Enter key and the Command Prompt will appear like:
Now we can execute our Python commands.
Eg:
2) Script Mode
Using Script Mode, we can write our Python code in a separate file of any editor in our
Operating System.
Save it by .py extension.

Now open Command prompt and execute it by :
NOTE: Path in the command prompt should be location of saved file.where you have saved your
file. In the above case file should be saved at desktop.
3) Using IDE (Integrated Development Environment)
We can execute our Python code using a Graphical User Interface (GUI).
All you need to do is:
Click on Start button -> All Programs -> Python -> IDLE(Python GUI)
We can use both Interactive as well as Script mode in IDE.
1) Using Interactive mode:
Execute our Python code on the Python prompt and it will display result simultaneously.
2) Using Script Mode:
i) Click on Start button -> All Programs -> Python -> IDLE(Python GUI)
ii) Python Shell will be opened. Now click on File -> New Window.
A new Editor will be opened. Write our Python code here.

Click on file -> save as
Run code by clicking on Run in the Menu bar.

Run -> Run Module
Result will be displayed on a new Python shell as:
Python Variables
Variable is a name which is used to refer memory location. Variable also known as identifier and
used to hold value.
In Python, we don't need to specify the type of variable because Python is a type infer language
and smart enough to get variable type.
Variable names can be a group of both letters and digits, but they have to begin with a letter or
an underscore.
It is recomended to use lowercase letters for variable name. Rahul and rahul both are two
different variables.
Note - Variable name should not be a keyword.
Declaring Variable and Assigning Values

Python does not bound us to declare variable before using in the application. It allows us to
create variable at required time.
We don't need to declare explicitly variable in Python. When we assign any value to the variable
that variable is declared automatically.
The equal (=) operator is used to assign value to a variable.
Eg:
Output:
1. >>>
2. 10
3. ravi
4. 20000.67
5. >>>
Multiple Assignment
Python allows us to assign a value to multiple variables in a single statement which is also
known as multiple assignment.
We can apply multiple assignments in two ways either by assigning a single value to multiple
variables or assigning multiple values to multiple variables. Lets see given examples.
1. Assigning single value to multiple variables
Eg:
1. x=y=z=50
2. print iple
3. print y
4. print z
Output:
1. >>>
2. 50
3. 50
4. 50
5. >>>
2.Assigning multiple values to multiple variables:
Eg:
1. a,b,c=5,10,15
2. print a
3. print b
4. print c
Output:
1. >>>
2. 5
3. 10
4. 15
5. >>>
The values will be assigned in the order in which variables appears.
Basic Fundamentals:
This section contains the basic fundamentals of Python like :
i)Tokens and their types.
ii) Comments
a)Tokens:
• Tokens can be defined as a punctuator mark, reserved words and each individual word in
a statement.
• Token is the smallest unit inside the given program.
There are following tokens in Python:
• Keywords.
• Identifiers.
• Literals.
• Operators.
Tuples:
• Tuple is another form of collection where different type of data can be stored.
• It is similar to list where data is separated by commas. Only the difference is that list uses
square bracket and tuple uses parenthesis.
• Tuples are enclosed in parenthesis and cannot be changed.
Eg:
1. >>> tuple=('rahul',100,60.4,'deepak')
2. >>> tuple1=('sanjay',10)
3. >>> tuple
4. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak')
5. >>> tuple[2:]
6. (60.4, 'deepak')
7. >>> tuple1[0]
8. 'sanjay'
9. >>> tuple+tuple1
10. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak', 'sanjay', 10)
11. >>>
Dictionary:
• Dictionary is a collection which works on a key-value pair.

• It works like an associated array where no two keys can be same.
• Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({}) and values can be retrieved by square
bracket([]).
Eg:
1. >>> dictionary={'name':'charlie','id':100,'dept':'it'}
2. >>> dictionary
3. {'dept': 'it', 'name': 'charlie', 'id': 100}
4. >>> dictionary.keys()
5. ['dept', 'name', 'id']
6. >>> dictionary.values()
7. ['it', 'charlie', 100]
8. >>>
Python Keywords
Python Keywords are special reserved words which convey a special meaning to the
compiler/interpreter. Each keyword have a special meaning and a specific operation. These
keywords can't be used as variable. Following is the List of Python Keywords.
True False None and as
asset def class continue break
else finally elif del except
global for if from import
raise try or return pass
nonlocal in not is lambda
Identifiers
Identifiers are the names given to the fundamental building blocks in a program.
These can be variables ,class ,object ,functions , lists , dictionaries etc.
There are certain rules defined for naming i.e., Identifiers.
I. An identifier is a long sequence of characters and numbers.
II.No special character except underscore ( _ ) can be used as an identifier.
III.Keyword should not be used as an identifier name.
IV.Python is case sensitive. So using case is significant.
V.First character of an identifier can be character, underscore ( _ ) but not digit.
Python Literals
Literals can be defined as a data that is given in a variable or constant.
Python support the following literals:
I. String literals:
String literals can be formed by enclosing a text in the quotes. We can use both single as well as
double quotes for a String.
Eg:
"Aman" , '12345'
Types of Strings:
There are two types of Strings supported in Python:
a).Single line String- Strings that are terminated within a single line are known as Single line
Strings.
Eg:
1. >>> text1='hello'
b).Multi line String- A piece of text that is spread along multiple lines is known as Multiple line
String.
There are two ways to create Multiline Strings:

1). Adding black slash at the end of each line.
Eg:
1. >>> text1='hello\
2. user'
3. >>> text1
4. 'hellouser'
5. >>>
2).Using triple quotation marks:-
Eg:
1. >>> str2='''''welcome
2. to
3. SSSIT'''
4. >>> print str2
5. welcome
6. to
7. SSSIT
8. >>>
II.Numeric literals:
Numeric Literals are immutable. Numeric literals can belong to following four different
numerical types.
Int(signed float(floating
Long(long integers) Complex(complex)
integers) point)
Numbers( can be Integers of unlimited
Real numbers with In the form of a+bj where a
both positive and size followed by
both integer and forms the real part and b forms
negative) with no lowercase or
fractional part eg: - the imaginary part of complex
fractional part.eg: uppercase L eg:
26.2 number. eg: 3.14j
100 87032845L
III. Boolean literals:
A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.
IV. Special literals.
Python contains one special literal i.e., None.
None is used to specify to that field that is not created. It is also used for end of lists in Python.
Eg:
1. >>> val1=10
2. >>> val2=None
3. >>> val1
4. 10
5. >>> val2
6. >>> print val2
7. None
8. >>>
V.Literal Collections.
Collections such as tuples, lists and Dictionary are used in Python.
List:
• List contain items of different data types. Lists are mutable i.e., modifiable.
• The values stored in List are separated by commas(,) and enclosed within a square
brackets([]). We can store different type of data in a List.
• Value stored in a List can be retrieved using the slice operator([] and [:]).
• The plus sign (+) is the list concatenation and asterisk(*) is the repetition operator.
Eg:
1. >>> list=['aman',678,20.4,'saurav']
2. >>> list1=[456,'rahul']
3. >>> list
4. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav']
5. >>> list[1:3]
6. [678, 20.4]
7. >>> list+list1
8. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav', 456, 'rahul']
9. >>> list1*2
10. [456, 'rahul', 456, 'rahul']
11. >>>
Python Operators
Operators are particular symbols that are used to perform operations on operands. It returns
result that can be used in application.
Example
1. 4 + 5 = 9
Here 4 and 5 are Operands and (+) , (=) signs are the operators. This expression produces the
output 9.
Types of Operators
Python supports the following operators
1. Arithmetic Operators.
2. Relational Operators.
3. Assignment Operators.
4. Logical Operators.
5. Membership Operators.
6. Identity Operators.
7. Bitwise Operators.
Arithmetic Operators
The following table contains the arithmetic operators that are used to perform arithmetic
operations.
Operators Description
// Perform Floor division(gives integer value after division)
+ To perform addition
- To perform subtraction
* To perform multiplication
/ To perform division
% To return remainder after division(Modulus)
** Perform exponent(raise to power)
Example
1. >>> 10+20
2. 30
3. >>> 20-10
4. 10
5. >>> 10*2
6. 20
7. >>> 10/2
8. 5
9. >>> 10%3
10. 1
11. >>> 2**3
12. 8
13. >>> 10//3
14. 3
15. >>>
Relational Operators
The following table contains the relational operators that are used to check relations.
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to
<> Not equal to(similar to !=)
eg:
1. >>> 10<20
2. True
3. >>> 10>20
4. False
5. >>> 10<=10
6. True
7. >>> 20>=15
8. True
9. >>> 5==6
10. False
11. >>> 5!=6
12. True
13. >>> 10<>2
14. True
15. >>>
Assignment Operators
The following table contains the assignment operators that are used to assign values to the
variables.
= Assignment
/= Divide and Assign
+= Add and assign
-= Subtract and Assign
*= Multiply and assign
%= Modulus and assign
**= Exponent and assign
//= Floor division and assign
Example
1. >>> c=10
2. >>> c
3. 10
4. >>> c+=5
5. >>> c
6. 15
7. >>> c-=5
8. >>> c
9. 10
10. >>> c*=2
11. >>> c
12. 20
13. >>> c/=2
14. >>> c
15. 10
16. >>> c%=3
17. >>> c
18. 1
19. >>> c=5
20. >>> c**=2
21. >>> c
22. 25
23. >>> c//=2
24. >>> c
25. 12
26. >>>
Logical Operators
The following table contains the arithmetic operators that are used to perform arithmetic
operations.
and Logical AND(When both conditions are true output will be true)
or Logical OR (If any one condition is true output will be true)
not Logical NOT(Compliment the condition i.e., reverse)
Example
1. a=5>4 and 3>2

2. print a
3. b=5>4 or 3<2
4. print b
5. c=not(5>4)
6. print c
Output:
1. >>>
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. >>>
Membership Operators
The following table contains the membership operators.
in Returns true if a variable is in sequence of another variable, else false.
not in Returns true if a variable is not in sequence of another variable, else false.
Example
1. a=10
2. b=20
3. list=[10,20,30,40,50];
4. if (a in list):
5. print "a is in given list"
6. else:
7. print "a is not in given list"
8. if(b not in list):
9. print "b is not given in list"
10. else:
11. print "b is given in list"
Output:
1. >>>
2. a is in given list
3. b is given in list
4. >>>
Identity Operators
The following table contains the identity operators.
is Returns true if identity of two operands are same, else false
is not Returns true if identity of two operands are not same, else false.
Example
1. a=20
2. b=20
3. if( a is b):
4. print a,b have same identity
5. else:
6. print a, b are different
7. b=10
8. if( a is not b):
9. print a,b have different identity
10. else:
11. print a,b have same identity
Output
1. >>>
2. a,b have same identity
3. a,b have different identity
4. >>>
Python Comments
Python supports two types of comments:
1) Single lined comment:
In case user wants to specify a single line comment, then comment must start with ?#?
Eg:
1. # This is single line comment.
2) Multi lined Comment:
Multi lined comment can be given inside triple quotes.
eg:
1. ''''' This
2. Is
3. Multipline comment'''
eg:
1. #single line comment

2. print "Hello Python"
3. '''''This is
4. multiline comment'''
Python If Statements
The Python if statement is a statement which is used to test specified condition. We can use if
statement to perform conditional operations in our Python application.
The if statement executes only when specified condition is true. We can pass any valid
expression into the if parentheses.
There are various types of if statements in Python.

• if statement
• if-else statement
• nested if statement
Python If Statement Syntax
1. if(condition):
2. statements
Python If statement flow chart
Python If Statement Example
1. a=10
2. if a==10:
3. print "Welcome to javatpoint"
Output:
Hello User
Python If Else Statements

The If statement is used to test specified condition and if the condition is true, if block executes,
otherwise else block executes.
The else statement executes when the if statement is false.
Python If Else Syntax
1. if(condition): False
2. statements
3. else: True
4. statements
Example-
1. year=2000
2. if year%4==0:
3. print "Year is Leap"
4. else:
5. print "Year is not Leap"
Output:
Year is Leap
Python Nested If Else Statement

In python, we can use nested If Else to check multiple conditions. Python provides elif keyword
to make nested If statement.
This statement is like executing a if statement inside a else statement.
Python Nested If Else Syntax
1. If statement:
2. Body
3. elif statement:
4. Body
5. else:
6. Body
Python Nested If Else Example
1. a=10
2. if a>=20:
3. print "Condition is True"
4. else:
5. if a>=15:
6. print "Checking second value"
7. else:
8. print "All Conditions are false"
Output:
All Conditions are false.
For Loop
Python for loop is used to iterate the elements of a collection in the order that they appear. This
collection can be a sequence(list or string).
Python For Loop Syntax
1. for <variable> in <sequence>:
Output:
1. 1
2. 7
3. 9
Explanation:
• Firstly, the first value will be assigned in the variable.

• Secondly all the statements in the body of the loop are executed with the same value.
• Thirdly, once step second is completed then variable is assigned the next value in the sequence
and step second is repeated.
• Finally, it continues till all the values in the sequence are assigned in the variable and processed.
Python For Loop Simple Example
1. num=2
2. for a in range (1,6):
3. print num * a
Output:
1. 2
2.
3. 4
4.
5. 6
6.
7. 8
8.
9. 10
Python Example to Find Sum of 10 Numbers
1. sum=0
2. for n in range(1,11):
3. sum+=n
4. print sum
Output:
1. 55
Python Nested For Loops
Loops defined within another Loop are called Nested Loops. Nested loops are used to iterate
matrix elements or to perform complex computation.
When an outer loop contains an inner loop in its body it is called Nested Looping.
Python Nested For Loop Syntax
1. for <expression>:
2. for <expression>:
3. Body
Python Nested For Loop Example
1. for i in range(1,6):
2. for j in range (1,i+1):
3. print i,
4. print
Output:
1. >>>
2. 1
3. 22
4. 333
5. 4444
6. 55555
7. >>>
Explanation:
For each value of Outer loop the whole inner loop is executed.
For each value of inner loop the Body is executed each time.
Python Nested Loop Example 2
1. for i in range (1,6):

2. for j in range (5,i-1,-1):
3. print "*",
4. print
Output:
1. >>>
2. *****
3. ****
4. ***
5. **
6. *
Python While Loop

In Python, while loop is used to execute number of statements or body till the specified condition
is true. Once the condition is false, the control will come out of the loop.
Python While Loop Syntax
1. while <expression>:
2. Body
Here, loop Body will execute till the expression passed is true. The Body may be a single
statement or multiple statement.
Python While Loop Example 1
1. a=10
2. while a>0:
3. print "Value of a is",a
4. a=a-2
print "Loop is Completed"
Output:
1. >>>
2. Value of a is 10
3. Value of a is 8
4. Value of a is 6
5. Value of a is 4
6. Value of a is 2
7. Loop is Completed
8. >>>
Explanation:
• Firstly, the value in the variable is initialized.

• Secondly, the condition/expression in the while is evaluated. Consequently if condition is
true, the control enters in the body and executes all the statements . If the
condition/expression passed results in false then the control exists the body and straight
away control goes to next instruction after body of while.
• Thirdly, in case condition was true having completed all the statements, the variable is
incremented or decremented. Having changed the value of variable step second is
followed. This process continues till the expression/condition becomes false.
• Finally Rest of code after body is executed.
Python While Loop Example 2
1. n=153
2. sum=0
3. while n>0:
4. r=n%10
5. sum+=r
6. n=n/10
7. print sum
Output:
1. >>>
2. 9
3. >>>
Python Break
Break statement is a jump statement which is used to transfer execution control. It breaks the
current execution and in case of inner loop, inner loop terminates immediately.
When break statement is applied the control points to the line following the body of the loop,
hence applying break statement makes the loop to terminate and controls goes to next line
pointing after loop body.
Python Break Example 1
1. for i in [1,2,3,4,5]:
2. if i==4:
3. print "Element found"
4. break
5. print i,
Output:
1. >>>
2. 1 2 3 Element found
3. >>>
Python Break Example 2
1. for letter in 'Python3':

2. if letter == 'o':
3. break
4. print (letter)
Output:
1. P
2. y
3. t
4. h
Python Continue Statement

Python Continue Statement is a jump statement which is used to skip execution of current
iteration. After skipping, loop continue with next iteration.
We can use continue statement with for as well as while loop in Python.
Python Continue Statement Example
1. a=0
2. while a<=5:
3. a=a+1
4. if a%2==0:
5. continue
6. print a
7. print "End of Loop"
Output:
1. >>>
2. 1
3. 3
4. 5
5. End of Loop
6. >>>
Python Continue Statement Flow chart

Python
Pass
In Python, pass keyword is used to execute nothing; it means, when we don't want to execute
code, the pass can be used to execute empty. It is same as the name refers to. It just makes the
control to pass by without executing any code. If we want to bypass any code pass statement can
be used.
Python Pass Syntax
1. pass
Python Pass Example
1. for i in [1,2,3,4,5]:
2. if i==3:
3. pass
4. print "Pass when value is",i
5. print i,
Output:
1. >>>
2. 1 2 Pass when value is 3
3. 345
4. >>>
PYTHON STRINGS
Python string is a built-in type text sequence. It is used to handle textual data in python. Python
Strings are immutable sequences of Unicode points. Creating Strings are simplest and easy to use
in Python.
We can simply create Python String by enclosing a text in single as well as double quotes.
Python treat both single and double quotes statements same.
Accessing Python Strings
• In Python, Strings are stored as individual characters in a contiguous memory location.

• The benefit of using String is that it can be accessed from both the directions (forward and
backward).
• Both forward as well as backward indexing are provided using Strings in Python.
o Forward indexing starts with 0,1,2,3,....
o Backward indexing starts with -1,-2,-3,-4,....
Example
1. str[0]='P'=str[-6] , str[1]='Y' = str[-5] , str[2] = 'T' = str[-4] , str[3] = 'H' = str[-3]

2. str[4] = 'O' = str[-2] , str[5] = 'N' = str[-1].
Python String Example
Here, we are creating a simple program to retrieve String in reverse as well as normal form.
1. name="Rajat"
2. length=len(name)
3. i=0
4. for n in range(-1,(-length-1),-1):
5. print name[i],"\t",name[n]
6. i+=1
Output:
>>>
R t
a a
j j
a a
t R
>>>
Python Strings Operators
To perform operation on string, Python provides basically 3 types of Operators that are given
below.
1. Basic Operators.
2. Membership Operators.
3. Relational Operators.
Python String Basic Operators
There are two types of basic operators in String "+" and "*".
String Concatenation Operator (+)
The concatenation operator (+) concatenates two Strings and creates a new String.
Python String Concatenation Example

>>> "ratan" + "jaiswal"
Output:
'ratanjaiswal'
>>>
Expression Output
'10' + '20' '1020'
"s" + "007" 's007'
'abcd123' + 'xyz4' 'abcd123xyz4'

NOTE: Both the operands passed for concatenation must be of same type, else it will show an
error.
Eg:
'abc' + 3
>>>
output:
Traceback (most recent call last):

File "", line 1, in
'abc' + 3
TypeError: cannot concatenate 'str' and 'int' objects
>>>
Python String Replication Operator (*)
Replication operator uses two parameters for operation, One is the integer value and the other
one is the String argument.
The Replication operator is used to repeat a string number of times. The string will be repeated
the number of times which is given by the integer value.
Python String Replication Example
1. >>> 5*"Vimal"
Output:
'VimalVimalVimalVimalVimal'
Expression Output
"soono"*2 'soonosoono'
3*'1' '111'
'$'*5 '$$$$$'
NOTE: We can use Replication operator in any way i.e., int * string or string * int. Both the
parameters passed cannot be of same type.
Python String Membership Operators
Membership Operators are already discussed in the Operators section. Let see with context of
String.
There are two types of Membership operators
1) in:"in" operator returns true if a character or the entire substring is present in the specified
string, otherwise false.
2) not in:"not in" operator returns true if a character or entire substring does not exist in the
specified string, otherwise false.
Python String membership operator Example
1. >>> str1="javatpoint"
2. >>> str2='sssit'
3. >>> str3="seomount"
4. >>> str4='java'
5. >>> st5="it"
6. >>> str6="seo"
7. >>> str4 in str1
8. True
9. >>> str5 in str2
10. >>> st5 in str2
11. True
12. >>> str6 in str3
13. True
14. >>> str4 not in str1
15. False
16. >>> str1 not in str4
17. True
Python Relational Operators
All the comparison (relational) operators i.e., (<,><=,>=,==,!=,<>) are also applicable for
strings. The Strings are compared based on the ASCII value or Unicode(i.e., dictionary Order).
Python Relational Operators Example
1. >>> "RAJAT"=="RAJAT"
2. True
3. >>> "afsha">='Afsha'
4. True
5. >>> "Z"<>"z"
6. True
Explanation:
The ASCII value of a is 97, b is 98, c is 99 and so on. The ASCII value of A is 65,B is 66,C is 67
and so on. The comparison between strings are done on the basis on ASCII value.
Python String Slice Notation
Python String slice can be defined as a substring which is the part of the string. Therefore further
substring can be obtained from a string.
There can be many forms to slice a string, as string can be accessed or indexed from both the
direction and hence string can also be sliced from both the directions.
Python String Slice Syntax
1. <string_name>[startIndex:endIndex],
2. <string_name>[:endIndex],
3. <string_name>[startIndex:]
Python String Slice Example 1
1. >>> str="Nikhil"
2. >>> str[0:6]
3. 'Nikhil'
4. >>> str[0:3]
5. 'Nik'
6. >>> str[2:5]
7. 'khi'
8. >>> str[:6]
9. 'Nikhil'
10. >>> str[3:]
11. 'hil'
Note: startIndex in String slice is inclusive whereas endIndex is exclusive.
String slice can also be used with Concatenation operator to get whole string.
Python String Slice Example 2
1. >>> str="Mahesh"
2. >>> str[:6]+str[6:]
3. 'Mahesh'
//here 6 is the length of the string.
Python String Functions and Methods
Python provides various predefined or built-in string functions. They are as follows:
capitalize() It capitalizes the first character of the String.

It Counts number of times substring occurs in a String between begin
count(string,begin,end)
and end index.
endswith(suffix It returns a Boolean value if the string terminates with given suffix
,begin=0,end=n) between begin and end.
find(substring ,beginIndex, It returns the index value of the string where substring is found between
endIndex) begin index and end index.
index(subsring, beginIndex, It throws an exception if string is not found and works same as find()
endIndex) method.
It returns True if characters in the string are alphanumeric i.e., alphabets

isalnum()
or numbers and there is at least 1 character. Otherwise it returns False.
It returns True when all the characters are alphabets and there is at least
isalpha()
one character, otherwise False.
It returns True if all the characters are digit and there is at least one
isdigit()
character, otherwise False.
It returns True if the characters of a string are in lower case, otherwise

islower()
False.
It returns False if characters of a string are in Upper case, otherwise

isupper()
False.
It returns True if the characters of a string are whitespace, otherwise

isspace()
false.
len(string) It returns the length of a string.
lower() It converts all the characters of a string to Lower case.
upper() It converts all the characters of a string to Upper Case.
startswith(str It returns a Boolean value if the string starts with given str between
,begin=0,end=n) begin and end.
swapcase() It inverts case of all characters in a string.
It removes all leading whitespace of a string and can also be used to

lstrip()
remove particular character from leading.
It removes all trailing whitespace of a string and can also be used to

rstrip()
remove particular character from trailing.
Python String capitalize() Method Example
This method capitalizes the first character of the String.
1. >>> 'abc'.capitalize()
Output:
'Abc'
Python String count(string) Method Example
This method counts number of times substring occurs in a String between begin and end index.
1. msg = "welcome to sssit";

2. substr1 = "o";
3. print msg.count(substr1, 4, 16)
4. substr2 = "t";
5. print msg.count(substr2)
Output:
>>>
2
2
>>>
Python String endswith(string) Method Example
This method returns a Boolean value if the string terminates with given suffix between begin and
end.
1. string1="Welcome to SSSIT";
2. substring1="SSSIT";
3. substring2="to";
4. substring3="of";
5. print string1.endswith(substring1);
6. print string1.endswith(substring2,2,16);
7. print string1.endswith(substring3,2,19);
8. print string1.endswith(substring3);
Output:
>>>
True
False
False
False
>>>
Python String find(string) Method Example
This method returns the index value of the string where substring is found between begin index
and end index.
1. str="Welcome to SSSIT";
2. substr1="come";
3. substr2="to";
4. print str.find(substr1);
5. print str.find(substr2);
6. print str.find(substr1,3,10);
7. print str.find(substr2,19);
Output:
>>>
3
8
3
-1
>>>
Python String index() Method Example
This method returns the index value of the string where substring is found between begin index
and end index.
1. str="Welcome to world of SSSIT";

2. substr1="come";
3. substr2="of";
4. print str.index(substr1);
5. print str.index(substr2);
6. print str.index(substr1,3,10);
7. print str.index(substr2,19);
Output:
>>>
3
17
3
File "C:/Python27/fin.py", line 7, in
print str.index(substr2,19);
ValueError: substring not found
>>>
Python String isalnum() Method Example
This method returns True if characters in the string are alphanumeric i.e., alphabets or numbers
and there is at least 1 character. Otherwise it returns False.
1. str="Welcome to sssit";
2. print str.isalnum();
3. str1="Python47";
4. print str1.isalnum();
Output:
>>>
False
True
>>>
Python String isalpha() Method Example
It returns True when all the characters are alphabets and there is at least one character, otherwise
False.
1. string1="HelloPython"; # Even space is not allowed

2. print string1.isalpha();
3. string2="This is Python2.7.4"
4. print string2.isalpha();
Output:
>>>
True
False
>>>
Python String isdigit() Method Example
This method returns True if all the characters are digit and there is at least one character,
otherwise False.
1. string1="HelloPython";
2. print string1.isdigit();
3. string2="98564738"
4. print string2.isdigit();
Output:
>>>
False
True
>>>
Python String islower() Method Example
This method returns True if the characters of a string are in lower case, otherwise False.
1. string1="Hello Python";
2. print string1.islower();
3. string2="welcome to "
4. print string2.islower();
Output:
>>>
False
True
>>>
Python String isupper() Method Example
This method returns False if characters of a string are in Upper case, otherwise False.
2. print string1.isupper();
3. string2="WELCOME TO"
4. print string2.isupper();
Output:
>>>
False
True
>>>
Python String isspace() Method Example
This method returns True if the characters of a string are whitespace, otherwise false.
1. string1=" ";
2. print string1.isspace();
3. string2="WELCOME TO WORLD OF PYT"
4. print string2.isspace();
Output:
>>>
True
False
>>>
Python String len(string) Method Example
This method returns the length of a string.
1. string1=" ";
2. print len(string1);
3. string2="WELCOME TO SSSIT"
4. print len(string2);
Output:
>>>
4
16
>>>
Python String lower() Method Example
It converts all the characters of a string to Lower case.
2. print string1.lower();
3. string2="WELCOME TO SSSIT"
4. print string2.lower();
Output:
>>>
hello python
welcome to sssit
>>>
Python String upper() Method Example
This method converts all the characters of a string to upper case.
2. print string1.upper();
3. string2="welcome to SSSIT"
4. print string2.upper();
Output:
>>>
HELLO PYTHON
WELCOME TO SSSIT
>>>
Python String startswith(string) Method Example
This method returns a Boolean value if the string starts with given str between begin and end.
2. print string1.startswith('Hello');
4. print string2.startswith('come',3,7);
Output:
>>>
True
True
>>>
Python String swapcase() Method Example
It inverts case of all characters in a string.
2. print string1.swapcase();
4. print string2.swapcase();
Output:
>>>
hELLO pYTHON
WELCOME TO sssit
>>>
Python String lstrip() Method Example
It removes all leading whitespace of a string and can also be used to remove particular character
from leading.
1. string1=" Hello Python";

2. print string1.lstrip();
3. string2="@@@@@@@@welcome to SSSIT"
4. print string2.lstrip('@');
Output:
>>>
Hello Python
welcome to world to SSSIT
>>>
Python String rstrip() Method Example
It removes all trailing whitespace of a string and can also be used to remove particular character
from trailing.
1. string1=" Hello Python ";

2. print string1.rstrip();
3. string2="@welcome to SSSIT!!!"
4. print string2.rstrip('!');
Output:
>>>
Hello Python
@welcome to SSSIT
>>>
Python List
Python list is a data structure which is used to store various types of data.
In Python, lists are mutable i.e., Python will not create a new list if we modify an element of the
list.
It works as a container that holds other objects in a given order. We can perform various
operations like insertion and deletion on list.
A list can be composed by storing a sequence of different type of values separated by commas.
Python list is enclosed between square([]) brackets and elements are stored in the index basis
with starting index 0.
Python List Example
1. data1=[1,2,3,4];
2. data2=['x','y','z'];
3. data3=[12.5,11.6];
4. data4=['raman','rahul'];
5. data5=[];
6. data6=['abhinav',10,56.4,'a'];
A list can be created by putting the value inside the square bracket and separated by comma.
Python List Syntax
1. <list_name>=[value1,value2,value3,...,valuen];
Syntax to Access Python List
1. <list_name>[index]
Python allows us to access value from the list by various ways.
Python Accessing List Elements Example
1. data1=[1,2,3,4];
2. data2=['x','y','z'];
3. print data1[0]
4. print data1[0:2]
5. print data2[-3:-1]
6. print data1[0:]
7. print data2[:2]
Output:
>>>
>>>
1
[1, 2]
['x', 'y']
[1, 2, 3, 4]
['x', 'y']
>>>
Elements in a Lists:
Following are the pictorial representation of a list. We can see that it allows to access elements
from both end (forward and backward).
1. Data=[1,2,3,4,5];
1. Data[0]=1=Data[-5] , Data[1]=2=Data[-4] , Data[2]=3=Data[-3] ,

2. =4=Data[-2] , Data[4]=5=Data[-1].
Note: Internal Memory Organization:

List do not store the elements directly at the index. In fact a reference is stored at each index
which subsequently refers to the object stored somewhere in the memory. This is due to the fact
that some objects may be large enough than other objects and hence they are stored at some other
memory location.
Python List Operations
Apart from creating and accessing elements from the list, Python allows us to perform various
other operations on the list. Some common operations are given below
a) Adding Python Lists
In Python, lists can be added by using the concatenation operator(+) to join two lists.
Add lists Example 1
1. list1=[10,20]
2. list2=[30,40]
3. list3=list1+list2
4. print list3
Output:
1. >>>
2. [10, 20, 30, 40]
3. >>>
Note: '+'operator implies that both the operands passed must be list else error will be shown.
Add lists Example 2
1. list1=[10,20]
2. list1+30
3. print list1
Output:
1. Traceback (most recent call last):

2. File "C:/Python27/lis.py", line 2, in <module>
3. list1+30
b) Python Replicating lists
Replicating means repeating, It can be performed by using '*' operator by a specific number of
time.
Python list Replication Example
1. list1=[10,20]
2. print list1*1
Output:
1. >>>
2. [10, 20]
3. >>>
c)Python List Slicing
A subpart of a list can be retrieved on the basis of index. This subpart is known as list slice. This
feature allows us to get sub-list of specified start and end index.
Python List Slicing Example
1. list1=[1,2,4,5,7]
2. print list1[0:2]
3. print list1[4]
4. list1[1]=9
5. print list1
Output:
1. >>>
2. [1, 2]
3. 7
4. [1, 9, 4, 5, 7]
5. >>>
Note: If the index provided in the list slice is outside the list, then it raises an IndexError
exception.
Python List Other Operations
Apart from above operations various other functions can also be performed on List such as
Updating, Appending and Deleting elements from a List.
Python Updating List
To update or change the value of particular index of a list, assign the value to that particular
index of the List.
Python Updating List Example
1. data1=[5,10,15,20,25]
2. print "Values of list are: "
3. print data1
4. data1[2]="Multiple of 5"
5. print "Values of list are: "
6. print data1
Output:
1. >>>
2. Values of list are:
3. [5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
4. Values of list are:
5. [5, 10, 'Multiple of 5', 20, 25]
6. >>>
Appending Python List
Python provides, append() method which is used to append i.e., add an element at the end of the
existing elements.
Python Append List Example
1. list1=[10,"rahul",'z']
2. print "Elements of List are: "
3. print list1
4. list1.append(10.45)
5. print "List after appending: "
6. print list1
Output:
1. >>>
2. Elements of List are:
3. [10, 'rahul', 'z']
4. List after appending:
5. [10, 'rahul', 'z', 10.45]
6. >>>
Deleting Elements
In Python, del statement can be used to delete an element from the list. It can also be used to
delete all items from startIndex to endIndex.
Python delete List Example
1. list1=[10,'rahul',50.8,'a',20,30]
2. print list1
3. del list1[0]
4. print list1
5. del list1[0:3]
6. print list1
Output:
1. >>>
2. [10, 'rahul', 50.8, 'a', 20, 30]
3. ['rahul', 50.8, 'a', 20, 30]
4. [20, 30]
5. >>>
Python lists Method
Python provides various Built-in functions and methods for Lists that we can apply on the list.
Following are the common list functions.
Function Description
min(list) It returns the minimum value from the list given.
max(list) It returns the largest value from the given list.
len(list) It returns number of elements in a list.
cmp(list1,list2) It compares the two list.
list(sequence) It takes sequence types and converts them to lists.
Python List min() method Example
This method is used to get min value from the list.
1. list1=[101,981,'abcd','xyz','m']
2. list2=['aman','shekhar',100.45,98.2]
3. print "Minimum value in List1: ",min(list1)
4. print "Minimum value in List2: ",min(list2)
Output:
1. >>>
2. Minimum value in List1: 101
3. Minimum value in List2: 98.2
4. >>>
Python List max() method Example
This method is used to get max value from the list.
1. list1=[101,981,'abcd','xyz','m']
3. print "Maximum value in List : ",max(list1)
4. print "Maximum value in List : ",max(list2)
Output:
1. >>>
2. Maximum value in List : xyz
3. Maximum value in List : shekhar
4. >>>
Python List len() method Example
This method is used to get length of the the list.
1. list1=[101,981,'abcd','xyz','m']
3. print "No. of elements in List1: ",len(list1)
4. print "No. of elements in List2: ",len(list2)
Output:
1. >>>
2. No. of elements in List1 : 5
3. No. of elements in List2 : 4
4. >>>
Python List cmp() method Example
Explanation: If elements are of the same type, perform the comparison and return the result. If
elements are different types, check whether they are numbers.
• If numbers, perform comparison.

• If either element is a number, then the other element is returned.
• Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically .
If we reached the end of one of the lists, the longer list is "larger." If both list are same it returns
0.
Python List cmp() method Example
1. list1=[101,981,'abcd','xyz','m']
3. list3=[101,981,'abcd','xyz','m']
4. print cmp(list1,list2)
Output:
1. >>>
2. -1
3. 1
4. 0
5. >>>
Python List list(sequence) method Example
This method is used to form a list from the given sequence of elements.
1. seq=(145,"abcd",'a')
2. data=list(seq)
3. print "List formed is : ",data
Output:
1. >>>
2. List formed is : [145, 'abcd', 'a']
3. >>>
There are following built-in methods of List
Methods Description
index(object) It returns the index value of the object.
count(object) It returns the number of times an object is repeated in list.
It returns the last object or the specified indexed object. It removes the popped
pop()/pop(index)
object.
insert(index,object) It inserts an object at the given index.
extend(sequence) It adds the sequence to existing list.
remove(object) It removes the object from the given List.
reverse() It reverses the position of all the elements of a list.
sort() It is used to sort the elements of the List.
Python List index() Method Example
1. data = [786,'abc','a',123.5]
2. print "Index of 123.5:", data.index(123.5)
3. print "Index of a is", data.index('a')
Output:
1. >>>
2. Index of 123.5 : 3
3. Index of a is 2
4. >>>
Python List count(object) Method Example
1. data = [786,'abc','a',123.5,786,'rahul','b',786]
2. print "Number of times 123.5 occured is", data.count(123.5)
3. print "Number of times 786 occured is", data.count(786)
Output:
1. >>>
2. Number of times 123.5 occured is 1
3. Number of times 786 occured is 3
4. >>>
Python List pop()/pop(int) Method Example
1. data = [786,'abc','a',123.5,786]
2. print "Last element is", data.pop()
3. print "2nd position element:", data.pop(1)
4. print data
Output:
1. >>>
2. Last element is 786
3. 2nd position element:abc
4. [786, 'a', 123.5]
5. >>>
Python List insert(index,object) Method Example
1. data=['abc',123,10.5,'a']
2. data.insert(2,'hello')
3. print data
Output:
1. >>>
2. ['abc', 123, 'hello', 10.5, 'a']
3. >>>
Python List extend(sequence) Method Example

1. data1=['abc',123,10.5,'a']
2. data2=['ram',541]
3. data1.extend(data2)
4. print data1
5. print data2
Output:
1. >>>
2. ['abc', 123, 10.5, 'a', 'ram', 541]
3. ['ram', 541]
4. >>>
Python List remove(object) Method Example
1. data1=['abc',123,10.5,'a','xyz']
2. data2=['ram',541]
3. print data1
4. data1.remove('xyz')
5. print data1
6. print data2
7. data2.remove('ram')
8. print data2
Output:
1. >>>
2. ['abc', 123, 10.5, 'a', 'xyz']
3. ['abc', 123, 10.5, 'a']
4. ['ram', 541]
5. [541]
6. >>>
Python List reverse() Method Example
1. list1=[10,20,30,40,50]
2. list1.reverse()
3. print list1
Output:
1. >>>
2. [50, 40, 30, 20, 10]
3. >>>
Python List sort() Method Example

1. list1=[10,50,13,'rahul','aakash']
2. list1.sort()
3. print list1
Output:
1. >>>
2. [10, 13, 50, 'aakash', 'rahul']
3. >>>
Python Tuple
A tuple is a sequence of immutable objects, therefore tuple cannot be changed. It can be used to
collect different types of object.
The objects are enclosed within parenthesis and separated by comma.
Tuple is similar to list. Only the difference is that list is enclosed between square bracket, tuple
between parenthesis and List has mutable objects whereas Tuple has immutable objects.
Python Tuple Example
1. >>> data=(10,20,'ram',56.8)
2. >>> data2="a",10,20.9
3. >>> data
4. (10, 20, 'ram', 56.8)
5. >>> data2
6. ('a', 10, 20.9)
7. >>>
NOTE: If Parenthesis is not given with a sequence, it is by default treated as Tuple.
There can be an empty Tuple also which contains no object. Lets see an example of empty tuple.
Python Empty Tuple Example
1. tuple1=()
Python Single Object Tuple Example
For a single valued tuple, there must be a comma at the end of the value.
1. Tuple1=(10,)
Python Tuple of Tuples Example
Tuples can also be nested, it means we can pass tuple as an element to create a new tuple. See,
the following example in which we have created a tuple that contains tuples an the object.
1. tupl1='a','mahesh',10.56
2. tupl2=tupl1,(10,20,30)
3. print tupl1
4. print tupl2
Output:
1. >>>
2. ('a', 'mahesh', 10.56)
3. (('a', 'mahesh', 10.56), (10, 20, 30))
4. >>>
Accessing Tuple
Accessing of tuple is prity easy, we can access tuple in the same way as List. See, the following
example.
Accessing Tuple Example
1. data1=(1,2,3,4)
2. data2=('x','y','z')
3. print data1[0]
4. print data1[0:2]
5. print data2[-3:-1]
6. print data1[0:]
7. print data2[:2]
Output:
1. >>>
2. 1
3. (1, 2)
4. ('x', 'y')
5. (1, 2, 3, 4)
6. ('x', 'y')
7. >>>
Elements in a Tuple
Data=(1,2,3,4,5,10,19,17)
1. Data[0]=1=Data[-8] , Data[1]=2=Data[-7] , Data[2]=3=Data[-6] ,
2. Data[3]=4=Data[-5] , Data[4]=5=Data[-4] , Data[5]=10=Data[-3],
3. Data[6]=19=Data[-2],Data[7]=17=Data[-1]
Python Tuple Operations
Python allows us to perform various operations on the tuple. Following are the common tuple
operations.
Adding Tuples Example
Tuple can be added by using the concatenation operator(+) to join two tuples.
1. data1=(1,2,3,4)
2. data2=('x','y','z')
3. data3=data1+data2
4. print data1
5. print data2
6. print data3
Output:
>>>
(1, 2, 3, 4)
('x', 'y', 'z')
(1, 2, 3, 4, 'x', 'y', 'z')
>>>
Note: The new sequence formed is a new Tuple.

Replicating Tuple Example
Replicating means repeating. It can be performed by using '*' operator by a specific number of
time.
1. tuple1=(10,20,30);
2. tuple2=(40,50,60);
3. print tuple1*2
4. print tuple2*3
Output:
>>>
(10, 20, 30, 10, 20, 30)
(40, 50, 60, 40, 50, 60, 40, 50, 60)
>>>
Python Tuple Slicing Example
A subpart of a tuple can be retrieved on the basis of index. This subpart is known as tuple slice.
1. data1=(1,2,4,5,7)
2. print data1[0:2]
3. print data1[4]
4. print data1[:-1]
5. print data1[-5:]
6. print data1
Output:
>>>
(1, 2)
7
(1, 2, 4, 5)
(1, 2, 4, 5, 7)
(1, 2, 4, 5, 7)
>>>
Note: If the index provided in the Tuple slice is outside the list, then it raises an IndexError
exception.
Python Tuple other Operations
Updating elements in a List
Elements of the Tuple cannot be updated. This is due to the fact that Tuples are immutable.
Whereas the Tuple can be used to form a new Tuple.
Example
1. data=(10,20,30)
2. data[0]=100
3. print data
Output:
>>>
File "C:/Python27/t.py", line 2, in
data[0]=100
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
>>>
Creating Tuple from Existing Example
We can create a new tuple by assigning the existing tuple, see the following example.
1. data1=(10,20,30)
2. data2=(40,50,60)
3. data3=data1+data2
4. print data3
Output:
>>>
(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)
>>>
Python Tuple Deleting Example
Deleting individual element from a tuple is not supported. However the whole of the tuple can be
deleted using the del statement.
1. data=(10,20,'rahul',40.6,'z')
2. print data
3. del data #will delete the tuple data
4. print data #will show an error since tuple data is already deleted
Output:
>>>
(10, 20, 'rahul', 40.6, 'z')
File "C:/Python27/t.py", line 4, in
print data
NameError: name 'data' is not defined
>>>
Functions of Tuple
There are following in-built Type Functions

min(tuple) It returns the minimum value from a tuple.
max(tuple) It returns the maximum value from the tuple.
len(tuple) It gives the length of a tuple
cmp(tuple1,tuple2) It compares the two Tuples.
tuple(sequence) It converts the sequence into tuple.
Python Tuple min(tuple) Method Example
This method is used to get min value from the sequence of tuple.
1. data=(10,20,'rahul',40.6,'z')
2. print min(data)
Output:
>>>
10
>>>
Python Tuple max(tuple) Method Example
This method is used to get max value from the sequence of tuple.
1. data=(10,20,'rahul',40.6,'z')
2. print max(data)
Output:
>>>
z
>>>
Python Tuple len(tuple) Method Example
This method is used to get length of the tuple.
1. data=(10,20,'rahul',40.6,'z')
2. print len(data)
Output:
>>>
5
>>>
Python Tuple cmp(tuple1,tuple2) Method Example
This method is used to compare tuples.
Explanation:If elements are of the same type, perform the comparison and return the result. If
elements are different types, check whether they are numbers.
• If numbers, perform comparison.

• If either element is a number, then the other element is returned.
• Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically .
If we reached the end of one of the lists, the longer list is "larger." If both list are same it returns
0.
1. data1=(10,20,'rahul',40.6,'z')
2. data2=(20,30,'sachin',50.2)
3. print cmp(data1,data2)
5. data3=(20,30,'sachin',50.2)
Output:
>>>
-1
1
0
>>>
5) tuple(sequence):
Eg:
1. dat=[10,20,30,40]
2. data=tuple(dat)
3. print data
Output:
>>>
(10, 20, 30, 40)
>>>
Why should wee use Tuple? (Advantages of Tuple)
1. Processing of Tuples are faster than Lists.

2. It makes the data safe as Tuples are immutable and hence cannot be changed.
3. Tuples are used for String formatting
Python Dictionary
Dictionary is an unordered set of key and value pair. It is a container that contains data, enclosed
within curly braces.
The pair i.e., key and value is known as item. The key passed in the item must be unique.
The key and the value is separated by a colon(:). This pair is known as item. Items are separated
from each other by a comma(,). Different items are enclosed within a curly brace and this forms
Dictionary.
Python Dictionary Example
1. data={100:'Ravi' ,101:'Vijay' ,102:'Rahul'}

2. print data
Output:
>>>
{100: 'Ravi', 101: 'Vijay', 102: 'Rahul'}
>>>
Note:
Dictionary is mutable i.e., value can be updated.
Key must be unique and immutable. Value is accessed by key. Value can be updated while key
cannot be changed.
Dictionary is known as Associative array since the Key works as Index and they are decided by
the user.
Python Dictionary Example
1. plant={}
2. plant[1]='Ravi'
3. plant[2]='Manoj'
4. plant['name']='Hari'
5. plant[4]='Om'
6. print plant[2]
7. print plant['name']
8. print plant[1]
9. print plant
Output:
>>>
Manoj
Hari
Ravi
{1: 'Ravi', 2: 'Manoj', 4: 'Om', 'name': 'Hari'}
>>>
Accessing Dictionary Values
Since Index is not defined, a Dictionary values can be accessed by their keys only. It means, to
access dictionary elements we need to pass key, associated to the value.
Python Accessing Dictionary Element Syntax
1. <dictionary_name>[key]
2. </dictionary_name>
Accessing Elements Example
1. data1={'Id':100, 'Name':'Suresh', 'Profession':'Developer'}

2. data2={'Id':101, 'Name':'Ramesh', 'Profession':'Trainer'}
3. print "Id of 1st employer is",data1['Id']
4. print "Id of 2nd employer is",data2['Id']
5. print "Name of 1st employer:",data1['Name']
6. print "Profession of 2nd employer:",data2['Profession']
Output:
>>>
Id of 1st employer is 100
Id of 2nd employer is 101
Name of 1st employer is Suresh
Profession of 2nd employer is Trainer
>>>
Updating Python Dictionary Elements
The item i.e., key-value pair can be updated. Updating means new item can be added. The values
can be modified.
Example
1. data1={'Id':100, 'Name':'Suresh', 'Profession':'Developer'}

2. data2={'Id':101, 'Name':'Ramesh', 'Profession':'Trainer'}
3. data1['Profession']='Manager'
4. data2['Salary']=20000
5. data1['Salary']=15000
6. print data1
7. print data2
Output:
>>>
{'Salary': 15000, 'Profession': 'Manager','Id': 100, 'Name': 'Suresh'}
{'Salary': 20000, 'Profession': 'Trainer', 'Id': 101, 'Name': 'Ramesh'}
>>>
Deleting Python Dictionary Elements Example
del statement is used for performing deletion operation.
An item can be deleted from a dictionary using the key only.
Delete Syntax
1. del <dictionary_name>[key]
2. </dictionary_name>
Whole of the dictionary can also be deleted using the del statement.
Example
1. data={100:'Ram', 101:'Suraj', 102:'Alok'}

2. del data[102]
3. print data
4. del data
5. print data #will show an error since dictionary is deleted.
Output:
>>>
{100: 'Ram', 101: 'Suraj'}

File "C:/Python27/dict.py", line 5, in
print data
NameError: name 'data' is not defined
>>>
Python Dictionary Functions and Methods
Python Dictionary supports the following Functions
Python Dictionary Functions
Functions Description
len(dictionary) It returns number of items in a dictionary.
cmp(dictionary1,dictionary2) It compares the two dictionaries.

str(dictionary) It gives the string representation of a string.
Python Dictionary Methods
Methods Description
keys() It returns all the keys element of a dictionary.
values() It returns all the values element of a dictionary.
items() It returns all the items(key-value pair) of a dictionary.
update(dictionary2) It is used to add items of dictionary2 to first dictionary.
It is used to remove all items of a dictionary. It returns an empty

clear()
dictionary.
It is used to create a new dictionary from the sequence where

fromkeys(sequence,value1)/ sequence elements forms the key and all keys share the values
fromkeys(sequence) ?value1?. In case value1 is not give, it set the values of keys to be
none.
copy() It returns an ordered copy of the data.
It returns a boolean value. True in case if key is present in the

has_key(key)
dictionary ,else false.
It returns the value of the given key. If key is not present it returns
get(key)
none.
Python Dictionary len(dictionary) Example
It returns length of the dictionary.
1. data={100:'Ram', 101:'Suraj', 102:'Alok'}

2. print data
3. print len(data)
Output:
>>>
{100: 'Ram', 101: 'Suraj', 102: 'Alok'}
3
>>>
Python Dictionary cmp(dictionary1,dictionary2) Example
The comparison is done on the basis of key and value.

1. If, dictionary1 == dictionary2, returns 0.
2. dictionary1 < dictionary2, returns -1.
3. dictionary1 > dictionary2, returns 1.
1. data1={100:'Ram', 101:'Suraj', 102:'Alok'}

2. data2={103:'abc', 104:'xyz', 105:'mno'}
3. data3={'Id':10, 'First':'Aman','Second':'Sharma'}
Output:
>>>
-1
0
1
>>>
Python Dictionary str(dictionary) Example
This method returns string formation of the value.

2. print str(data1)
Output:
>>>
{100: 'Ram', 101: 'Suraj', 102: 'Alok'}
>>>
Python Dictionary keys() Method Example
This method returns all the keys element of a dictionary.

2. print data1.keys()
Output:
>>>
[100, 101, 102]
>>>
Python Dictionary values() Method Example
This method returns all the values element of a dictionary.

2. print data1.values()
Output:
>>>
['Ram', 'Suraj', 'Alok']
>>>
Python Dictionary items() Method Example
This method returns all the items(key-value pair) of a dictionary.

2. print data1.items()
Output:
>>>
[(100, 'Ram'), (101, 'Suraj'), (102, 'Alok')]
>>>
Python Dictionary update(dictionary2) Method Example
This method is used to add items of dictionary2 to first dictionary.

2. data2={103:'Sanjay'}
3. data1.update(data2)
4. print data1
5. print data2
Output:
>>>
{100: 'Ram', 101: 'Suraj', 102: 'Alok', 103: 'Sanjay'}
{103: 'Sanjay'}
>>>
Python Dictionary clear() Method Example
It returns an ordered copy of the data.

2. print data1
3. data1.clear()
4. print data1
Output:
>>>
{100: 'Ram', 101: 'Suraj', 102: 'Alok'}
{}
>>>
Python Dictionary fromkeys(sequence)/ fromkeys(seq,value) Method Example
This method is used to create a new dictionary from the sequence where sequence elements
forms the key and all keys share the values ?value1?. In case value1 is not give, it set the values
of keys to be none.
1. sequence=('Id' , 'Number' , 'Email')

2. data={}
3. data1={}
4. data=data.fromkeys(sequence)
5. print data
6. data1=data1.fromkeys(sequence,100)
7. print data1
Output:
>>>
{'Email': None, 'Id': None, 'Number': None}
{'Email': 100, 'Id': 100, 'Number': 100}
>>>
Python Dictionary copy() Method Example
This method returns an ordered copy of the data.
1. data={'Id':100 , 'Name':'Aakash' , 'Age':23}

2. data1=data.copy()
3. print data1
Output:
>>>
{'Age': 23, 'Id': 100, 'Name': 'Aakash'}
>>>
Python Dictionary has_key(key) Method Example
It returns a boolean value. True in case if key is present in the dictionary, else false.

2. print data.has_key('Age')
3. print data.has_key('Email')
Output:
>>>
True
False
>>>
Python Dictionary get(key) Method Example
This method returns the value of the given key. If key is not present it returns none.

2. print data.get('Age')
3. print data.get('Email')
Output:
>>>
23
None
>>>
Python Functions
A Function is a self block of code which is used to organize the functional code.
Function can be called as a section of a program that is written once and can be executed
whenever required in the program, thus making code reusability.
Function is a subprogram that works on data and produces some output.
Types of Functions:
There are two types of Functions.
a) Built-in Functions: Functions that are predefined and organized into a library. We have used
many predefined functions in Python.
b) User- Defined: Functions that are created by the programmer to meet the requirements.
Defining a Function
A Function defined in Python should follow the following format:
1) Keyword def is used to start and declare a function. Def specifies the starting of function
block.
2) def is followed by function-name followed by parenthesis.
3) Parameters are passed inside the parenthesis. At the end a colon is marked.
Python Function Syntax
1. def <function_name>(parameters):
2. </function_name>
Example
1. def sum(a,b):
4) Python code requires indentation (space) of code to keep it associate to the declared block.
5) The first statement of the function is optional. It is ?Documentation string? of function.
6) Following is the statement to be executed.
Syntax:
Invoking a Python Function
To execute a function it needs to be called. This is called function calling.

Function Definition provides the information about function name, parameters and the definition
what operation is to be performed. In order to execute the function definition, we need to call the
function.
Python Function Syntax
1. <function_name>(parameters)
2. </function_name>
Python Function Example
1. sum(a,b)
Here, sum is the function and a, b are the parameters passed to the function definition.
Let?s have a look over an example.
Python Function Example 2
1. #Providing Function Definition

2. def sum(x,y):
3. "Going to add x and y"
4. s=x+y
5. print "Sum of two numbers is"
6. print s
7. #Calling the sum Function
8. sum(10,20)
9. sum(20,30)
Output:
1. >>>
2. Sum of two numbers is
3. 30
4. Sum of two numbers is
5. 50
6. >>>
NOTE: Function call will be executed in the order in which it is called.
Python Function return Statement
return[expression] is used to return response to the caller function. We can use expression with
the return keyword. send back the control to the caller with the expression.
In case no expression is given after return it will return None.

In other words return statement is used to exit the function definition.
Python Function return Example
1. def sum(a,b):
2. "Adding the two values"
3. print "Printing within Function"
4. print a+b
5. return a+b
6. def msg():
7. print "Hello"
8. return
9.
10. total=sum(10,20)
11. print ?Printing Outside: ?,total
12. msg()
13. print "Rest of code"
Output:
1. >>>
2. Printing within Function
3. 30
4. Printing outside: 30
5. Hello
6. Rest of code
7. >>>
Python Function Argument and Parameter
There can be two types of data passed in the function.
1) The First type of data is the data passed in the function call. This data is called ?arguments?.
2) The second type of data is the data received in the function definition. This data is called
?parameters?.
Arguments can be literals, variables and expressions. Parameters must be variable to hold
incoming values.
Alternatively, arguments can be called as actual parameters or actual arguments and parameters
can be called as formal parameters or formal arguments.
Python Function Example
1. def addition(x,y):
2. print x+y
3. x=15
4. addition(x ,10)
5. addition(x,x)
6. y=20
7. addition(x,y)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 25
3. 30
4. 35
5. >>>
Passing Parameters
Apart from matching the parameters, there are other ways of matching the parameters.
Python supports following types of formal argument:
1) Positional argument (Required argument).
2) Default argument.
3) Keyword argument (Named argument)
Positional/Required Arguments:
When the function call statement must match the number and order of arguments as defined in
the function definition. It is Positional Argument matching.
Python Function Positional Argument Example
1. #Function definition of sum

2. def sum(a,b):
3. "Function having two parameters"
4. c=a+b
5. print c
6.
7. sum(10,20)
8. sum(20)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 30
3.
5. File "C:/Python27/su.py", line 8, in <module>
6. sum(20)
7. TypeError: sum() takes exactly 2 arguments (1 given)
8. >>>
9. </module>
Explanation:
1) In the first case, when sum() function is called passing two values i.e., 10 and 20 it matches
with function definition parameter and hence 10 and 20 is assigned to a and b respectively. The
sum is calculated and printed.
2) In the second case, when sum() function is called passing a single value i.e., 20 , it is passed to
function definition. Function definition accepts two parameters whereas only one value is being
passed, hence it will show an error.
Python Function Default Arguments
Default Argument is the argument which provides the default values to the parameters passed in
the function definition, in case value is not provided in the function call default value is used.
Python Function Default Argument Example
1. #Function Definition
2. def msg(Id,Name,Age=21):
3. "Printing the passed value"
4. print Id
5. print Name
6. print Age
7. return
8. #Function call
9. msg(Id=100,Name='Ravi',Age=20)
10. msg(Id=101,Name='Ratan')
Output:
1. >>>
2. 100
3. Ravi
4. 20
5. 101
6. Ratan
7. 21
8. >>>
Explanation:
1) In first case, when msg() function is called passing three different values i.e., 100 , Ravi and
20, these values will be assigned to respective parameters and thus respective values will be
printed.
2) In second case, when msg() function is called passing two values i.e., 101 and Ratan, these
values will be assigned to Id and Name respectively. No value is assigned for third argument via
function call and hence it will retain its default value i.e, 21.
Python Keyword Arguments
Using the Keyword Argument, the argument passed in function call is matched with function
definition on the basis of the name of the parameter.
Python keyword Argument Example
1. def msg(id,name):
2. "Printing passed value"
3. print id
4. print name
5. return
6. msg(id=100,name='Raj')
7. msg(name='Rahul',id=101)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 100
3. Raj
4. 101
5. Rahul
6. >>>
Explanation:
1) In the first case, when msg() function is called passing two values i.e., id and name the
position of parameter passed is same as that of function definition and hence values are
initialized to respective parameters in function definition. This is done on the basis of the name
of the parameter.
2) In second case, when msg() function is called passing two values i.e., name and id, although
the position of two parameters is different it initialize the value of id in Function call to id in
Function Definition. same with name parameter. Hence, values are initialized on the basis of
name of the parameter.
Python Anonymous Function
Anonymous Functions are the functions that are not bond to name. It means anonymous function
does not has a name.
Anonymous Functions are created by using a keyword "lambda".
Lambda takes any number of arguments and returns an evaluated expression.
Lambda is created without using the def keyword.
Python Anonymous Function Syntax
1. lambda arg1,args2,args3,?,argsn :expression
Python Anonymous Function Example
1. #Function Definiton
2. square=lambda x1: x1*x1
3.
4. #Calling square as a function
5. print "Square of number is",square(10)
Output:
1. >>>
2. Square of number is 100
3. >>>
Difference between Normal Functions and Anonymous Function:
Have a look over two examples:
Example:
Normal function:
2. def square(x):
3. return x*x
4.
5. #Calling square function
Anonymous function:
2. square=lambda x1: x1*x1
3.
4. #Calling square as a function
Explanation:
Anonymous is created without using def keyword.
lambda keyword is used to create anonymous function.
It returns the evaluated expression.
Scope of Variable:
Scope of a variable can be determined by the part in which variable is defined. Each variable
cannot be accessed in each part of a program. There are two types of variables based on Scope:
1) Local Variable.
2) Global Variable.
1) Python Local Variables
Variables declared inside a function body is known as Local Variable. These have a local access
thus these variables cannot be accessed outside the function body in which they are declared.
Python Local Variables Example
1. def msg():
2. a=10
4. return
5.
6. msg()
7. print a #it will show error since variable is local
Output:
1. >>>
2. Value of a is 10
3.
5. File "C:/Python27/lam.py", line 7, in <module>
6. print a #it will show error since variable is local
7. NameError: name 'a' is not defined
8. >>>
9. </module>
b) Python Global Variable
Variable defined outside the function is called Global Variable. Global variable is accessed all
over program thus global variable have widest accessibility.
Python Global Variable Example
1. b=20
2. def msg():
3. a=10
5. print "Value of b is",b
6. return
7.
8. msg()
9. print b
Output:
1. >>>
2. Value of a is 10
3. Value of b is 20
4. 20
5. >>>
Python Input And Output

Python provides methods that can be used to read and write data. Python also provides supports
of reading and writing data to Files.
Python "print" Statement
"print" statement is used to print the output on the screen.
print statement is used to take string as input and place that string to standard output.
Whatever you want to display on output place that expression inside the inverted commas. The
expression whose value is to printed place it without inverted commas.
Syntax:
1. print "expression" or print expression.

Exampple
1. a=10
2. print "Welcome to the world of Python"
3. print a
Output:
1. >>>
2. Welcome to the world of Python
3. 10
4. >>>
Input from Keyboard:
Python offers two built-in functions for taking input from user, given below:
1) input()
2) raw_input()
1) input() functioninput() function is used to take input from the user. Whatever expression is
given by the user, it is evaluated and result is returned back.
Python input() Syntax:
1. input("Expression")
Python input() Function Example
1. n=input("Enter your expression ");

2. print "The evaluated expression is ", n
Output:
1. >>>
2. Enter your expression 10*2
3. The evaluated expression is 20
4. >>>
Python raw_input()
2) raw_input()raw_input() function is used to take input from the user. It takes the input from
the Standard input in the form of a string and reads the data from a line at once.
Syntax:
1. raw_input(?statement?)
Python raw_input() Example
1. n=raw_input("Enter your name ");

2. print "Welcome ", n
Output:
1. >>>
2. Enter your name Rajat
3. Welcome Rajat
4. >>>
raw_input() function returns a string. Hence in case an expression is to be evaluated, then it has
to be type casted to its following data type. Some of the examples are given below:
Program to calculate Simple Interest.
1. prn=int(raw_input("Enter Principal"))
2. r=int(raw_input("Enter Rate"))
3. t=int(raw_input("Enter Time"))
4. si=(prn*r*t)/100
5. print "Simple Interest is ",si
Output:
1. >>>
2. Enter Principal1000
3. Enter Rate10
4. Enter Time2
5. Simple Interest is 200
6. >>>
Program to enter details of an user and print them.
1. name=raw_input("Enter your name ")

2. math=float(raw_input("Enter your marks in Math"))
3. physics=float(raw_input("Enter your marks in Physics"))
4. chemistry=float(raw_input("Enter your marks in Chemistry"))
5. rollno=int(raw_input("Enter your Roll no"))
6. print "Welcome ",name
7. print "Your Roll no is ",rollno
8. print "Marks in Maths is ",math
9. print "Marks in Physics is ",physics
10. print "Marks in Chemistry is ",chemistry
11. print "Average marks is ",(math+physics+chemistry)/3
Output:
1. >>>
2. Enter your name rajat
3. Enter your marks in Math76.8
4. Enter your marks in Physics71.4
5. Enter your marks in Chemistry88.4
6. Enter your Roll no0987645672
7. Welcome rajat
8. Your Roll no is 987645672
9. Marks in Maths is 76.8
10. Marks in Physics is 71.4
11. Marks in Chemistry is 88.4
12. Average marks is 78.8666666667
13. >>>
Python File Handling
Python provides the facility of working on Files. A File is an external storage on hard disk from
where data can be stored and retrieved.
Operations on Files:
1) Opening a File: Before working with Files you have to open the File. To open a File, Python
built in function open() is used. It returns an object of File which is used with other functions.
Having opened the file now you can perform read, write, etc. operations on the File.
Syntax:
1. obj=open(filename , mode , buffer)
here,
filename:It is the name of the file which you want to access.
mode:It specifies the mode in which File is to be opened.There are many types of mode. Mode
depends the operation to be performed on File. Default access mode is read.
2) Closing a File:Once you are finished with the operations on File at the end you need to close
the file. It is done by the close() method. close() method is used to close a File.
Syntax:
1. fileobject.close()
3) Writing to a File:write() method is used to write a string into a file.

Syntax:
1. fileobject.write(string str)
4) Reading from a File:read() method is used to read data from the File.
Syntax:
1. fileobject.read(value)
here, value is the number of bytes to be read. In case, no value is given it reads till end of file is
reached.
Program to read and write data from a file.
1. obj=open("abcd.txt","w")
2. obj.write("Welcome to the world of Python")
3. obj.close()
4. obj1=open("abcd.txt","r")
5. s=obj1.read()
6. print s
7. obj1.close()
8. obj2=open("abcd.txt","r")
9. s1=obj2.read(20)
10. print s1
11. obj2.close()
Output:
1. >>>
2. Welcome to the world of Python
3. Welcome to the world
4. >>>
Attributes of File:
There are following File attributes.
Attribute Description
Name Returns the name of the file.
Mode Returns the mode in which file is being opened.
Closed Returns Boolean value. True, in case if file is closed else false.
Example
1. obj = open("data.txt", "w")

2. print obj.name
3. print obj.mode
4. print obj.closed
Output:
1. >>>
2. data.txt
3. w
4. False
5. >>>
Modes of File:
There are different modes of file in which it can be opened. They are mentioned in the following
table.
A File can be opened in two modes:
1) Text Mode.
2) Binary Mode.
Mode Description
R It opens in Reading mode. It is default mode of File. Pointer is at beginning of the file.
rb It opens in Reading mode for binary format. It is the default mode. Pointer is at beginning of file.
r+ Opens file for reading and writing. Pointer is at beginning of file.
rb+ Opens file for reading and writing in binary format. Pointer is at beginning of file.
W Opens file in Writing mode. If file already exists, then overwrite the file else create a new file.
Opens file in Writing mode in binary format. If file already exists, then overwrite the file else
wb
create a new file.
Opens file for reading and writing. If file already exists, then overwrite the file else create a new
w+
file.
Opens file for reading and writing in binary format. If file already exists, then overwrite the file
wb+
else create a new file.
Opens file in Appending mode. If file already exists, then append the data at the end of existing
a
file, else create a new file.
Opens file in Appending mode in binary format. If file already exists, then append the data at the
ab
end of existing file, else create a new file.
Opens file in reading and appending mode. If file already exists, then append the data at the end
a+
of existing file, else create a new file.
Opens file in reading and appending mode in binary format. If file already exists, then append
ab+
the data at the end of existing file, else create a new file.
Methods:
There are many methods related to File Handling. They are given in the following table:
There is a module "os" defined in Python that provides various functions which are used to
perform various operations on Files. To use these functions 'os' needs to be imported.
Method Description
rename() It is used to rename a file. It takes two arguments, existing_file_name and new_file_name.
It is used to delete a file. It takes one argument. Pass the name of the file which is to be
remove()
deleted as the argument of method.
It is used to create a directory. A directory contains the files. It takes one argument which is
mkdir()
the name of the directory.
It is used to change the current working directory. It takes one argument which is the name
chdir()
of the directory.
getcwd() It gives the current working directory.
rmdir() It is used to delete a directory. It takes one argument which is the name of the directory.
tell() It is used to get the exact position in the file.
1) rename():
Syntax:
1. os.rename(existing_file_name, new_file_name)
eg:
1. import os
2. os.rename('mno.txt','pqr.txt')
2) remove():
Syntax:
1. os.remove(file_name)
eg:
1. import os
2. os.remove('mno.txt')
3) mkdir()
Syntax:
os.mkdir("file_name")
eg:
1. import os
2. os.mkdir("new")
4) chdir()
Syntax:
os.chdir("file_name")
Example
1. import os
2. os.chdir("new")
5) getcwd()
Syntax:
os.getcwd()
Example
1. import os
2. print os.getcwd()
6) rmdir()
Syntax:
os.rmdir("directory_name)
Example
1. import os
2. os.rmdir("new")
NOTE: In order to delete a directory, it should be empty. In case directory is not empty first
delete the files.
Python Module
Modules are used to categorize Pyhton code into smaller parts. A module is simply a Python file,
where classes, functions and variables are defined. Grouping similar code into a single file makes
it easy to access. Have a look at below example.
If the content of a book is not indexed or categorized into individual chapters, the book might
have turned boring and hectic. Hence, dividing book into chapters made it easy to understand.
In the same sense python modules are the files which have similar code. Thus module is simplify
a python code where classes, variables and functions are defined.
Python Module Advantage
Python provides the following advantages for using module:
1) Reusability: Module can be used in some other python code. Hence it provides the facility of
code reusability.
2) Categorization: Similar type of attributes can be placed in one module.
Importing a Module:
There are different ways by which you we can import a module. These are as follows:
1) Using import statement:
"import" statement can be used to import a module.
Syntax:
1. import <file_name1, file_name2,...file_name(n)="">
2. </file_name1,>
Example
1. def add(a,b):
2. c=a+b
3. print c
4. return
Save the file by the name addition.py. To import this file "import" statement is used.
1. import addition
2. addition.add(10,20)
3. addition.add(30,40)
Create another python file in which you want to import the former python file. For that, import
statement is used as given in the above example. The corresponding method can be used by
file_name.method (). (Here, addition. add (), where addition is the python file and add () is the
method defined in the file addition.py)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 30
3. 70
4. >>>
NOTE: You can access any function which is inside a module by module name and function
name separated by dot. It is also known as period. Whole notation is known as dot notation.
Python Importing Multiple Modules Example
1) msg.py:
1. def msg_method():
2. print "Today the weather is rainy"
3. return
2) display.py:
1. def display_method():
2. print "The weather is Sunny"
3. return
3) multiimport.py:
1. import msg,display
2. msg.msg_method()
3. display.display_method()
Output:
1. >>>
2. Today the weather is rainy
3. The weather is Sunny
4. >>>
2) Using from.. import statement:
from..import statement is used to import particular attribute from a module. In case you do not
want whole of the module to be imported then you can use from ?import statement.
Syntax:
1. from <module_name> import <attribute1,attribute2,attribute3,...attributen>

2. </attribute1,attribute2,attribute3,...attributen></module_name>
Python from.. import Example
1. def circle(r):
2. print 3.14*r*r
3. return
4.
5. def square(l):
6. print l*l
7. return
8.
9. def rectangle(l,b):
10. print l*b
11. return
12.
13. def triangle(b,h):
14. print 0.5*b*h
15. return
2) area1.py
1. from area import square,rectangle

2. square(10)
3. rectangle(2,5)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 100
3. 10
4. >>>
3) To import whole module:
You can import whole of the module using "from? import *"
Syntax:
1. from <module_name> import *

2. </module_name>
Using the above statement all the attributes defined in the module will be imported and hence
you can access each attribute.
1) area.py
Same as above example
2) area1.py
1. from area import *

2. square(10)
3. rectangle(2,5)
4. circle(5)
5. triangle(10,20)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 100
3. 10
4. 78.5
5. 100.0
6. >>>
Built in Modules in Python:
There are many built in modules in Python. Some of them are as follows:
math, random , threading , collections , os , mailbox , string , time , tkinter etc..
Each module has a number of built in functions which can be used to perform various functions.
Let?s have a look over each module:
1) math:
Using math module , you can use different built in mathematical functions.
Functions:
ceil(n) It returns the next integer number of the given number
sqrt(n) It returns the Square root of the given number.
exp(n) It returns the natural logarithm e raised to the given number
floor(n) It returns the previous integer number of the given number.
log(n,baseto) It returns the natural logarithm of the number.
pow(baseto, exp) It returns baseto raised to the exp power.
sin(n) It returns sine of the given radian.
cos(n) It returns cosine of the given radian.
tan(n) It returns tangent of the given radian.
Python Math Module Example
1. import math
2. a=4.6
3. print math.ceil(a)
4. print math.floor(a)
5. b=9
6. print math.sqrt(b)
7. print math.exp(3.0)
8. print math.log(2.0)
9. print math.pow(2.0,3.0)
10. print math.sin(0)
11. print math.cos(0)
12. print math.tan(45)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 5.0
3. 4.0
4. 3.0
5. 20.0855369232
6. 0.69314718056
7. 8.0
8. 0.0
9. 1.0
10. 1.61977519054
11. >>>
Constants:
The math module provides two constants for mathematical Operations:
Constants Descriptions
Pi Returns constant ? = 3.14159...
ceil(n) Returns constant e= 2.71828...
Example
1. import math
2.
3. print math.pi
4. print math.e
Output:
1. >>>
2. 3.14159265359
3. 2.71828182846
4. >>>
2) random:
The random module is used to generate the random numbers. It provides the following two built
in functions:
random() It returns a random number between 0.0 and 1.0 where 1.0 is exclusive.
randint(x,y) It returns a random number between x and y where both the numbers are inclusive.
Python Module Example
1. import random
2.
3. print random.random()
4. print random.randint(2,8)
Output:
1. >>>
2. 0.797473843839
3. 7
4. >>>
Other modules will be covered in their respective topics.
Python Package
A Package is simply a collection of similar modules, sub-packages etc..
Steps to create and import Package:
1) Create a directory, say Info
2) Place different modules inside the directory. We are placing 3 modules msg1.py, msg2.py and
msg3.py respectively and place corresponding codes in respective modules. Let us place msg1()
in msg1.py, msg2() in msg2.py and msg3() in msg3.py.
3) Create a file __init__.py which specifies attributes in each module.
4) Import the package and use the attributes using package.
Have a look over the example:
1) Create the directory:
1. import os
2. os.mkdir("Info")
2) Place different modules in package: (Save different modules inside the Info package)
msg1.py
1. def msg1():
2. print "This is msg1"
msg2.py
1. def msg2():
msg3.py
1. def msg3():
3) Create __init__.py file:
1. from msg1 import msg1

4)Import package and use the attributes:
1. import Info
2. Info.msg1()
3. Info.msg2()
4. Info.msg3()
Output:
1. >>>
2. This is msg1
3. This is msg2
4. This is msg3
5. >>>
What is __init__.py file?
__init__.py is simply a file that is used to consider the directories on the disk as the package of
the Python. It is basically used to initialize the python packages.
Python Exception Handling

Exception can be said to be any abnormal condition in a program resulting to the disruption in
the flow of the program.
Whenever an exception occurs the program halts the execution and thus further code is not
executed. Thus exception is that error which python script is unable to tackle with.
Exception in a code can also be handled. In case it is not handled, then the code is not executed
further and hence execution stops when exception occurs.

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Python Tutorial

1) Easy to Learn and Use

5) Free and Open Source

8) Large Standard Library

Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.

It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, JAVA etc.

A list of python versions with its released date is given below.

Python Version Released Date

Python 1.0 January 1994

Python 1.5 December 31, 1997

Python 1.6 September 5, 2000

Python 2.0 October 16, 2000

Python 2.1 April 17, 2001

Python 2.3 July 29, 2003

Python 2.4 November 30, 2004

Python 2.5 September 19, 2006

Python 2.6 October 1, 2008

Python 2.7 July 3, 2010

Python 3.0 December 3, 2008

Python 3.1 June 27, 2009

Python 3.2 February 20, 2011

Python 3.3 September 29, 2012

Python 3.4 March 16, 2014

Python 3.5 September 13, 2015

Python 3.6 December 23, 2016

Python 3.6.4 December 19, 2017

Python Applications Area

Here, we are specifing applications areas where python can be applied.

4) Scientific and Numeric

6) Console Based Application

7) Audio or Video based Applications

10) Applications for Images

For Windows operating system, the installation process is given below.

1. To install Python, firstly download the Python distribution from www.python.org/download.

SETTING PATH IN PYTHON

Right click on My Computer ->Properties ->Advanced System setting ->Environment Variable -

Path will be set for executing Python programs.

1. Right click on My Computer and click on properties.

2. Click on Advanced System settings

3. Click on Environment Variable tab.

5. Write path in variable name

7. Paste path of Python in variable value.

1. print("hello world by python!")

Execute this example by using following command.

After executing, it produces the following output to the screen.

hello world by python!

A simple python example is given below.

1. >>> a="Welcome To Python"

Python 3.4 Example

1. >>> a=("Welcome To Python Example")

How to execute python

Save it by .py extension.

All you need to do is:

We can use both Interactive as well as Script mode in IDE.

1) Using Interactive mode:

A new Editor will be opened. Write our Python code here.

Run code by clicking on Run in the Menu bar.

Result will be displayed on a new Python shell as:

Note - Variable name should not be a keyword.

Declaring Variable and Assigning Values