EARLY CHILDHOOD

 Age Range: Early childhood is from ages 2 to 6.

 Brain Growth: The brain grows from 70% to 90% of its adult size by age 6.
 Cogni ve Development: With brain growth, children's thinking and learning abili es
improve. By age 5, they can speak more clearly and master hand-eye coordina on.
 Physical Development:
Gross Motor Skills: Large muscles develop first, used for walking, running, and other
physical ac vi es.

Fine Motor Skills: Small muscles develop later, used for tasks like picking up objects,
drawing, wri ng, and catching.

 Emo onal Development: Children begin to understand their feelings, form a achments,
and develop their personali es.
 Social Development: Children form rela onships with peers. Interac on with other
children plays a key role in learning social skills and forming friendships.
 Friendships: Even at a young age, children show preferences for who they want to interact
with or be friends with. These rela onships can affect social development later in life.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Language is an important tool that helps children understand the world around them, their
role in it, and how they should behave according to their culture. It allows them to ask
ques ons, express their thoughts and needs, and communicate effec vely with others.

Language is powerful because it helps us talk about the past and future, share abstract ideas
and emo ons, and pass down knowledge and beliefs from one genera on to the next. Even
babies can recognize sounds from their na ve language shortly a er birth, and by the me
they are a few months old, they begin to recognize their own name and words for familiar
objects and people.

Before babies can speak clearly, they go through stages: first, they cry and make facial
expressions to communicate; then they start cooing and babbling, and eventually begin
forming recognizable words. Over just a few years, children go from these early sounds to full
language use.

The Basic Domains of Language Acquisition

 The first challenge in understanding a new language is segmen ng the stream of sounds into
separate and recognizable words.

1. Phonological development

2. Seman c development

3. Grammar

4. Pragma c development
 Phonological development, seman c development, grammar, and pragma c development
together represent the basic domains of language acquisi on. However, it is important to keep
in mind that language is a system—each domain is connected to all of the others, as well as to
the social world of which it is an essen al part (de Lemos, 2000).

 Phonological Development
Children learn to recognize and produce sounds of their na ve language, star ng with
babbling and progressing to word forma on.
 Transi on from Babbling: By the end of the first year, children focus on the sounds of their
language instead of experimen ng with random noises.
 Simplified Pronuncia ons: Early a empts to pronounce words may leave out parts, e.g., saying
"ca" instead of "cat."
 Sound Pa erns: Children may use one sound pa ern for mul ple words, e.g., "bubba" for
"bu on."
 Difficulty with Specific Sounds: Some sounds are harder to master, like saying "Yucky" for
"Lucky" due to difficulty pronouncing /l/.
 Impact on Meaning: Changes in sounds can alter meanings, showing how cri cal phonemes
are (e.g., "Lucky" vs. "Yucky").
 Understanding Morphemes: Children learn morphemes, the smallest units of meaning, like
"horse" (one morpheme) and "horses" (two morphemes).
 Mastery by Age 8-9: By this age, children can use morphemes to figure out the meaning of
new or made-up words.

 Seman c development
 Learning Word Meanings: Children connect words to objects or events around them, a process
called "mapping words to the world." For example, hearing "puppy" while seeing a dog helps
them link the word to the animal.
 Joint A en on: Children need to focus on what the speaker is referring to in order to
understand the meaning of words, which develops over me.
 Vocabulary Growth:

At 1 year: First words like "mama" or "dada."

By 18 months: Around 50 words.

By 2 years: Around 300 words, with more verbs, adjec ves, and rela onal words like “gone,”
“here,” and “no.”

 Overextension Errors: Children use a word too broadly, such as calling all men "Daddy" or the
ocean "bath."
 Under extension Errors: Children use a word too narrowly, like calling only their favourite
yellow bo le "bo le" and ignoring other bo les.
 Use of Rela onal Words: Words like “no” are important for communica on, expressing
rejec on or protest.
 Crea ve Language with Metaphors: Children use metaphors to compare objects, such as
calling a yellow baseball bat “Corn” or Styrofoam bits “Snow,” showing crea vity in language
learning.
  Grammar Development:
Word order varia ons (e.g., “Chase Daddy” vs. “Daddy chase”) introduce gramma cal
structure.
 Common Errors in Grammar:
Children o en say things like “runned” instead of “ran,” showing they are learning grammar
rules.
These errors demonstrate their understanding of pa erns, even when misapplied to irregular
verbs.
 Rapid Language Growth (Ages 2-3):
Sentence length and gramma cal complexity increase significantly.
 Morphemes as Language Units:
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning, providing a be er measure of complexity than
words.
Example: “Boys aren’t playing” has three words but six morphemes.
 Use of Gramma cal Elements:
Children begin using elements like “-s,” “-ing,” or words like “are” and “not” to follow adult
grammar.
 Understanding Before Produc on:
Children recognize the importance of gramma cal elements even before they use them in
speech.

 Pragma cs development
This is about learning the right way to use language in different situa ons.
Young children o en say the wrong thing at the wrong me because they haven’t learned
these social rules yet.
 Conversa onal Acts:
Preopera ve: When children use words or ac ons to get something they want (e.g., saying
"More" when they want more juice).
Protocolaries: When children try to get someone’s a en on or keep a conversa on going (e.g.,
poin ng at a dog and saying "Doggie").
Kids also use ac ons, like showing toys, to keep talking and interac ng with others.
 Learning to Express Ideas:
Children understand that one sentence can have many meanings.
They also learn to say the same thing in different ways (e.g., "Get off the blocks!" vs. "You're
standing on my blocks").
 Telling Stories (Narra ves):
At first, kids' stories might be confusing or incomplete.
They may need help to explain what happened, like who or what was involved in the story.
 Linking Language to Life:
As children grow, they learn how words are connected to the world around them.
They explore this by trying different ways to express what they think or feel.

Chomsky Theory
Noam Chomsky’s theory of language acquisi on suggests that children are born with an innate
ability to learn language, which he calls the Language Acquisi on Device (LAD). According to
 Chomsky, all humans have a built-in, universal grammar that provides the basic structure for
all languages. This universal grammar is like a blueprint in the brain, helping children recognize
the rules of the language they are exposed to. As children grow, the LAD develops, allowing
them to learn more complex language forms. Chomsky believes that children don’t simply
copy what they hear but ac vely deduce the rules of language from the speech around them.
For example, a child might start by saying "I play" and later say "I’m playing," without anyone
explicitly teaching them that change. This ability to create new sentences that they've never
heard before demonstrates the child’s internal grasp of language rules. The child also "sets"
their grammar to match the language they hear, understanding which words are verbs or
nouns and how to order them in sentences. This process, called se ng the parameters,
happens naturally as the child listens to others. Chomsky’s theory highlights that children
aren’t taught language directly by adults; instead, they use the LAD to figure out the grammar
and rules of the language in their environment.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Social development is the process through which children learn how to interact with others,
form rela onships, and understand social behaviours. It helps children learn how to
communicate, make friends, and act appropriately in different situa ons. This process is very
important because it forms the founda on for how we connect with people throughout our
lives.
In preschool, children prac ce these social skills mainly through play. Play helps them explore
the world around them and prac ce what they’ve learned about how to behave in different
social situa ons.

1. Socializa on: This is when children learn the values, rules, and behaviours that are important
in their culture. For example, parents teach children what is acceptable behaviour in society,
like saying “please” and “thank you,” and how to behave with others.
2. Personality Forma on: Children also develop their own unique pa erns of feelings, thoughts,
and ac ons. This helps them understand how they are different from others and how to
interact with the world.
One important theory of social development comes from Erik Erikson. He suggested that
during the preschool years, children face a conflict called ini a ve vs. guilt. This means
children want to act independently (for example, “Let me do it!”), but they also feel guilty
when they don’t succeed. It's a me when children want to explore the world on their own,
but they may feel bad if things don’t go well.
Parents play an important role in helping children develop a sense of ini a ve. When parents
encourage their children to try things on their own, they help them feel more confident. On
the other hand, if parents are too controlling, children may develop feelings of guilt and self-
doubt, which can affect them later in life.

Example: A 4-year-old might want to pour their own juice. If the parents allow it and the child
spills, the parents may reassure them by saying, “It’s okay! You tried, and we can clean it up
together.” This helps the child feel encouraged to try again without feeling guilty about the
mistake..
SEX-ROLE IDENTITY
By the me children enter preschool, boys and girls o en show differences in both the toys
they prefer and the way they play. For example, boys usually enjoy more physical, ac ve play,
such as rough-and-tumble ac vi es, while girls tend to prefer more verbal and nurturing play.
Addi onally, children o en choose playmates of the same gender, a phenomenon known as
gender segrega on. This preference for same-gender playmates is seen across many cultures
worldwide.
Since understanding sex-role iden ty (how a person iden fies and behaves according to their
gender) is an important part of adulthood, developmental psychologists are very interested in
how children acquire their gender iden ty and understand their roles. There are several
theories about how children develop this understanding. Here are five major views:
1. Psychodynamic View: This theory suggests that children develop their gender iden ty through
unconscious processes, especially during early childhood. For example, children might model
their behavior a er their parents (especially the same-sex parent) as a way of resolving
conflicts about their own gender iden ty.
2. Social Learning View: According to this view, children learn gender roles through observa on
and imita on. They watch how others (especially adults and peers) behave and receive
rewards or punishments based on whether they act in gender-appropriate ways. For example,
a boy might be praised for playing with trucks, reinforcing that it's a "masculine" ac vity.
3. Cogni ve-Developmental View: This theory suggests that children ac vely construct their
own gender iden ty as they grow. As children age, they begin to understand that gender is
consistent over me (e.g., a boy will grow up to be a man) and start to iden fy with gender-
specific roles and behaviors.
4. Gender Schema View: This view proposes that children create mental frameworks, or
"schemas," about gender roles based on their experiences. These schemas help children
interpret and categorize the world around them, influencing how they behave and who they
interact with. For example, a child might learn that "girls like dolls" and start to prefer dolls
themselves.
5. Cultural View: This view focuses on the idea that cultural norms and values shape how
children understand their gender roles. Children learn gender expecta ons from the society
they grow up in, such as what is considered "appropriate" behavior for boys and girls in that
culture.

FRIENDSHIP
Preschool is when children start to make friends and learn how to play with others. Friendships
are important because they help children learn how to share, take turns, and understand how
other people feel. When children play with friends, they also learn important skills like being
kind, pa ent, and communica ng.

IMPORTANCE OF FRIENDSHIP

 Learning Social Skills: Friendships teach children how to cooperate, share, and be kind.
 Building Confidence: Having friends helps children feel safe to try new things and express
themselves.
 Emo onal Support: Friends give children comfort when they are nervous or trying something
new.
HOW TO PORMOTE FRIENDSHIP

 Encourage Play: Support your child when they want to play with others.
 Show Posi ve Behaviour: Be a good example by being kind, sharing, and listening.
 Include Others: Teach your child how to invite others to join in play.
 Arrange Playdates: Create opportuni es for your child to meet new friends.
 Listen and Talk: Talk to your child about their friends and help them with any friendship
problems.

PLAY
Play is a vital part of a child's development, helping them grow socially, emo onally, and
physically. It allows children to learn new skills, express their crea vity, and understand the
world around them. Through play, kids develop essen al abili es like problem-solving,
communica on, and coopera on. It also helps them build friendships and learn how to
manage their emo ons. Overall, play is a fun and important way for children to learn and grow.
Play is very important for a child's growth and development, especially in the areas of physical,
cogni ve, and social skills. Here's a breakdown of different types of play and their benefits:
1. Fantasy Play (Drama c Play):
o Example: Playing "house" where a child pretends to be a parent or a teacher.
o Helps children develop social skills like taking turns, paying a en on, and
communica ng. It also lets children explore different roles and ideas, which helps
them understand the world around them and develop problem-solving skills.
2. Construc ve Play:
o Example: Building a tower with blocks or making a sandcastle.
o Encourages skills like planning, persistence, and coopera on. Children problem-solve
when their crea ons don’t work and learn how to adapt.
3. Physical Play (Motor Play):
o Example: Running, jumping, or climbing on playground equipment.
o Helps children develop their gross motor skills (big movements like running and
jumping) and fine motor skills (smaller movements like picking things up or drawing).
4. Symbolic Play:
o Example: Using a s ck as a sword or a box as a car.
o Children use one object to represent another. This type of play boosts imagina on,
crea vity, and problem-solving skills.
5. Coopera ve Play:
o Example: Two children playing together, like ac ng out a doctor and pa ent scenario.
o Children learn to work together, share, and communicate with others. It builds
teamwork and social skills.
6. Associa ve Play:
o Example: Two children playing with sand toys together but not talking or coordina ng
much, just sharing toys.
o In this play, children are s ll independent but begin to interact with each other
through sharing and playing near each other.
7. Crea ve Play:
o Example: Using bo le caps to make wheels for a toy car or fabric to make clothes for
a doll.
o Encourages crea vity as children use everyday materials to create something new,
enhancing their imagina on and problem-solving.
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Middle childhood, typically from ages 6 to 12, is known as the "school years." During this period,
children gain more independence and start formal educa on. They can perform tasks like dressing
themselves, catching a ball, and tying their shoes. Friendships become more important, and they begin
interac ng with the larger world outside the family. This is a me of rapid growth in physical, social,
and mental abili es. It’s also a crucial me for children to build confidence through their rela onships,
schoolwork, and sports ac vi es.

Biological a ainments
Physical development

When compared to the swi growth during the first five years of life and the remarkable growth spurt
characteris c of adolescence, middle childhood is rela vely tranquil.

 Improved coordina on – Children get be er at running, jumping, and catching.

 Self-care skills – They can dress themselves, e shoes, and use tools like pencils.
 Stronger muscles and bones – Physical strength and body control improve.
 Increased skill in ac vi es – They can do more complex tasks, like riding a bike or swimming.
 Be er balance and movement – Improved control in ac vi es requiring balance and agility.

Height and weight changes

 At age 11, girls are typically about 4 feet 10 inches tall, while boys are about 4 feet 9½ inches
tall. This is the only me in life when girls, on average, are taller than boys.

 Girls grow faster than boys during this me, as girls start their growth spurt around age 10.

 Weight gain: Both boys and girls gain about 5 to 7 pounds (2-3 kg) per year.

 Cultural concerns: Parents may worry about their child’s height and some mes turn to growth
hormone treatments.

 Risks of growth hormones: These hormones may have side effects, like causing early puberty,
which could stop growth later on.

Nutri on

 Good nutri on helps kids grow and learn: Ea ng well helps kids grow physically and do be er
in school.
 Study results: In Kenya, kids who ate well did be er on tests than those who didn’t get enough
food.
 Malnutri on harms learning: Not having enough food can make kids less curious and less
mo vated to learn.
 Too much food is also bad: Ea ng too much food can cause obesity and health problems.

Childhood obesity

Obesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the average of a person of
given height and weight.

 Although height can be a concern for most of the children and their parents in middle
childhood, maintaining an appropriate weight is even more of a worry for most of them.
  Concern about weight can border on an obsession, especially among girls. For example, a lot
of young girls around the age 6/7 are worried about becoming “fat” and some about 40% of
9-year/10year old girls are trying to lose weight.

 Their concern is most o en the result of the preoccupa on of being slim, which is a o en
encouraged in most parts of the society.

 The cost of childhood obesity lasts a life me. Children who are obese are more likely to be
overweight in adulthood and have a greater risk of heart disease, diabetes, cancer and other
diseases.

 Childhood obesity is caused by the combina on of gene c and social characteris cs as well as
diet.

Motor development

Gross Motor Skills:

 These skills improve as children grow. By middle childhood, kids can do things they couldn't
before, like riding a bike, swimming, or skipping rope.
 One major improvement is be er muscle coordina on.

Fine Motor Skills:

 Fine motor skills improve as children get older. For example, they learn to type on a keyboard,
write neatly, and draw detailed pictures.
 By age 6-7, children can e their shoes and bu on clothes.
 By age 8, they can use each hand independently.
 By ages 11-12, they can do tasks that require precise hand movements, almost like adults.

COGNITIVE & PREECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

During this period, children’s cogni ve abili es broaden, and they become increasingly able to
understand and master complex skills. At the same me, their thinking is not fully adultlike.

1. Piage an approaches to cogni ve development

2. Informa on processing in middle childhood

3. Vygotsky’s approach to cogni ve development

Piaget’s Concrete Opera onal Stage

Piaget’s Concrete Opera onal Stage (ages 7-12) is a cri cal period in cogni ve development, where
children begin to apply logic to concrete (real-world) situa ons. Here are some key features of this
stage:

1. Logical Opera ons: Children can perform mental opera ons on objects and events. These
opera ons are applied to real, concrete situa ons and help children reason more
systema cally.
 2. Reversibility: This is the understanding that certain processes can be undone or reversed. For
example, if you add 5 + 3 to get 8, you can reverse the process by subtrac ng 3 from 8 to return
to 5. Similarly, a piece of clay shaped into a rope can be squeezed back into its original ball
shape.

3. Conserva on: Children understand that quan ty remains the same despite changes in
appearance. For instance, pouring the same amount of liquid into two different shaped
containers doesn’t change the amount of liquid.

4. Classifica on: Children can sort objects into categories based on shared characteris cs, such
as grouping animals by type (e.g., dogs, cats, etc.).

5. Seria on: Children can arrange objects in a sequence, such as ordering s cks from shortest to
longest.

6. Time and Speed: They begin to grasp more complex concepts like the rela onship between
me and speed. For example, they can understand that if a car moves faster, it will take less
me to reach a des na on.

While children in this stage are able to think logically, their thinking is s ll based on concrete objects
and experiences. They have difficulty with abstract or hypothe cal concepts, which will be developed
later in the formal opera onal stage (adolescence).

Example: A child in the concrete opera onal stage can understand that a piece of dough can be
fla ened into a pancake shape, and a er it is baked, it can be shaped back into its original form. They
also understand that if they have 6 marbles and give 3 to a friend, they will have 3 marbles le , but
the total number of marbles doesn’t change.

Informa on Processing in Middle Childhood

Informa on processing approaches compare children’s cogni ve development to a computer system,
emphasizing how they encode, store, and retrieve informa on more effec vely over me.

1. Improved Handling of Informa on:

o Children become more skilled at processing and organizing informa on.

o For example, first graders focus on basic math (e.g., single-digit addi on) while sixth
graders handle complex tasks like frac ons and decimals.

2. Memory Processes:

o Encoding: Recording informa on in a way that memory can process.

 Example: A child must focus on and understand that 5 + 6 = 11 for it to be

encoded into memory.

o Storage: Retaining informa on in memory for future use.

 Example: Keeping the math fact 5 + 6 = 11 stored in the brain.

o Retrieval: Accessing stored informa on when needed.

 Example: Recalling the answer to 5 + 6 during a test.

 3. Working Memory Improvement:

o Short-term memory capacity grows, enabling children to hold and manipulate more
informa on.

o Example: A preschooler may reverse a sequence of 2 digits, while by adolescence, this

grows to 6 digits or more.

4. Use of Memory Strategies:

o As they grow, children adopt be er strategies like rehearsal, chunking, and

mnemonics to improve recall.

o These strategies can also be taught and enhanced through prac ce.

Example: A 9-year-old learning vocabulary may group similar words (chunking) or rehearse them
repeatedly to store and retrieve them effec vely during a spelling test.

Vygotsky’s Approach to Cogni ve Development in Middle Childhood

1. Learning Through Social Interac on:

o Vygotsky emphasized the importance of child-adult and child-child interac ons for
cogni ve growth.

o Interac ons provide guidance, modeling, and support to help children develop skills
and knowledge.

2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

o The ZPD is the gap between what a child can do alone and what they can achieve with
help.

o Tasks within the ZPD challenge the child appropriately and promote growth.

3. Role of Scaffolding:

o Caregivers, teachers, and peers provide scaffolding—adjus ng the level of support

based on the child's needs.

o Example: A teacher helps a child solve a math problem step-by-step, gradually

reducing help as the child learns.

4. Learning from Older Peers and Adults:

o Children imitate and learn from observing more experienced individuals.

o Guidance enables children to accomplish tasks they cannot complete independently.

5. Cogni ve Growth Through Experience:

o As children grow, they develop be er a en on, memory, and categoriza on skills.

 o Learning becomes more efficient as new informa on builds upon familiar experiences,
crea ng connec ons and enhancing understanding.

Example: A child learning to solve puzzles may struggle alone but succeed when an adult provides
hints or demonstrates strategies, such as grouping similar pieces. Over me, the child internalizes
these methods and becomes independent.

Language Development in Middle Childhood

1. Vocabulary Expansion:

o By age 6, children typically have a vocabulary of 8,000 to 14,000 words, growing by

another 5,000 words between ages 9 and 11.

o This vocabulary growth supports the ability to classify and describe objects in varied
ways.

2. Improvement in Grammar:

o Children start using more passive voice (e.g., "The dog was walked by Jon") and
condi onal sentences (e.g., "If Sarah will set the table, I will wash the dishes").

o Mastery of syntax (rules for sentence structure) improves, enabling them to form
complex sentences.

3. Pronuncia on:

o By first grade, children pronounce most words accurately.

o Challenging sounds, such as "j," "v," "th," and "zh," may take longer to perfect.

4. Understanding Intona on:

o Decoding sentences with varied intona ons remains difficult. For instance:

 “George gave a book to David and he gave one to Bill” (emphasis on he

implies David gave the second book).

 “George gave a book to David and and he gave one to Bill” (emphasis on and
implies George gave both books).

5. Conversa onal Skills:

o Children develop pragma cs—the social rules for using language effec vely in
different contexts.

6. Grammar Flexibility:

o Older children learn new grammar rules quickly, adap ng more flexibly than
preschoolers.

7. Learning a Second Language:

o Middle childhood is ideal for formal instruc on in a second language, par cularly
learning its grammar and structure.
Intelligence
Intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think with ra onality, and use resources
effec vely when faced with challenges.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg explained intelligence using three key parts, called components or types of intelligence:

1. Componen al Intelligence (Analy cal Intelligence)

 This is about how well you process informa on and solve problems logically.

 It includes analyzing, comparing, and evalua ng informa on to find solu ons.

 Example: Solving a math problem, iden fying pa erns, or taking a tradi onal IQ test.

 People with strong componen al intelligence are good at thinking cri cally and doing well on
exams.

2. Experien al Intelligence (Crea ve Intelligence)

 This focuses on being crea ve and thinking in new ways.

 It involves combining things you already know to come up with fresh ideas or solve problems
in unique ways.

 Example: Wri ng a story, designing an artwork, or inven ng a new gadget.

 People strong in this area are good at adap ng to new situa ons and being innova ve.

3. Contextual Intelligence (Prac cal Intelligence)

 This deals with real-world problem-solving and adap ng to everyday life.

 It’s about knowing how to apply knowledge in prac cal situa ons.

 Example: Fixing something at home, managing a team, or nego a ng a deal.

 People strong in this area are o en called “street smart.”

 TESTS OF INTELLICENCE

1. Measuring intelligence: Binet’s test

Mental Age (MA):

 The age level at which a child performs on an intelligence test.

 Example: If a child solves problems typical of an 8-year-old, their mental age is 8.

Problem with Mental Age:

 Using only mental age doesn't allow fair comparisons between children of different physical
(chronological) ages.

 Example: A 6-year-old with a mental age of 8 is brighter than a 15-year-old with a mental age
of 17, even though both have a "mental age" higher than their actual age.

Solution: Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

IQ compares mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA) to give a standardized score.

IQ=Chronological Age (CA)Mental Age (MA)×100

2. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fi h Edi on (SB5):

o A modern version of Binet’s test, used for both kids and adults.

o It checks five main areas of intelligence:

 Fluid reasoning (solving new problems).

 Knowledge (what you know).

 Quan ta ve reasoning (math skills).

 Visual-spa al processing (working with shapes and spaces).

 Working memory (remembering informa on while solving problems).

o Example: You might be asked to solve puzzles, answer vocabulary ques ons, or
complete math problems.

3. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV):

o Designed specifically for children aged 6 to 16.

o It measures different areas of intelligence:

 Verbal comprehension (understanding and using words).

 Working memory (remembering and using informa on).

 Processing speed (how fast you can think and solve problems).
 o Example: A child might need to explain the meaning of words, solve puzzles, or sort
objects quickly.

4. Kaufman Assessment Ba ery for Children, Second Edi on (KABC-II):

o A test that focuses on how children learn and solve problems.

o It works well for children from diverse backgrounds or with learning challenges.

o It uses simple tasks like solving pa erns, remembering stories, or iden fying shapes.

Social development in middle childhood

In Erik Erikson's theory, middle childhood (ages 6 to 12) is called the Industry vs. Inferiority stage.
Here's a simple explana on:

1. Learning New Skills: Kids work hard to learn new things in school, like reading, math, and
science. They also try out new hobbies and ac vi es, like sports or music.

2. Making Friends: Children also start to make friends and work with others in groups. They
figure out how to get along with people at school, at home, and in their community.

3. Feeling Proud: When kids do well in school and with their friends, they feel good about
themselves. They feel proud and confident in their abili es.

4. Feeling Bad About Themselves: If kids struggle in school or don’t get along with others, they
may feel like they aren’t good enough. This can make them lose confidence.

5. Impact on Growth: How kids handle these challenges can affect how they see themselves.
Success helps them feel capable, while failure can make them feel like they can’t do anything
right.

Development of self

During middle childhood, children start to ask themselves, "Who am I?" as they try to understand who
they are. Unlike younger children who might only think about themselves in terms of how they look
or what they can do, school-age kids begin to focus more on their inner quali es, like being smart,
kind, or funny. They start to realize that they are good at some things, like math or sports, but not as
good at others, like spelling or soccer. As they grow older, their understanding of themselves becomes
more detailed and complex, and they start to feel proud of their strengths and acknowledge their
weaknesses. This process helps children build a sense of iden ty and self-confidence.

Social comparison

In middle childhood, children o en compare themselves to others, which affects their school
performance and self-esteem. Social comparison is when children evaluate their own abili es,
behaviour, and opinions by looking at others. They usually compare themselves to peers who are
similar to them. However, when they feel insecure, they might compare themselves to others who are
less skilled to protect their self-esteem. This way, they can feel be er about themselves by seeing that
they are more successful or capable than others, which helps them maintain a posi ve self-image.
Self-esteem

Self-esteem is how an individual feels about themselves, both posi vely and nega vely. It’s different
from self-concept, which is about what a person believes they are good or bad at. During middle
childhood, self-esteem grows as children compare themselves to others and assess how well they meet
social and personal standards. If a child has high self-esteem, they feel confident and good at many
things. On the other hand, if their self-esteem is low, they may feel inadequate or not good enough at
most things.

Rela onships: Building Friendship in middle childhood

Friendships become very important during middle childhood, and children start to value them more.
Friends help children learn about the world, others, and themselves. They provide emo onal
support, making it easier for children to handle stress. Having friends also reduces the chances of
being bullied and helps children learn how to manage and understand their emo ons. Friendships
teach children how to communicate and interact with others, and they can even help with
intellectual growth by exposing children to new experiences.

 Stage 1 (ages 4-7): In this early stage, friendships are based primarily on shared ac vi es and
enjoyment. A friend is someone who plays with you, shares toys, and par cipates in games.
The focus is more on fun and less on deeper emo onal connec ons.
 Stage 2 (ages 8-10): At this stage, friendships are based more on trust and mutual respect.
Children begin to understand that a friend is someone who can be relied upon and who
shares similar values and interests. They start to recognize the importance of loyalty and
reciprocity in friendships.
 Stage 3 (ages 11 and older): Friendships become more complex and emo onally suppor ve.
At this point, children view friendship as based on deeper emo onal connec ons, trust,
empathy, and shared experiences. They understand that a good friend is someone who not
only enjoys similar ac vi es but also cares about their feelings and provides emo onal
support.

Family Rela onships

In middle childhood, children become more independent and begin to make their own
decisions, while parents shi to providing broader guidelines. This period of coregula on
allows both parents and children to share control over behaviour. However, if parents’
divorce, children may feel guilty or torn between their parents, leading to divided loyalty and
emo onal challenges.

Different types of family rela onships

Single-parent families: About one-quarter of children in the U.S. live with only one parent,
most o en the mother. This can be due to various reasons, including divorce, unmarried
parents, or the absence of one parent.
Mul genera onal families: These families consist of mul ple genera ons (e.g., parents,
children, and grandparents) living together. This setup can provide rich experiences for
children but may also lead to conflicts, as several adults may act as disciplinarians without
coordina ng their ac ons.
 Blended families: These families involve a remarried couple with at least one stepchild.
Blended families can be challenging for children due to unclear roles and expecta ons, such
as naviga ng rela onships with stepparents and stepsiblings or making decisions about
spending me with both biological parents.

Schooling
Schools play a big role in shaping how children think and see the world since they spend so
much me there. Think about how you felt when you got a bad grade—were you upset, mad
at the teacher, or scared of what would happen next? It shows how school can affect how
kids feel.
How you react to success or failure depends on your a ribu ons—the reasons you think
caused your behaviour or results. People o en think about whether the cause of something
is due to their own characteris cs (like “I’m not smart”) or to the situa on (like “I didn’t get
enough sleep”). If someone a ributes success to internal factors (“I’m smart”), they may feel
proud, but if they a ribute failure to internal factors (“I’m stupid”), they may feel ashamed.
However, not everyone interprets success and failure the same way. A person’s race,
ethnicity, and social background can strongly influence how they a ribute their outcomes.
A ribu on works both ways: the way we view the reasons for our success or failure can
affect our future ac ons, but our experiences also shape how we see the world.

Stages of schooling

 Stage 0, which lasts from birth to the start of first grade, children learn the basics of reading,
like recognizing le ers, wri ng their names, and reading familiar words (e.g., their name or
"stop" on a stop sign).

 Stage 1 occurs during first and second grade, where children start to decode words by
sounding out the le ers and learning the sounds of the alphabet.

 In Stage 2, around second to third grade, children read aloud with fluency but may not fully
understand the meaning of what they’re reading because they are s ll focusing on sounding
out the words.

 Stage 3 covers fourth to eighth grade, where reading becomes a tool for learning. Children
use reading to gather informa on, but they s ll struggle to understand informa on from
different perspec ves.

 In Stage 4, which starts in high school, children can read and understand complex texts that
present mul ple viewpoints, allowing for a deeper, more sophis cated understanding of
material.

Importance of School Educa on in Child Development:

1. Knowledge and Skills:
School provides children with essen al knowledge and skills that help them succeed in life. It
fosters their mental, emo onal, and social growth and prepares them for higher educa on
and future careers.
2. Socializa on:
School offers children the chance to interact with their peers, helping them learn how to
cooperate, work in teams, and resolve conflicts. It also provides opportuni es to make
friends and build rela onships, promo ng confidence and well-rounded development.
3. Personal Development:
School plays a crucial role in boos ng children’s self-esteem, confidence, and sense of iden ty.
It helps them discover their interests, strengths, and encourages them to pursue their goals.

4. Critical Thinking:
School education teaches children how to think critically, solve problems, and make
thoughtful decisions. These skills are vital for success in various aspects of life, from
personal relationships to career paths.
5. Global Awareness:
In our interconnected world, it's important for children to understand different
cultures and viewpoints. School education provides opportunities to learn about
global issues and diverse cultures, fostering empathy and understanding.
6. Academic Learning:
School provides a solid academic foundation by teaching children key concepts across
subjects. This helps them build knowledge and skills, setting them up for success in
future academic and career endeavours.