189

Introduction
Geometry (which translates to “earth measurement” from Greek) is a branch of mathematics that
deals with the study of relative positions, properties, and relations of geometric objects (such as
points, lines, 2-dimensional plane figures, and 3-dimensional solid objects), as well as calculations
involving lengths, angles, perimeters, areas, and volumes of such objects. Geometry can be traced
as far back as to the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. However, it was revolutionized by the
ancient Greeks, including Pythagoras, Plato, and most notably, Euclid, who invented Euclidean
Geometry, which is the focus of this chapter.
Geometry is linked to many other topics in mathematics, and is applied in the fields of art,
architecture, engineering, land surveying, astronomy, nature, sports, machinery, and more.
Furthermore, it has many practical day-to-day uses at home. For example, you use geometry to
determine the quantity of paint needed to paint a wall, the amount of carpet needed to floor a room,
the length of fence needed to enclose a garden, etc. The triangle is one of the most basic shapes in
geometry because it is the simplest polygon. All triangles have three sides and three angles, but
they come in many different shapes and sizes. Triangles can be classified by their side measures
(equilateral, isosceles, or scalene), as well as by their angle measures (acute, obtuse, or right).
In this chapter, we will learn the most basic form of geometry, called Euclidean Geometry, involving
points, lines, angles, lengths, areas, and volumes. We will also learn the characteristics of each of
these types of triangles, and how the properties of the sides and angles can be used to solve for any
missing part of a triangle and to classify pairs of triangles.

Since triangles are such a common and basic shape, understanding these characteristics will allow
to solve for real world application problems, such as finding immeasurable distances, calculating
the slope of a ramp or a road, determining the magnitude and direction of a force, etc.

5.1 | Lines and Angles

Euclidean geometry begins with the notion of a point. A point in the Cartesian plane represents a
location in the plane, determined by its x-coordinate, (representing its horizontal position with
respect to the origin), and its y-coordinate (representing its vertical position with respect to the
origin). It has no dimensions; that is, it has no length, width, or height.
We label a point in the Cartesian plane using a dot, a capital letter (often P), and ordered coordinates
in brackets. The point P(3, 5) in the Cartesian plane is illustrated in Exhibit 5.1-a below.

Y-axis

Often, when working 10

with Euclidean
Geometry, we are II P (3, 5) I
only concerned with 5
the relative position
of a point to other X-axis
points, and not its
specific position in the −10 −5 5 10
origin
Cartesian plane. As
O (0, 0)
such, we often omit the −5
coordinates and label
the point using a dot
and a capital letter (P).
III IV
−10

Exhibit 5.1-a Labelling a Point in the Cartesian Plane

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Lines, Line Segments, and Rays

A line is an object that has only one dimension: length. A line is created by joining two points,
includes all the points that fall directly between them, and extends indefinitely in both directions.
Therefore, a line is straight, has no gaps, and has no end points. It is denoted with the names of the
two points over-lined with a double-arrowhead.

Line Line AB (or BA )

A B
A line segment is the portion of a line bound between two end points. A line segment is created by
joining two points, and it includes only the points that fall directly between them. It is denoted with
the names of the two end points, over-lined with a straight line.

Line Segment Line Segment AB (or BA )

A B
A ray is the portion of a line bound in one direction by a single end point. A ray is created by joining
two points, and it includes all the points that fall directly between them, and extends indefinitely in
one direction only. It is denoted with the names of the two points, over-lined with a single arrowhead.

Ray AB
A B
Ray
Ray BA
A B
Note: When labeling a ray, the order of the letters matters. For example, ray AB originates at point
A and extends indefinitely in the direction of point B, while ray BA originates at point B and
extends indefinitely in the direction of point A.

Example 5.1-a Identifying Lines, Line Segments, and Rays

Identify and label the following geometric objects:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
C
Q M N X
P Y

Solution (i) Line PQ or QP (ii) Ray NM (iii) Line segment CD or DC (iv) Ray YX

Angle Measures in Degrees

An angle is formed when two rays intersect at their endpoints. The point of intersection is called the
vertex of the angle and the two rays are called the sides of the angle. The angle is identified by the
symbol ∠ , followed by the letters of the three points of the two rays, with the vertex in the middle.
For example, rays BA and BC form the angle ∠ ABC or ∠ CBA. When the context is clear, we may
simply refer to this angle as ∠ B.
A
When naming an Side ∠ ABC (or ∠ CBA) = θ
Vertex Intersecting rays
angle, the vertex is
always written in the θ Or simply, ∠B=θ
middle. Side
B C
The size of the angle is measured in degrees (denoted with the symbol °), where one revolution of a
1
circle is 360°. One degree is a slice of one revolution of a circle. Imagine a circle centered at point
360
B, divided into 360 equal sectors through B. The degree measure of ∠ ABC is the number of sectors
that can fit in the wedge formed between rays BA and BC. Exhibit 5.1-b shows a circle divided into
36 sectors, where each sector represents 10°, and the angle ∠ ABC = 60°.

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100° 90° 80° 70° A

110°
100° 90° 80°120° 70° A 60°
110°
120° 130° 60° 50°
130° 140° 50° 40°
140° 40°
150° 30°
150° 30°
160° 20°
160° 20°
170° 10° 120°
170° 10° 120° 60°
180° B 0°/360° C 60°
180° B 0°/360° C
190° 350°
190° 350°
200° 340° A protractor is used to measure and
200° 210°
340°
330°A protractor is used to measure
draw anglesand
in degrees.
210°
220°
330° 320° draw angles in degrees.
220° 230° 320°
310°
230° 240° 310° 300°
240° 260° 270° 280° 290°
250°300°
250° 260° 290°
270° 280°

Exhibit 11.1-b Circle divided into 36 sectors,

Exhibit 5.1-b Circle
Exhibit Divided
11.1-b Circleinto 36 Sectors,
divided
where into
each36sector
sectors,
represents 10°
Where
where Each Sectorrepresents
each sector Represents
10° 10°

Two rays from the center of a circle extending in 180°

opposite directions create a line which divides the
circle into two equal halves; thus, the angle between
1
two opposite rays has an angle measure equal to
360° 2
a revolution, or = 180°.
2
Two perpendicular lines through the centre of a 90°
circle cut the circle into four equal quadrants; thus
the angle between two perpendicular rays has an
1
angle measure equal to a revolution, or
4
360°
= 90°.
4

Classification of Angles
Angles are classified according to their size in degrees.

Right angles Any angle measure of 90° is called a right

(θ = 90°) angle, and is denoted with a small square at
the vertex.
𝜃𝜃

Straight angles 𝜃𝜃 Any angle measure of 180° is called a straight

(θ = 180°) angle, and is denoted with a semi-circle where
the endpoints of the two rays meet.
Acute angles Any angle less than a right angle (i.e., with a
𝜃𝜃 degree measure between 0° and 90°) is called an
(0°< θ < 90°)
acute angle.

Obtuse angles Any angle greater than a right angle but

(90°< θ < 180°) less than a straight angle (i.e., with a degree
measure between 90° and 180°) is called an
In any pair of rays, 𝜃𝜃 obtuse angle.
there is one angle that
is at most 180° and
one that is at least
180°. Reflex angles 𝜃𝜃 Any angle greater than a straight angle (i.e.,
(180°< θ < 360°) with a degree measure between 180° and 360°)
> 180° is called a reflex angle.
< 180°

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Example 5.1-b Classifying Angles

Identify the following angles as acute, right, obtuse, straight, or reflex:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Solution (i) Obtuse (ii) Acute (iii) Straight (iv) Right (v) Reflex

Supplementary and Complementary Angles

Angle pairs with measures that sum to a right angle (90°) or a straight angle (180°) are given special
names:

Supplementary Two angles are called supplementary

angles angles if their sum is 180°.
θ Each angle is called a supplement of the
(θ + ϕ = 180°) other.

Since the sum of Two angles are called complementary

complementary angles Complementary
is 90°, each angle must angles angles if their sum is 90°.
be acute (i.e., less than Each angle is called a complement of the
90°). As a result, only (θ + ϕ = 90°)
other.
acute angles have θ
complements.

Example 5.1-c Supplementary and Complementary Angles

Determine the supplement and complement (if possible) of the following angles:

(i) 30° (ii) 45° (iii) 72° (iv) 90° (v) 126°

Solution (i) Supplement of 30° = 180° – 30° = 150°

Complement of 30° = 90° – 30° = 60°

(ii) Supplement of 45° = 180° – 45° = 135° A 45° angle is self-

complementary.
Complement of 45° = 90° – 45° = 45°

(iii) Supplement of 72° = 180° – 72° = 108°

Complement of 72° = 90° – 72° = 18°

(iv) Supplement of 90° = 180° – 90° = 90° A 90° (right) angle is

self-supplementary.
Since 90° is not acute, it does not have a complementary angle.

(v) Supplement of 126° = 180° – 126° = 54°

Since 126° is not acute, it does not have a complementary angle.

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Opposite and Adjacent Angles

When two lines intersect at a point P, they create four angles. Every pair of consecutive angles,
called adjacent angles, is supplementary, since each line forms a straight angle (180°) at point P and
the other line cuts it into two angles, which have a sum of 180°. As a result, the angles opposite to
each other, called opposite angles, are always equal (or congruent).

When two lines

Adjacent angle Opposite angle
intersect, the b
adjacent angles are ∠ a + ∠ b = 180° ∠ a = 180° − ∠ b
a Therefore, ∠a = ∠c
supplementary (sum to
c
∠ b + ∠ c = 180° ∠ c = 180° − ∠ b
180°) and the opposite
angles are congruent P d ∠ b + ∠ c = 180° ∠ b = 180° − ∠ c
(equal). Therefore, ∠b = ∠d
∠ c + ∠ d = 180° ∠ d = 180° − ∠ c

Example 5.1-d Opposite and Adjacent Angles

Determine the measures of the three unknown angles in the following diagram:

a θ = 52°

b c

Solution (i) Since angle a is adjacent to angle θ, it is supplementary to angle θ.

Therefore, ∠a = 180° – 52° = 128°.

(ii) Since angle b is opposite to angle θ, it is congruent to angle θ.

Therefore, ∠b = 52°.

(iii) Since angle c is adjacent to angle θ, it is supplementary to angle θ.

Therefore, ∠c = 180° – 52° = 128°.
Note: Angle c is also opposite to angle a, so ∠c = ∠a = 128°.

Parallel Lines and Transversal Angles

Parallel lines are lines in a plane which do not meet (or intersect) even when extended. To
demonstrate that the lines are parallel, small arrowheads are drawn.
B
D

A
C

Also, the symbol “|| ” is used to indicate that the lines are parallel; e.g. AB|| CD
A transversal is a line that intersects two distinct parallel lines, and the angles it forms with each of
the two parallel lines are congruent.
X Transversal
a
A b B
c d Two distinct
e parallel lines
C f D
h
g
Y
∠a = ∠e, ∠b = ∠f, ∠c = ∠g, ∠d = ∠h

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In the above diagram, XY is a transversal which intersects parallel lines AB and CD.
The four angles, a, b, c, and d are congruent to the four angles, e, f, g, and h, respectively; i.e.,
∠a = ∠e, ∠b = ∠f, ∠c = ∠g, and ∠d = ∠h.
This means that there are special relationships between the angles formed by the transversal and
each of the parallel lines, as classified below:

Corresponding Corresponding The angles formed on the same corner of the

d
angles have a angles intersection between the transversal and each
pattern that looks of the parallel lines are called corresponding
like the letter (e.g., ∠d = ∠h) h angles, and they are congruent.
F:

Co-interior angles The angles formed on the same side of the

Co-interior d
have a pattern that a transversal and on the interior of the parallel
angles Ɵe
looks like the letter lines are called co-interior angles, and they are
(e.g., ∠d + ∠e = 180 °)
C: supplementary.
b c

Alternate angles have Alternate The angles formed on opposite sides of the
a pattern that looks angles c
like the letter b transversal and on the interior of the parallel
ae
Z:
(e.g., ∠c = ∠e) c lines are called alternate angles, and they are
d congruent.
P

Opposite a
Opposite angles
have a pattern angles The angles formed by any intersecting lines
c
that looks like the (e.g., ∠a = ∠c e that are opposite to the same vertex are called
letter X: and ∠e = ∠g) φ opposite angles, and they are congruent.
g
θ

To summarize, consider the angles formed by two distinct parallel lines AB|| CD and a transversal XY.
φ
X
θ
a
A b B
d
c
e
f
C D
h
g
Y

Corresponding angles are equal Co-interior angles are supplementary

∠a = ∠e
∠d + ∠e =180°
∠b = ∠f
∠c + ∠f = 180°
∠c = ∠g
∠d = ∠h
Alternate angles are equal Opposite angles are equal
∠a = ∠c
∠b = ∠d
∠d = ∠f
∠e = ∠g
∠c = ∠e
∠f = ∠h

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Example 5.1-e Identifying Relationships Between Angles

State the relationship to angle θ of each of the five unknown angles a, b, c, d, and e identified in the
following diagram. Then state whether the angle is congruent or supplementary to θ.

a
θ b
c d
e

Solution (i) Angle a is opposite angle θ; hence it is congruent to θ.

(ii) Angle b is adjacent to angle θ; hence it is supplementary to θ.

(iii) Angle c is co-interior to angle θ; hence it is supplementary to θ.

(iv) Angle d is alternate to angle θ; hence it is congruent to θ.

(v) Angle e is corresponding to angle θ; hence it is congruent to θ.

Example 5.1-f Calculating Measure of Transversal Angles

Calculate the angle measures of the five unknown angles identified in Example 9.1-e, given that
angle θ = 105°.

Solution (i) Since angle a is congruent to θ, ∠a = θ = 105°.

(ii) Since angle b is supplementary to θ, ∠b = 180° – θ = 180° – 105° = 75°.

(iii) Since angle c is supplementary to θ, ∠c = 180° – θ = 180° – 105° = 75°.

(iv) Since angle d is congruent to θ, ∠d = θ = 105°.

(v) Since angle e is congruent to θ, ∠e = θ = 105°.

Example 5.1-g Application of Transversal Angles - Intersections of Roads

Alder Road, Birch Street, and Cedar Avenue are all straight roads that run in different directions, and
their intersections form a triangle. Alder Road intersects Birch Street at an angle of 72° and Cedar
Avenue at an angle of 47°, both measured from within the triangle. Using the angle relationships
learned in this section, determine the angle of intersection between Birch Street and Cedar Avenue.
X
Solution Step 1: Draw a diagram representing the intersection
of roads and mark the known angles. Name Birch Street
θ
Cedar Avenue
the triangle as XYZ and let θ be the angle of
intersection between Birch Street and Cedar 72° 47°

Avenue. Y Alder Road Z

Step 2: To make use of the angle relationships that we

learned in this section, draw an imaginary a
X
b
road, parallel to Alder Road, that runs through θ

Birch Street Cedar Avenue

X, the intersection of Birch Street and Cedar
Avenue. Now Birch Street and Cedar Avenue are 72° 47°
transversals. Y Alder Road Z

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Solution Step 3: Calculate the alternate angles that are formed, denoted as a and b on the diagram above.
continued
∠ a = 72° (Alternate Angle)
∠ b = 47° (Alternate Angle)
Step 4: The three angles a, θ, and b at the vertex X must be equal to 180° (angles in a straight line).
∠ a + θ + ∠ b = 180°
θ = 180° – ∠ a – ∠ b
= 180° − 72° − 47°
θ = 61°
Therefore, the interior angle of intersection between Birch Street and Cedar Avenue is 61°.

The above example demonstrates that the three internal angles of a triangle must add up to 180°. We
will examine this further as we begin to analyze plane figures in the next section.

5.1 | Exercises Answers to odd-numbered problems are available at the end of the textbook.

1. Draw and label the following geometric objects:

a. Line EF b. Line segment GH c. Ray JK

2. Draw and label the following geometric objects:

a. Line ST b. Line segment UV c. Ray XW

3. Identify and name the following geometric objects:

a. b. L c.
A B Y

4. Identify and name the following geometric objects:

a. b. c.
D N
Q R

C O

For the figures shown in Problems 5 to 8, answer the following questions:

(i) Name the angle using the three-letter naming convention (e.g., ∠ ABC).
(ii) Classify the angle as acute, right, or obtuse.
(iii) Determine the approximate angle measure using a protractor.
(iv) Calculate the supplement and complement (if applicable) of the angle.
5. a. D b.
A B

Q
P C

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6. a. b. L
N
M M
O
N

7. a. b.
X P
Z

Y R Q

8. a. b. V
S T

W X

9. Determine the measure of the angle that is complementary to: a. 32.5° b. 18°

10. Determine the measure of the angle that is complementary to: a. 83.1° b. 5°

11. Determine the measure of the angle that is supplementary to: a. 123.4° b. 89°

12. Determine the measure of the angle that is supplementary to: a. 7.8° b. 92°

For the figures shown in Problems 13 to 16, determine the congruent pairs of angles.
13. a. A C b.
O
t q r

B D s t

14. a. b.
M N

t w x
O v
u z y

Q P

15. 16.
h k
i j
t a
b d
e
c
f g
p

m n o

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For the figures shown in Problems 17 to 20, determine the values of the unknown angles.
17. a. b.

a
70°
b
c d
a b c

132° 120°

18. a. b.
a
26°
145°
c a
b d

c c
b 80° b

19. a. b. c

80° 20°
a a b
59° 58°
50° c
d b
c

c
c

20. a. b.

72° 96°
d a a 120°
c b
30° 25°
b c

c
c

21. A small island is situated at the south of Lois Lake, separated from the mainland by two tributaries of Lois Lake: Crag
Creek to the West and Slip Stream to the East. A straight highway called River Road connects the island to the mainland
in either direction. The River Road bridge over Crag Creek forms an angle of 77° with the creek, and the bridge over Slip
Stream forms an angle of 71° with the stream, both on the island’s side. Assuming that both Crag Creek and Slip Stream
are fairly straight, determine the angle that they form with each other when they branch off Lois Lake.

22. The South-West corner of the intersection of Main and Queen forms an angle of 104°. Further down Main Street, the
South-West corner of the intersection of Main and King forms an angle of 63°. Determine the acute angle formed by the
intersection of Queen and King, assuming that all three roads are perfectly straight.

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For the figures shown in Problems 23 and 24, use transversal angles and the fact that the sum of the three internal angles of
a triangle always equals 180°.
23. a. Calculate the value of θ. b. Calculate the values of a, b, and c.

a c

θ b

92°
50°
136° 110°

c c

24. a. Calculate the value of θ. b. Calculate the values of a, b, and c.

120°
a

63° θ

b
c 80°

121°

θ = 26° θ = 26° c c

5.2 | Classification and Properties of Plane Figures

The study of geometry that deals with objects or figures that are flat (i.e., 2-dimensional) and that
can be drawn in the Cartesian plane is known as plane geometry. In plane geometry, we study the
properties and relations of plane figures such as triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, and circles. A
plane figure is continuous and closed, meaning that it can be drawn without lifting the pencil from
the page and that the start-point is the same as the end-point of the object.
Some examples of plane figures are shown below:

Simple Convex Simple Concave Complex Non-Polygon

Polygons Polygon Polygon

Exhibit 5.2-a Classification of Plane Figures

Polygons
A polygon is a plane figure that is created by joining a finite number of line segments together at
their vertices; i.e., a polygon is a plane figure that is bound by three or more straight edges, known as
sides. The first six shapes in Exhibit 5.2-a are polygons. The circle (i.e., the 7th shape) in Exhibit 5.2-a
is not a polygon, as it is not formed by joining a finite number of line segments together. However,
the circle is a special shape which we will learn about later in the chapter.
A simple polygon is a polygon which does not intersect itself. The first five shapes in Exhibit 5.2-a
are simple polygons. A polygon that is not simple (i.e., it intersects itself) is called a complex polygon.
The hourglass shape (i.e., the 6th shape) in Exhibit 5.2-a is an example of a complex polygon.

Chapter 5 | Basic Geometry and Trigonometry