Chapter One: Introduction

❖ Introductory Concepts about Information

Information is product of human brain in action. Information is a symbolic element which is
available in textual numerical and symbolic form. Data that is (1) accurate and timely, (2) specific
and organized for a purpose, (3) presented within a context that gives it meaning and relevance,
and (4) can lead to an increase in understanding and decrease in uncertainty. Information is
valuable because it can affect behavior, a decision, or an outcome. For example, if a manager is
told his/her company’s net decreased in the past month, he/she may use this information as a reason
to cut financial spending for the next month. A piece of information is considered valueless if,
after receiving it, things remain unchanged.

➢ Data and Information

"
• The term "data refers to "an individual fact, statistic.
• Thus, data may be described as discrete (separate) and unorganized pieces (section, part)
of information.
• Data represents facts or figures obtained from experiments or surveys, used as basis for
making calculations or drawing conclusions.
• Data become "information" when these pieces are processed, interpreted and presented in
an organized or logical form to facilitate a better comprehension (Understanding,
knowledge) of the concerned topic or issue.

❖ Information Source

What is Information Source- An Information Source is a source of information for somebody,

i.e. anything that might informs a person about something on provide knowledge to somebody.
Information sources are the various means by which information is recorded for use by an
individual or an organization. Information can come from virtually anywhere — media, blogs,
personal experiences, books, journal and magazine articles, expert opinions, observations,
speeches, picture, encyclopedias, and web pages — and the type of information you need will
change depending on the question you are trying to answer.

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❖ Purpose of information sources and services
Following are the purpose of Information sources and services:

• To find information or opinions about popular culture

• To find up-to-date information about current events
• To find general and specific articles that helps scholars
• To find bibliographies that point to another relevant research
• To find recent information about international, national and local events
• to find editorials, commentaries, expert or popular opinions
• To put your topic in context with other important issues and
• To find historical information

❖ Types of Information sources

On the basis of physical nature, there are mainly two types of information sources. They
are: documentary and non-documentary.
1. Documentary sources: A document constitutes embodied thought which is a record of
work on paper or other material fit for physical handling, transport across space and
preservation through time. It may include manuscripts, handwritten and engraved materials
including printed books, periodicals, microforms, photographs, gramophone records, tape
records, etc.
2. Non-documentary Sources: The non-documentary sources of information are live
sources which are extremely important in the process of communication. The non-
documentary sources of information include government establishments, departments,
universities, technological institutions, data centers, information centers, referral centers,
clearing houses, consultants, technological gatekeepers, etc. Non documentary sources of
information also include discussion with colleagues, visitors, participants of seminars and
conferences, etc.
According to the originality of information, the sources of information can be divided into three
i.e., primary sources, secondary sources and tertiary sources of information.

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Primary Sources

Primary sources of information are more current and up to date than other sources of information.
These constitute the latest available information. Primary sources consist of new knowledge. Much
of the information published in primary sources is never re-published in other sources. These
sources are also called original sources of information. Primary sources are the first published
records of original research and development activities. The research findings by the researchers
are recorded and published first in the primary source such as journals. These sources are very
useful for the researchers to keep them up to date about the latest developments in their area of
research. This will also help the researchers to avoid duplication in research. Primary sources are
the original documents representing unfiltered original theories, ideas, discoveries and inventions.

Examples of primary sources:

• Diaries
• Letters
• Newspaper article written by a reporter who witnessed the event
• Patents
• Interviews

Secondary source of Information:

A secondary source contains commentary on or discussion about a primary source. The most
important feature of secondary sources is that they offer an interpretation of information gathered
from primary sources. Precisely they are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources.

The following are example of secondary source

• Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies (used to locate a secondary source)
• Journal articles
• Magazine and newspaper articles

Tertiary source of Information:

Tertiary sources consist of information which is a modification and collection of primary and
secondary sources. A tertiary source presents summaries or condensed versions of materials,

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usually with references back to the primary and/or secondary sources. They can be a good place
to look up facts or get a general overview of a subject.
Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a particular author. They are intended only to provide
an overview of what the topic includes its basic terminology, and often references for further
reading. Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources when their chief
purpose is to list, summarize or simply repackage ideas or other information.
Examples:

• Almanacs
• Bibliography of Bibliographies
• Directories
• Guidebooks
• Manuals

❖ Formats of Information sources

Information sources can be further classified on the basis of their format into print and non-
print sources.
1. Print Sources: The sources of information which are available in print format are known as
print sources. Printing is facilitated by various tools like typewriters, computers etc. A variety
of machines in the form of printers are used to obtain the print out on paper using various types
of inks. Print sources are mostly in the form of text books, reference books, periodicals, diaries,
etc.
2. Non-print sources: are the media where information is available in non-conventional form.
non-print media that normally include: 1. Photographs, film slides, transparencies; 2. Realia,
mock-ups, models and specimens; 3. Phono-recordings, including discs; 4. Audio tapes, cassettes;
5. Motion pictures, Video Tapes; 6. Microforms; 7. Magnetic Media; and 8. Optical Media.

❖ List of General Information sources in general, a list of sources of Information can be

summed up:

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Electronic Book (e-book, e-library book) – A digital version of a traditional print book, or a
book-like electronic publication with no print counterpart, designed to be read on a personal
computer or an e-book reader.
Website: An information resource suitable for the Internet which is accessible through a Web
browser. The content is formatted with a markup language and often provides navigation to other
web pages via hypertext links.
Text Book: A text book is made of continuous exposition, sentences mount into paragraph,
paragraphs into chapter, chapters get woven into a single swelling exposition in the continuous
pursuit of a single or many ideas, simple or complex. Text books are read consecutively for
inspiration, enjoyment or information. There is a link at each stage. There is an element of
continuity. According to Grogan, “A text book is a teaching instrument; its primary aim is not to
import information about its subject but to develop understanding of it. It concentrates on
demonstrating principles rather than recounting detail.”
Periodical: Periodicals are used at intervals and numbered consecutively. They are given volume
designations, several issues making up a volume. Periodicals include journals and magazines,
transactions, proceedings or similar works.
Journal: Journal is a scholarly publication devoted to disseminating current information about
research and development in a specific field or subfield of human knowledge. Journal is usually
regularly published at intervals.
Patents: A patent presents a detailed account of a new manufacturing process or improvement of
an existing process, a new product, a new method of testing and control, etc. Generally, when some
kind of invention is made, the manufacturer wants to protect his invention and the patent offices
in various countries on the request of the manufacturer generally issue the patent, which provides
an exclusive right to the manufacturer on the invention.
Magazine: The magazine usually refers to the non-scholarly publications written for an educated
audience and contains popular reading.
Newsletter: Newsletter is a publication issued by an organization often simple in format and crisp
in style to provide speedy information for a definite audience.
Thesis and Dissertation: Thesis and dissertation are the results of purely academic pursuit. It
reports some original work in a specific field. Among all the primary sources of information, thesis

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and dissertation are probably least used mainly because their existence is not known in many cases
and also due to the limited number of copies of the document.
Atlas: Books filled with maps, charts, and tables. Atlases provide information pertaining to
populations and place locations. Current and historical are the two major types of atlases; however,
there are human anatomy atlases too.
Handbook and Manual: Handbooks normally give a broad treatment of one subject area.
Manuals are reference books that explain how something is done or how something operates.
Bibliography: A compilation of sources of information that provides literature on a specific
subject or by a specific author.
Dictionary: Defines words and terms; confirms spelling, definition, and pronunciation; used to
find out how words are used; helps to locate synonyms and antonyms and to trace the origin of
words .
Biographical Dictionary: Sources of information about the lives of people.
Directory: Lists names and addresses of individuals, companies, organizations, and institutions.
Encyclopedia: Covers knowledge or branches of knowledge in a comprehensive, but summary
fashion; useful for providing facts and giving a broad survey of a topic; written by specialists.
Almanac and Yearbook: These reference books are published yearly and contain factual
information pertinent to a specific span of time. Medical, governmental, industrial, and vital
statistics are some examples of information that can be found in these resources.
Database :A large, regularly updated file of digitized information (bibliographic records, full-text
documents, directory entries, images, statistics, etc.), sometimes related to a specific subject or
field, consisting of records of uniform format organized for ease and speed of search and retrieval
and managed with the aid of database management system (DBMS) software that includes an
internal mechanism (search interface) for searching based on proprietary metadata.
Guidebooks: provides detail descriptions of places; intended primarily for the traveler;
geographical facts plus maps (e.g., Great Lakes Guidebook).

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➢ Online and CD-ROM database
Databases: These are systematically organized collections of information covering different
subject matters or specializing in one given subject or topic. They may be arranged in a table of
contents, alphabetically, in numerical order, in an index or in subject categories. A database is
made up of records. Each item in the database has one record. Records consist of smaller units of
information called fields. Common bibliographic database fields are: author, publication title,
article title, subject or keywords, publication date, volume, issue and page number. For example,
in the MEDLINE/PubMed database, each journal citation has one record. The record consists of
the following fields: author, article title, and journal title, date of publication, volume, issue, page
number, PubMed ID, and abstract. A digital database is a computer program that organizes,
describes, and indexes information. It permits the user to search for specific types of
information, depending upon the selected search parameters.

Online Bibliographic Databases

▪ African Index Medicus (AIM)

▪ MEDLINE/PubMed
▪ Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL)
▪ Web of Knowledge
▪ Scopus
▪ EMBASE

African Index Medicus (AIM): African Index Medicus (AIM) is a collaborative effort between
the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Association for Health Information and Libraries
in Africa (AHILA). AIM gives access to information published or related to Africa and also
encourages local publishing. This database provides access to mainly abstracts and a few full-text
articles published in African journals. It is at: http://indexmedicus.afro.who.int/

MEDLINE/PubMed: MEDLINE is the premier bibliographic database of the National Library of

Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. It covers the field of medicine, nursing dentistry, veterinary
medicine, the healthcare systems, the preclinical sciences and other areas related to the life sciences
and is updated daily. MEDLINE records contain bibliographic citations from over 5,000 print and
electronic biomedical journals published across the globe. It is accessible online free of charge

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through PubMed. MEDLINE/PubMed could be accessed at: http://www.pubmed.nlm.nih.gov.
However, to retrieve full text articles, it is better to access PubMed through HINARI at:
http://www.who.int/hinari.

Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL): Gives access to
citations and abstracts for nursing and allied health information. It includes citations
from over 2000 journals and abstracts are available for over 1,200 titles with full text of over
7,000 records available in the database. CINAHL is based on subscription. However, it could be
accessed free of charge through HINARI by institutions in Africa.

Web of Science: Web or science Provides access to the Science Citation Index Expanded and
Social Science Citation Index. It covers science and provides technical journals in biochemistry,
biology, genetics, biomedicine, genetics, microbiology, nuclear science with abstracts. It covers
more than 8,000 journals. Web of Knowledge (PubMed) is accessible free of
charge via HINARI.

Scopus: Scopus is an interdisciplinary bibliographic database that indexes the content of more
than 15,000 peer-reviewed journals from more than 4,000 international publishers. It covers
subjects such as the physical sciences, engineering, earth and environmental sciences, life and
health sciences, social sciences, psychology, business, and management. Scopus can be accessed
at http://www.scopus.com or through HINARI for full text articles.

EMBASE: Provides content to biomedical (clinical and experimental) information with extensive
coverage of drug research, pharmacology, pharmacy, and toxicology, public health and mental
health topics with abstracts back to 1974 and it is updated daily with pharmacological information.
This database can be accessed through subscription at http://www.embase.com.

A CD-ROM database
A CD-ROM database can provide access to more than 500 MB of data on a single 3.5-inch optical
disk. A growing number of databases are becoming available in CD-ROM format. The power of
CD-ROM technology has made it possible for libraries to provide affordable and fixed-cost
database services for its patrons.
➢ Information Sources on Social Networking Applications:

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 In recent years social networking applications popularly known as Web 2.0 are now being used
as a means of communication, especially in sharing and dissemination of information.
Libraries and information centers are also using this media to reach out to their clients.
Common Web 2.0 applications that have become sources of information include:
✓ Blogs
✓ MySpace
✓ YouTube

➢ Internet

The Internet is a global system of networked computers that allow user-to-user communication
and transfer of data files from one computer to another on the network. It is a worldwide
system of computer networks - a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if
they have permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to
users at other computers) on the network. On the other hand, the World Wide Web
(WWW) provides the technology needed to navigate the Internet is vast sea of resources.
The WWW is a path-way of accessing information over the Internet via Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) or web address.

Information Sources in the Library/Internet:

The Internet has become a big library for all kinds of information. Some information sources are
available online free of charge while others are fee-based. Examples include online books,
databases, journals and reference resources. Some of these are free on the Internet while others
are based on subscription or purchase. MEDLINE/PubMed is a good example of a free online
database while EMBASE is based on subscription. Below are the various categories of information
sources that could be accessed through the Web.
▪ Reference
▪ Monographs
▪ Periodicals
▪ Indexes and abstracts
▪ Drug information
▪ Databases

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❖ Information and Reference Service
Libraries are meant to provide information services to its clientele. Modern libraries provide
various library and information services to fulfil the information needs of the clientele. Information
revolution is responsible for increase in the variety and volume of information services. Electronic
delivery of information has become a necessity. Internet has opened new vistas of information
resources. A very simple definition is an Information Service is a service, which provides (serves)
data/knowledge/information somehow. Information service is the process of resolving information
needs of users in response to a particular question, interest, assignments or problem and building
positive relationships with users.

Reference service is a personal service which is provided in response to the requests from the
users. Requests may be for directional guidance, locating answers to fact finding questions,
literature search for solving a research problem, or for general help. To provide the service, the
librarian may utilize the resources available in the library as well as those available outside the
library. Basic aim is to make the information available to the user as early as possible. Depending
upon the requirement, librarian may give the information itself or the documents containing
information.

I) Ready Reference Service or Short-Range Reference Service: This service is concerned with
providing answers to fact finding questions, such as what, where, who, when and how. The
requested information can be easily located in standard reference books like dictionaries,
encyclopedias, yearbooks, almanacs, directories, etc. Time taken to answer these queries is very
short ranging from a few minutes to half an hour. That is why this service is known as ready
reference service or short-range reference service.

ii) Long Range Reference Service: is generally provided to a specialist who is seeking
information for research, for delivering a lecture or for solving particular problem. Information
sought may be too specialized in nature, it may be too recent, it may be related to another period,
or it may be in particular language.

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The request may come from a professor, a business executive, a government official, a decision
maker, or R&D personnel. Depending upon the query, information may be searched in several
sources including printed as well as electronic sources. At times, organizational and informal
sources are also tapped to provide desired information. Since, to provide this type of service, wide
range of sources are consulted, time taken to provide the service is much longer than the ready
reference service. That is why this service is known as long range reference service.

❖ Type of services
The reference and information services that libraries offer can be broadly categorized into two
groups:
a) Responsive Information Services: The service that is provided in response to a specific request
by the user.
b) Anticipatory Information Services: The service that is provided in anticipation of some need.

a) Responsive Information Services: Responsive information services (also known as

passive information services) are provided in response to the requests from the users. The
request may come from the users in person, over the telephone, through correspondence,
or via e-mail.
The technology now allows users to submit their requests to the library at any time from any place
in the world. In an effort to reach the users accessing the library via their computers, many libraries
and library consortia are extending their reference service to include virtual reference.

Virtual reference is a reference service initiated electronically, often in real time, where users
employ computers or Internet technology to communicate with reference staff, without being
physically present. Communication channels used frequently in virtual reference are chat,
videoconferencing, Voice over IP, co-browsing, e-mail, and instant messaging. Based upon the
type of requests or queries, the services offered in the library can be broadly categorized as follows:
• Provision of general information
• Reference Service
o Ready Reference Service
o Long Range Reference Service

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• Assistance in searching and locating documents
• Literature search and compiling a bibliography
• Assistance in the use of library tools such as catalogue including OPAC, reference books, online
databases, etc.
• Document Delivery Service
• Referral Service

b) Anticipatory information services: Anticipatory information services are provided to

library users in anticipation of demand for such services. These services are also called
active information services. The need for such services was felt mainly due to:
i) exponential growth of published literature, particularly in the field of science
and technology;
ii) ii) interdisciplinary nature of frontline areas of research, resulting in scattering
of information in different disciplines; and
iii) iii) publication of research results in different types of sources as well as in
different formats.
As a consequence of the growth in volume, diversity, and complexity of the information sources,
scientists, technologists, researchers and managers faced problems in accessing information and
in keeping themselves abreast of the latest developments in their areas of interest. To solve this
problem, the libraries, particularly scientific and technical libraries, started providing information
services to the users, particularly to the researchers.
To provide these services, user’s information needs are assessed and then services are designed
accordingly. Initially, the service is provided on trial basis and when response is satisfactory then
service is regularized. The following types of services are offered:
• Current Awareness Type
• Condensation Type
• Readers Advisory Service
• Information Literacy
• Web-based or Internet-based services

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❖ History of information services (Reading assignment)
History of Information services in Libraries:
The history of information services in libraries began with the first efforts to organize collections
of documents. Topics of interest include accessibility of the collection, acquisition of materials,
arrangement and finding tools, the book trade, the influence of the physical properties of the
different writing materials, language distribution, role in education, rates of literacy, budgets,
staffing, libraries for specially targeted audiences, architectural merit, patterns of usage, and the
role of libraries in a nation's cultural heritage, and the role of government, church or private
sponsorship. Since the 1960s issues of computerization and digitization come to the fore. Library
history is the academic discipline devoted to the study of the history of libraries; it is a subfield of
library science and historiography.
The early period of Information services:
The first Information services libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing the clay
tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer : (Sumer was the first urban
civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia, modern-day southern Iraq, during
the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages, and arguably the first civilization in the world with Ancient
Egypt) and some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which mainly consisted of the records
of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory and the start of history.
The Classical Period of Information services
Information services at Library of Alexandria Egypt, was the largest and most significant great
library of the ancient world. It flourished under the support of the Ptolemaic dynasty and
functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the
Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign
of Ptolemy I Soter (323–283 BC) or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II (283–246 BC). An early
organization system was in effect at Alexandria.
The middle age period of Information services
During the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages periods, there was no Rome of the kind that ruled the
Mediterranean for centuries and spawned the culture that produced twenty-eight public libraries
in the urbs Roma. The empire had been divided then later re-united again under Constantine the
Great who moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD to the city of Byzantium which was

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renamed Constantinople. The Roman intellectual culture that flourished in ancient times was
undergoing a transformation as the academic world moved from laymen to Christian clergy. As
the West crumbled, books and libraries flourished and flowed east toward the Byzantine Empire.
There, four different types of libraries were established: imperial, patriarchal, monastic, and
private.

Information services at the first national library of the world:

The first national libraries had their origins in the royal collections of the sovereign or some other
supreme body of the state. One of the first plans for a national library was devised by the Welsh
mathematician John Dee, in 1556 presented Mary I of England with a visionary plan for the
preservation of old books, manuscripts and records and the founding of a national library, but his
proposal was not taken up.

❖ Standards and Ethics for Information Service

Guidelines for Information Services |
Libraries have an inherent obligation to provide information service to support the educational,
recreational, personal and economic endeavors of the members of their respective communities,
as appropriate to the libraries’ individual missions. Information services in libraries take a variety
of forms including direct personal assistance, directories, signs, exchange of information culled
from a reference source, reader’s advisory service, dissemination of information in anticipation of
user needs or interests, and access to electronic information. A library, because it possesses and
organizes for use its community’s concentration of information resources, must develop
information services appropriate to its community and in keeping with the American Library
Association’s Library Bill of Rights. These services should take into account the information-
seeking behaviors, the information needs, and the service expectations of the members of that
community. Provision of information in the manner most useful to its clients is the ultimate test of
all a library does. In that spirit, these guidelines are directed to all who share responsibility for
providing information services, including trustees, administrators, educators, supervisors,
department heads, and information staff in all types of libraries.

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By intent and by design, the guidelines below form a statement of service goals rather than a
codification of practices. The reasons for casting these guidelines as goals are two: first so that this
statement can enjoy a long life of usefulness to the profession and to those who libraries serve, and
second, to suggest goals to managers and providers of information services. Because these
guidelines must serve the needs of all types of libraries, it is recognized that not every statement
in the guidelines will apply to a particular library or type of library. Therefore, in applying the
guidelines, library staff will need to emphasize those statements appropriate to their particular
library, its mission and the community it serves, and they should strive to realize the goals
expressed in those statements.

These guidelines address information services from the following perspectives:

1. Services
2. Resources
3. Access
4. Personnel
5. Evaluation
6. Ethics

1.0 Services

1.1 The goal of information services is to provide the information sought by the user. Information
service should anticipate as well as meet user needs. It should encourage user awareness of the
potential of information resources to fulfill individual information needs.

1.2 The library should develop information, reference, and directional services consistent with the
goals of the institution or community it serves.

1.3 The library should strive to provide users with complete, accurate answers to information
queries regardless of the complexity of those queries.

1.4 The library should make available user aids in appropriate formats to help users identify items
in the collection relevant to their interests and needs. Access guides can list hours, services, floor

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plans, and other pertinent data about the individual building(s). Guides can also offer assistance in
using particular resources or in performing research in a specific subject area.

1.5 The library should provide instruction in the effective use of its resources. Such instruction,
for example, can include the individual explanation of information resources or the creation of
guides in appropriate formats, formal assistance through tours and presentations designed to
provide guidance, and direction in the pursuit of information.

1.6 The library should actively publicize the scope, nature, and availability of the information
services it offers. It should employ those media most effective in reaching its entire clientele or
selected segments of that clientele, as appropriate.

1.7 The library should survey and assess the information needs of its community and create local
information products to fulfill those needs not met by existing materials.

1.8 The library should serve its community by collecting and creating information and referral files
to provide access to the services and resources of local, regional and state organizations.

1.9 Based on its clients’ known needs and interests, the library should provide information even if
it has not been explicitly requested.

1.10 When information is not immediately useful as presented in its source, the library should add
value to that information. This process of adding value can range from simply sorting and
packaging the information to reviewing and analyzing it for library clients as appropriate.

1.11 The library should participate in consortia and networks to obtain access to information
sources and services it cannot provide on its own.

1.12 When the library is not able to provide a user with needed information, it should refer either
the user or the user’s question to some other agency, an expert or other library that can provide the
needed information. Before referring a user to an agency, expert or other library, information
services personnel should confirm that the agency, expert or library to which the user is being
referred can provide the information and will extend its services to that user. When a question is
referred to another agency, the referring library should follow all local, state, regional, or national

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protocols in effect, including those governing selection of transmittal forms and communications
media.

1.13 The library should use or provide access to the information systems outside the library when
these systems meet information needs more effectively and efficiently than internal resources can.

1.14 The library should develop and make available to the public a statement that describes the
information services it strives to offer all members of its community.

1.15 The library should develop and make available to the public a statement of its reference
service policy.

2.0 Resources

2.1 The library should collect or provide access to information resources germane to its mission
and reflecting the full spectrum of the population it serves.

2.2 The library should develop an information resources collection and development policy
consistent with the goals of its institution or community. These information resources should
satisfy through content, currency, format, organization, and quantity a diversity of user needs.

2.3 As necessary, information services personnel should reach beyond in-house collections and in-
house expertise by drawing on the resources of other organizations that collect and provide
information, by consulting individual experts, and by tapping external information sources
regardless of their medium.

2.4 The library should provide access to the most current reference sources available in order to
assure the accuracy of information.

3.0 Access

3.1 The library should arrange information services according to a coherent plan, taking into
account ready accessibility to users. The information services workspace should be large enough

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to accommodate staff, the collection of information resources, equipment necessary for accessing
all communications and other equipment, and users seeking their services.

3.2 The library should make service areas for information services highly visible and accommodate
the needs of users, including users with disabilities. Signage should unambiguously direct users to
areas where they can obtain assistance in finding the information they seek.

3.3 The library should support state-of-the-art communications methods for access to information
resources for all its users.

3.4 The library should provide appropriate equipment in adequate quantities and in good working
order for the convenient, efficient consultation of local and remote information resources by staff
and the public. This includes communications hardware and software to receive and answer
queries for information from users.

3.5 Operation hours for information services should be responsive to the community’s needs and
behavior and the libraries financial and personnel resources.

4.0 Personnel

4.1 The library should make available sufficient qualified personnel during the hours that best meet
the information needs and expectations of the community.

4.2 Information services staff should endeavor to communicate effectively with the full range of
the library’s clientele regardless of a user’s age, gender, sexual preference, ethnicity, disability, or
language proficiency.

4.3 Information services staff must have knowledge and preparation appropriate to meet the
information needs of the clientele the library serves. Personnel responsible for information
technology services should be familiar and competent in using information technology and should
also possess effective interpersonal communications skills.

4.4 Continuing education of information service personnel is basic to professional growth. It is the
responsibility of the individual staff member to seek continuing education and of the employing

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institution to support its staff’s continuing education efforts. If possible, the institution should
provide continuing educational programs.

5.0 Evaluation

5.1 The library should regularly evaluate its information services to ensure that the service furthers
the institution’s goals and that the goals reflect the needs and interests of the community served.
Formal and informal evaluations should be used to determine the optimum allocation of resources
to provide quality service.

5.2 The library should integrate the perspectives of staff and community in the overall evaluation
procedure for information service.

5.3 In its evaluation of information services, the library should emphasize those factors most
important to the community using those services. Among these are response time; accessibility of
services (in terms of physical access, convenience of location, convenience of service hours); the
value and effectiveness of services for various groups among the population served; and
effectiveness in anticipating its community’s needs.

5.4 The library should gather relevant statistics for use in evaluation. The library should conduct
evaluative studies using techniques and measures that will yield data comparable to those from
similar institutions and addressing such national norms or common standards as may exist,
modified if necessary, by local needs.

5.5 The library should evaluate individual resources within the collection based upon professional
standards and users’ needs. It should also evaluate its information resources as a unified
information system, including in-house print and non-print as well as accessible external resources.

5.6 The library should appraise the performance of individual information service staff members
and of the collective performance of that staff at regular intervals, using recognized personnel
evaluation techniques and instruments agreed to in advance by those to be evaluated and those
performing the evaluation.

6.0 Ethics

19
6.1 The American Library Association's Code of Ethics (as stated in the ALA Policy Manual in the
ALA Handbook of Organization) governs the conduct of all staff members providing information
service.

Ethical principles: client services

• We serve all of our clients equally in accordance with our mandate and legal bases. We offer
high quality services to all of our clients.
• We provide our clients access to our holdings and publicly accessible information resources.
• We inform and advise our clients objectively, impartially and courteously, and assist them in
retrieving the information they need.
• We treat all our clients with equal respect, regardless of their origin, race, age, social status,
creed, gender or sexual orientation.
• We observe the principles of barrier free accessibility.
• We protect children and youths from contents unsuitable for them according to the Young
Persons Protection Act and other legal regulations.
• We respect our clients' privacy. Personal data will be saved only to ensure service delivery
and only within the legal framework. We will share personal data with other institutions only
as required by law.
• We perform our duties in a professional manner regardless of our personal opinion and view.

Ethical principles: other services

• We encourage the shaping of opinion and the free flow of information as well as the existence
of libraries and information services to facilitate free access to all kinds of information
resources provided by our democratic society. We reject censorship of content.
• We protect our cultural heritage according to the libraries' collecting mandate.
• We support science and research by providing information, resources and related services. We
also promote the freedom of science and research.
• We are committed to the principle of lifelong learning in order to improve our own competence
and the competence of all members of the public. In this context we see ourselves in a
continual improvement process to optimize services for our clients.

20
• We organize events to promote reading and the active use of information, alone and in
cooperation with partners.
• Our relationship with suppliers and other business partners is based on a high ethical standard.
• We choose information resources exclusively according to objective criteria, their quality and
their suitability to meet the needs of our clients regardless of personal preferences and
influences of third parties. Our reference services and professional competence guarantee
access to all information resources.
• We actively advertise our services and facilities to the members of the public to make them
aware of all means of access to public information.
• We provide information on the internet as data and full-texts within the legal limits to increase
accessibility.
• We recognize the rights of creators and copyright holders of copyright-protected library and
information material.
• We apply our professional competence to preserve heritage holdings for future generations.
• We treat our colleagues with fairness and respect, and promote a culture of cooperation,
responsible acting and mutual trust.
• Professional independence, respect, fairness, willingness to cooperate and critical loyalty
define our interactions with our superiors and superior authorities.

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Chapter two: Information seeking behavior: Users and their Information
needs in a variety of settings
❖ User-centred Information Services

The world “user-centered” refers to the notation of paying attention to the demands of system users
and a concentrated way of thinking about information services. The basic concepts in user-centered
approach is information need and seeking behavior. Information seeking behavior: definition
and its various types; Information is an important resource for individual growth and survival.
The progress of modern societies as well as individuals depends a great deal upon the provision of
the right kind of information, in the right form and at the right time. Information is needed to be
able to take a right decision and also reduce uncertainty. A businessman needs information to be
able to improve in his existing business just like a specialist also need information to be up-to-date
and well informed in his area of specialization. If information is this valuable, it must be put to
proper use, i.e. made available to people or group of people who need it, after ascertaining the
group’s information needs and seeking behavior.

“Information seeking behavior as an individual way and manner of gathering and sourcing for
information for personal use, knowledge updating and development”) (Igwe, 2012
“Information seeking behavior as the complex patterns of actions and interactions which people
engage in when seeing information of whatever kind and for whatever purpose”.
Information seeking behavior refers to the way people search for and utilize information.
(Fairer–Wessels, 1990). Wilson (1999) defines the term information seeking behavior as ‘the
totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information, including both active
and passive information seeking and information use. Thus, it includes face-to-face
communication with others, as well as the passive reception of information as in, for example
watching television advertisements without any intention to act on the information given.

22
❖ Characteristics of online Information seeking behavior
(1) Horizontal information seekers: Horizontal information seeking is the method sometimes
referred to as "skimming". An information seeker who skims views a couple of pages, then
subsequently follows other links without necessarily returning to the initial sites.
(2) Navigator: Navigators, as might be expected, spend their time finding their way around.
(3) Viewer: users of e-book or e-journal sites were most likely spent, on average, a mere four to
eight minutes viewing side sites.
(4) Squirreling behavior: Squirreling behavior relates to users who download lots of documents
but might not necessarily end up reading them.
(5) Checking information seekers: Checking information seekers assess the host in order to
ascertain trustworthiness.
(6) Diverse information seekers: The bracket of users named diverse information seekers are
users whose behavior differs from the above sectors.

❖ Models of information seeking behavior

Models are developed to represent and to have clear understanding on specific problems where
theories are not sufficient. Models lead to the development of formal theories. Models exclusively
make the content of the concept that they deal more tangible through illustrations in the form of
Diagram, chart, map, table, graph etc. Reynolds (1971) defines a model as “by illustrating casual
process, models make it easier to see if hypothesis are consistent with what we observe
in real life”.
Wilson's (1981) model shown in Figure 1 locates the concepts of information need, information
seeking, information exchange, and information use in a flow diagram that can be seen as charting
the behavior of an individual faced with the need to find information. Wilson argued that a general
model of this kind was useful in identifying areas where additional research could be of value and
pointed to the lack of research on information use as an example.

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❖ The reference Interviews

Reference service

Libraries acquire information, organize that information in a way it can be retrieved, and
disseminate the information the library has acquired. Reference services fulfill this last function.
Reference services may vary from library to library, but most libraries have an information or
Reference Desk where assistance from a librarian is available. Almost all libraries provide
reference services via the telephone and many libraries offer email, text, or chat services with a
reference librarian.

There are three main types of reference assistance:

• Assistance or instruction with using the library, including locating materials, using the
catalog, using computers to access information, and using basic reference sources.
• Assistance identifying library materials needed to answer a question.
• Providing brief, factual answers to questions, such as addresses, statistics, phone
numbers, etc. that can be quickly located.

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Reference librarians are also involved in the development and implementation of printed and
online finding aids and research guides, the selection and implementation of automated reference
systems, services, and user interfaces designed to support independent research and end-user
searching.

Reference sources such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, atlases, etc. are research tools
that can help you with your paper or project. Reference sources provide answers to specific
questions, such as brief facts, statistics, and technical instructions; provide background
information; or direct you to additional information sources. In most libraries, reference sources
do not circulate and are located in a separate reference collection. This practice makes reference
sources readily available and easily accessible.

Reference sources are designed to be consulted rather than read through. Their design is
generally dependent on the type of information and treatment provided. Reference materials can
be arranged alphabetically, topically, or chronologically. Many will contain cross listed
information and more than one index. If it is not obvious how a reference source is organized,
take a moment to look through the explanatory or how-to-use information, which is usually
presented at the beginning of the book, or in HELP screens for online products.

Reference interview
A reference interview is a conversation between a librarian and a library user, usually at a
reference desk, in which the librarian responds to the user's initial explanation of his or her
information need by first attempting to clarify that need and then by directing the user to
appropriate information resources.
The reference interview as the "conversation between a member of the library reference staff and
a library user for the purpose of clarifying the user’s needs and aiding the user in meeting those
needs" (Bopp & Smith (1995).

The Reference and User Services Association (RUSA) of the American Library Association has
created and updated “Guidelines for Behavioral Performance of Reference and Information
Service Providers” which lists five important elements, or stages, of the reference interview:

1. Approachability
2. Interest
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 3. Listening / Inquiring
4. Searching
5. Follow up

Approachability is a matter of good hospitality: you want to make the patron feel that she or he
can ask you a question. In the United States, it is important to make eye contact as a sign of
respect when the patron approaches. It is also useful to stand up, incline your head toward the
patron, or otherwise indicate that you are willing to answer their question. It is also very
important to develop standard greetings to start the reference interview such as "Can I help
you?", "Do you have any questions", or "Are you finding what you need?" You don't want to
appear too busy, or the patron will be afraid to interrupt you.

The next element of the reference interview is interest: successful librarian must demonstrate a
high degree of interest in the reference transaction. While not every query will contain
stimulating intellectual challenges, the librarian should be interested in each patron's
informational need and should be committed to providing the most effective assistance.
Librarians who demonstrate a high level of interest in the inquiries of their patrons will generate
a higher level of satisfaction among users.

Listening/ inquiring

The reference interview is the heart of the reference transaction and is crucial to the success of
the process. The librarian must be effective in identifying the patron's information needs and
must do so in a manner that keeps patrons at ease. Strong listening and questioning skills are
necessary for a positive interaction.

Uses open-ended questioning techniques to encourage patrons to expand on the request or

present additional information. Some examples of such questions include:
 Please tell me more about your topic.
 What additional information can you give me?
 How much information do you need?

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Uses closed and/or clarifying questions to refine the search query. Some examples of clarifying
questions are:
 What have you already found?
 What type of information do you need (books, articles, etc.)?
 Do you need current or historical information?

Searching

The search process is the portion of the transaction in which behavior and accuracy intersect.
Without an effective search, not only is the desired information unlikely to be found, but patrons
may become discouraged as well. Yet many of the aspects of searching that lead to accurate
results are still dependent on the behavior of the librarian.

o Finds out what patrons have already tried, and encourages patrons to contribute ideas.
o Constructs a competent and complete search strategy. This involves:
 Selecting search terms that are most related to the information desired.
 Verifying spelling and other possible factual errors in the original query.
 Identifying sources appropriate to the patron's need that have the highest probability of
containing information relevant to the patron's query.
o Explains the search strategy and sequence to the patrons, as well as the sources to be
used.
o Attempts to conduct the search within the patrons’ allotted time frame.
o Explains how to use sources when appropriate.
o Works with the patrons to narrow or broaden the topic when too little or too much
information is identified.
o Asks the patron if additional information is needed after an initial result is found.
o Recognizes when to refer patrons to a more appropriate guide, database, library, librarian,
or other resource.
o Offers pointers, detailed search paths (including complete URLs), and names of resources
used to find the answer, so that patrons can learn to answer similar questions on their
own.

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Follow up

The reference transaction does not end when the librarian leaves the patrons. The librarian is
responsible for determining if the patrons are satisfied with the results of the search, and is also
responsible for referring the patrons to other sources, even when those sources are not available in
the local library. Asks patrons if their questions have been completely answered. Encourages the
patrons to return if they have further questions by making a statement such as “If you don’t find
what you are looking for, please come back and we’ll try something else.”

❖ Information Professionals
What is Information Professional
An information professional or information specialist is a person who is well versed in
collecting, recording, storing, organizing, preserving, retrieving, and disseminating
information in various formats. Learn more in: Librarian Skillsets in the 21st Century: The
Changing Role of Librarians in the Digital Era. This is someone who deals with the handling
(collects, records, organizes, stores, preserves, retrieves, and disseminates) printed or digital
information.
Roles of Information Professionals (IP)
The Information Professional will also have to play a multi-faceted role unlike the traditional
librarian who concentrates on the core activities of the library such as acquiring, organizing
and preserving collections of information and providing services. An 'information professional'
will not be one type of role or skill set, but will in fact have a number of specializations". Thus,
an information professional can possess a variety of different roles. Some essential roles of IP
are:
The Information Professional as Researcher
It has become necessary for the Information Professional to be involved in the R&D by
facilitating access to information, such as finding, delivering and summarizing information.
Librarians are highly skilled in the research process and possess a unique knowledge of the
breadth and depth of information resources in various subject specialties. It is believed that
librarians will increasingly become members of research and development teams and playing
more role in the information creation process.

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The Information Professional as Organizer and Publisher
The Information Professional has to play important roles such as organizers, reviewers and
guardians of intellectual property in the digital libraries of the future. Participation in the
formation of new copyright law and application of the law in the digital library is critical. In
the digital library environment, the traditional roles of publishers as information packagers and
information distribution facilitators and the traditional role of libraries as storehouses of
information will be re-emphasized. As universities, regional research centers, laboratories,
corporations and professional societies develop their own depositories of information and
make them available to the world's networks, they take over the publisher's and the library's
traditional roles.
The Information Professional as Teacher and Consultant
The Information Professional must guide users in information gathering, information skills and
tools, organizing information resources, research strategies, basic reference works, accessing
information and many more. Technology is far of today's ahead of information literacy
education. Few users’ libraries are effective and efficient users, and no matter how advanced
and sophisticated interfaces and search engines become in future information access systems,
people will still need to be educated regarding their use. Systems of information production
and distribution also need to be taught. They must understand how to define and refine a
research topic, how to analyze and information need, and how to critically interpret and
evaluate information resulting from research.
The Information Professional as a Guardian of Information Superhighway
The Information Professional has to ensure that the information superhighway working
smoothly and to avoid any disturbance to the services. The information superhighway is a
vision or a metaphor. It envisions a fusion of the two-way wired and wireless capabilities of
telephones and networked computers with a television cable capacity to transmit hundreds of
programs. Services would be delivered by telecommunications networks, television cable
networks and the Internet and mobile communications (William et.al., 1995). Infrastructure
that provides bandwidth-on-demand and information-on-demand services is called information
superhighway.

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The Information Professional as a Member of the Digital Library Design Team

The Information Professional must be involved in the design and application of information
technology initiatives in collaboration with computer and information scientists to design,
organize, develop and maintain digital library repositories, interfaces and networks. Librarians

must be active participants in this process because they are experts at accessing the world's
information resources today. Their areas of expertise are different than the computer and
information scientists. The librarian's knowledge of the world's information resources and them

knowledge and experience in directing users to information will be essential in the development
and maintenance of the digital library's information access and delivery systems. The librarians
can contribute to information selection, acquisition and organization as well as the design of the
search engine and user interface.

❖ The generic search process and principles of search strategy

Generic search:
A generic search as distinct from a general web search engine, focuses on a specific segment of
online content. They are also called specialty or topical search. The generic or vertical content area
may be based on topicality, media type; it includes automotive industry, legal information, medical
information, scholarly literature, and travel.
What is Search Strategy?
A search strategy is a structured organization of terms used to search a database. The search
strategy shows how these terms combine in order to retrieve the best results. Different databases
work in different ways, so you need to adapt your search strategy for each of the databases you
use. This process is often referred to as "tailoring" your search. You may also decide to develop
separate search strategies for different aspects of your research. You will probably need to test
your strategies several times, refining them as you start to look at the results you retrieve from the
database.

❖ Generic search process:

Stage 1: Initiation: During the first stage, initiation, the information seeker recognizes the need
for new information to complete an assignment. As they think more about the topic, they may

30
discuss the topic with others and brainstorm the topic further. This stage of the information seeking
process is filled with feelings of apprehension and uncertainty.
Stage 2: Selection: In the second stage, selection, the individual begins to decide what topic will
be investigated and how to proceed. Some information retrieval may occur at this point. The
uncertainty associated with the first stage often fades with the selection of a topic, and is replaced
with a sense of optimism.
Stage 3: Exploration: In the third stage, exploration, information on the topic is gathered and a
new personal knowledge is created. Students endeavor to locate new information and situate it
within their previous understanding of the topic. In this stage, feelings of anxiety may return if the
information seeker finds inconsistent or incompatible information.
Stage 4: Formulation: During the fourth stage, formulation, the information seeker starts to
evaluate the information that has been gathered. At this point, a focused perspective begins to form
and there is not as much confusion and uncertainty as in earlier stages. Formulation is considered
to be the most important stage of the process. The information seeker will here formulate a
personalized construction of the topic from the general information gathered in the exploration
phase.
Stage 5: Collection: During the fifth stage, collection, the information seeker knows what is
needed to support the focus. Now presented with a clearly focused, personalized topic, the
information seeker will experience greater interest, increased confidence, and more successful
searching.
Stage 6: Search closure: In the sixth and final stage, search closure, the individual has completed
the information search. Now the information seeker will summarize and report on the information
that was found through the process. The information seeker will experience a sense of relief and,
depending on the fruits of their search, either satisfaction or disappointment.

❖ The basic Principles of search strategy:

▪ General principles:

• Consider all the possible words or phrases which describe your topic. For example:
'teenagers', 'young people', 'adolescents', 'youth'.

31
 • Think about the results your search terms won’t find as well as the results they will find.
For example: using 'computer' may mean you miss out on relevant results if ‘PC’ is the
preferred term.
• Consider alternative spellings. For example: search for 'color' as well as 'colour'.
• Consider alternative terminology: search for 'sidewalk' as well as 'pavement'.
• Think about variations in word endings. For example: 'nurse', 'nurses', 'nursing'.
• Expand acronyms: search for 'television' as well as 'T'V'.
• Be specific to achieve the most relevant references, but do not use long descriptive phrases
which would only find references with that exact phrase.
• Try searching on the author’s name for other related work and follow up on bibliographic
references.

▪ Basic principles:
Applying the five principles described below will help you search for relevant information more
effectively:

1. Choose effective search terms (keywords)

2. Use the advanced search option (if one is available)
3. Use Boolean operators
4. Use truncation
5. Use the thesaurus

❖ Principles of controlled vocabulary and free text searching

Controlled vocabulary
In library and information science controlled vocabulary is a carefully selected list of words and
phrases, which are used to tag units of information (document or work) so that they may be more
easily retrieved by a search. Controlled vocabularies solve the problems of homographs,
synonyms and polysemes by a bijection between concepts and authorized terms. In short,
controlled vocabularies reduce ambiguity inherent in normal human languages where the same
concept can be given different names and ensure consistency.

32
Principles of controlled vocabulary:
There are four important principles of vocabulary control that guide their design and
development these are:
1) Eliminating ambiguity
2) controlling synonyms
3) establishing relationships among terms where appropriate
4) using warrant selecting terms:

1) Eliminating ambiguity:
Ambiguity occurs in natural language when a word or phrase (a homograph or polysemes) has
more than one meaning. Figure 2 provides an example and shows how a single word may be
used to represent multiple very different concepts. A controlled vocabulary must compensate for
the problems caused by ambiguity by ensuring that each term has one and only one meaning.

Figure 2: Ambiguity caused by homographs and polysemes

2) Controlling synonyms:
A different problem occurs when a concept can be represented by two or more synonymous or
nearly synonymous words or phrases. This is called synonymy. This means that desired content
may be scattered around an information space or database because it can be described by different
but equivalent terminology. A controlled vocabulary must compensate for the problems caused by
synonymy by ensuring that each concept is represented by a single preferred term. The vocabulary

33
should list the other synonyms and variants as non-preferred terms with USE references to the
preferred term.

Figure 3: Information scatter caused by synonyms

3) Establishing relationships among terms where appropriate:

The relationships among terms in a controlled vocabulary are indicated by semantic linking.
Semantic linking encompasses various techniques and conventions for indicating the relationships
among terms. There are three types of relationships used in controlled vocabularies: a)
Equivalency b) Hierarchy c) Association

34
4) Using warrant to select terms:
The process of selecting terms for inclusion in controlled vocabularies involves consulting
various sources of words and phrases as well as criteria based on:
1) The natural language used to describe content objects (literary warrant),
2) The language of users (user warrant), and
3) The needs and priorities of the organization (organizational warrant).
Literary warrant: Assessing literary warrant involves consulting reference sources such as
dictionaries or textbooks as well as existing vocabularies. The word or phrases chosen should
match as closely as possible the prevailing descriptions for the concept in the literature.
User warrant: Creating lists of potential terms to enhance completeness of the vocabulary.
1) Organizing candidate terms into broad categories to determine what categories users prefer
and what they should be called. 2) Placing candidate terms into a tentative set of broad categories
to validate categories that have been created. 3) Reviewing drafts of the vocabulary to add
missing terms, delete terms that are incorrect or obsolete, create more useful term forms, and
identify and correct missing and/or incorrect relationships among terms.

35
Organizational warrant: Determining organization warrant requires identifying the form or
forms of terms that are preferred by the organization or organizations that will use the controlled
vocabulary.

Free text searching: In text retrieval, free text searching or full text search refers to techniques
for searching a single computer-stored document or a collection in a full text database. Full-text
search is distinguished from searches based on metadata or on parts of the original texts
represented in databases (such as titles, abstracts, selected sections, or bibliographical
references). In a full-text search, a search engine examines all of the words in every stored
document as it tries to match search criteria (for example, text specified by a user). Full-text-
searching techniques became common in online bibliographic databases in the 1990s. Many
websites and application programs (such as word processing software) provide full-text-search
capabilities.

❖ Record structure, field limiting, truncation, Boolean and proximity operators

Record structure:
In computer science, a record (also called struct or compound data) is a basic data structure. A
record is a collection of, possibly of different data types, typically in fixed number and sequence.
The fields of a record may also be called members, particularly in object-oriented programming.
Fields may also be called elements, though these risk confusion with the elements of a collection.
A tuple may or may not be considered a record, and vice versa, depending on conventions and the
specific programming language. For example, a date could be stored as a record containing a
numeric year field, a month field represented as a string, and a numeric day-of-month field. A
Personnel record might contain a name, a salary, and a rank. A Circle record might contain a
center and a radius—in this instance, the center itself might be represented as a point record
containing x and y coordinates.
1) Each record in the table is called a row or a tuple.
2) In relational model records or rows can be in any order.
3) By definition all records in a relation or distinct. that is no two records can be same.
4) The intersection of row and column contain single (atomic) value.
5) Number of records or rows in a table is called cardinality of the relation.

36
User ER Model Programmer
Row Tuple Record
Column Attribute Field

Field limiting:
1) A Field in Database is also called an attribute in ER model and in User it is called Column
2) A relation is called a table
3) Relation have fields and records
4) A relation can have any number of fields or Attributes.
5) In relational model of Database fields or attributes can be in any order.
6) Intersection of field and record have a data value.
7) A relation must have a key, keys can be a set of fields or attributes.
8) For each column or field of a table there is a set of possible values called its domain.
9) The Domain contains all possible values that can appear under that column or field.
10) Domain is the set of valid values for an attribute.
11) Degree of the relation is the number of attributes (column or field) in the relation.
12) Each field has a unique name.

Truncation
Search terms may have variant endings, for example: nurse, nurses, nursing. If all search terms are
relevant, use a truncation symbol to find results containing all variations of a word.
For example: searching for 'nurs*' will find nurse, nurses, nursed, nursing, nursery.
The truncation symbol used by the database will usually be found under help or search tips.
Common truncation symbols are: $ * ? #
Use truncation with care. Truncating can retrieve unexpected results.
For example: searching for 'wom*' will find woman and women, but also womaniser and Womble!

Boolean operators
Using basic Boolean operators such as AND, OR and NOT, can help link concepts and search
terms. Usually, Boolean operators can be entered into a database’s search box or chosen from drop
down menus beside search boxes. Boolean operators will allow you to create very sophisticated
search strategies. Look for information on which Boolean operators a database supports in its help

37
section. It is worth getting familiar with these, especially if there is a particular database you use
regularly.

AND

AND retrieves only the records containing ALL of the search terms used.
For example: Scotland AND Barnett
Use AND to link multiple search terms to make your search more specific and reduce the number
of results returned.

OR

OR retrieves records containing ANY of the search terms used.

For example: murder OR manslaughter
This is used for synonyms, variant terminology, alternative topics or alternative spellings.
Using OR increases the number of results returned.

NOT

NOT retrieves records containing one term and EXCLUDES records containing an unwanted
term.

38
For example: tourism NOT Edinburgh
Will find results which include the term ‘tourism’ but exclude the term 'Edinburgh'.
This reduces the number of references and makes the search more specific. Use NOT with caution,
by excluding one term you exclude results which mention both terms.

Proximity operators:
Is the search technique used to find two words next to, near, or within a specified distance of each
other within a document Using such search operators may result in more satisfactory results that
are more relevant to the research needs than by just typing in desired keywords. Some commands
also control the terms’ order of appearance. Desired words can be in any order, a specific order, or
within a certain range of each other.
Proximity operators allow you to locate one word within a certain distance of another. The symbols
generally used in this type of search are w and n.
The w represents the word "with(in)" and the n represents the word "near." This type of search is
not available in all databases.
Near Operator (Nx) — finds words within x number of words from each other, regardless of the
order in which they occur.
Example: television n2 violence would find "television violence" or "violence on television," but
not "television may be the culprit in recent high school violence."
Within Operator (Wx) — finds words within x number of words from each other, in the order
they are entered in the search.
Example: Franklin w2 Roosevelt would find Franklin Roosevelt or Franklin Delano Roosevelt or
Franklin D. Roosevelt, but would not find Roosevelt Franklin.

❖ Document Delivery Services

Definition of DDS:
document delivery service (DDS) is concerned with the supply of documents to the users on
demand either in original or its copy in print or non-print form, irrespective of the location and
form of the original. This is the service which actually locates the required documents and supplies
it to the request.

39
No library today can hold every item required to meet the needs of its users under the crisis faced
due to resource crunch. Hence, sharing of resources using computer networks has become a
necessity. Each user doesn’t require the whole book, instead of that he required just few pages
which are essential to his research work. Therefore, users prefer DDS, because it is very quick
and low cost. The required documents are from other libraries or direct from publishers.

Modes Of DDS:

Document delivery means supplying documents (copies in print or digital format) are delivered
through mail/ courier or other way. Document delivery to end users implies three types of
operations:

▪ Document identification,
▪ Document location, and
▪ Document procurement.

Document identification requires the bibliographical details of the documents such as author,
article title, source, volume, and pages correctly in a given format. User can verify such details by
searching the web or the relevant databases.

Document location implies identifying the library holdings the documents under reference. User
may search by using union catalogues available from library networks.

Document procurement implies writing to the relevant libraries service providers for

delivery documents. There are several modes of document procurement.

▪ Requesting documents from the holding’s library/ library networks

▪ Requesting documents from document delivery service providers
▪ Searching the Web for digital copies of the documents for free access

Electronic Document Delivery Service:

Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science defines Electronic Document Delivery
Service as “The transfer of information traditionally recorded in a physical medium (print,
videotape, sound recording, etc.) to the user electronically via e-mail or World Wide Web.

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EDDS provides immediate access to the needed information. In such systems, the request may be
received by telephone, e-mail, Fax or online ordering.

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Chapter Three: Evaluation of Information Sources and Services
❖ Evaluation of search output; pertinence and relevance (precision and recall)

Evaluation of search output

Evaluation: - is the act of considering or examining something in order to judge its value, quality,
importance, extent, or condition. The standard approach to information retrieval system evaluation
revolves around the idea of relevant and non-relevant documents. With respect to a user
information need, a document in the test collection is given a binary classification as either relevant
or non-relevant. This decision is referred to as the gold standard or ground truth judgment of
relevance. The test document collection and suite of information needs have to be of a reasonable
size: you need to average performance over fairly large test sets, as results are highly variable over
different documents and information needs.

Evaluating effectiveness and efficiency

Efficiency: evaluate the performance, cost, effort and time.
Effectiveness: evaluating desired/intended result
There are two method:
Precision: The ability to retrieve top-ranked documents that are mostly relevant. In the field of
information retrieval, precision is the fraction of retrieved documents that are relevant to the query.
Probability that given that an object is retrieved it is relevant or the ratio of relevant items retrieved
to all items retrieved

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Recall: is the ratio of the number of relevant records retrieved to the total number of relevant
records in the database. It is usually expressed as a percentage.

Calculating Recall and Precision Scores

If it helps you understand Recall and Precision, try the following exercise.

• Assume that there is a total of 80 relevant documents on a particular topic

• A search was conducted on that topic and 60 documents were retrieved.

• Of the 60 documents retrieved, 45 were relevant.

Calculate the precision and recall scores for the search.

❖ Criteria for evaluating information sources

We all want information that is accurate but unless you already know a lot about a topic how do
you know if the information you are looking at is accurate and reliable? The following 5 criteria
can help you to evaluate information sources:

• Accuracy
• Authority
• Currency
• Objectivity
• Relevance

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Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree to which the information is correct.

• Can the information be verified in another source?

• Are statements supported by evidence and/or citations?
• Was the work edited by someone other than the author?

Authority
Authority is the degree to which the producers of the information are qualified to present that
information.

• Who is the author and what are his or her qualifications?

• With what institutions or organizations is the author affiliated?
• What work has the author published in this area previously?
• How reputable is the publisher? - Is it published by a University Press or scholarly
association?

Currency
Depending upon your research needs you may or may not need the most current research. If you
work in the sciences or health care you will almost always want the most current work available.
If you are in history or literature, materials published during a wide range of time periods will be
appropriate.

• When was the material published?

• Is the date of publication appropriate for your field?
• Is all of the content up-to-date?
• Has the information been revised?

Objectivity
Almost all information is biased in some way. As a reader (or consumer of information) your job
is to identify the point of view or motive of the author and then decide if the information at hand
is appropriate for your needs.

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 • Is the author open about his or her position?
• Is the author trying to sway your opinion or advocate a particular position?
• Is the material presented based upon research or the author's opinion?
• Is the author (or publication) presenting the information in order to sell you something?

Relevancy

Relevancy is the degree to which the information meets your current research needs.

• Does the information meet your research needs or the requirements of your assignment?
• What new information does the material add to your research?
• How might you use the information to further your research?

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Chapter Four: Bibliographic instruction
❖ Principles of managing information services, including development of goals and policies
Libraries are meant to provide information services to its clientele. Modern libraries provide
various library and information services to fulfil the information needs of the clientele. Information
revolution is responsible for increase in the variety and volume of information services. Principles
of Management is designed to meet the scope and sequence requirements of the introductory
course on management.
American Management Association defines management as “The guiding of human physical
resources into dynamic organization units that attain their objectives to the satisfaction of those
served, and with high degree of morale and sense of attainment on the part of those rendering
service”. This definition explicitly focuses on target audience. Similarly, in reference and
information services division of any library and information Centre that serves the users, no effort
should be spared to meet the information needs of these users to their utmost satisfaction. This
requires Organisation and management of these services with efficiency and speed. Almost all
large and middle size libraries entrust these services to a separate division. However, in small
libraries there is no separate division. The librarian herself/himself provides reference service.

Management of a reference division can be achieved effectively by following the different

elements of management viz., planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and
budgeting.
Planning
Planning is a process that deals with drawing up of a detailed working programme for an
Organisation or a division for meeting short term as well as long term goals. Basic resources of a
reference division must be carefully planned and developed during planning process. As most of
the reference and information services are of a continuing nature, there must be ample provision
in the plan document for uninterrupted flow of resources that include updated reference materials
both in print and electronic form, personnel to provide the service, physical facilities including
technical and technological resources like computers, and telecommunication equipment. The
planning of a reference division would cover the following details:
• Assessments of users’ information needs;
• Types of services to be offered, both responsive and anticipatory;

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 • Reference collection in print as well in electronic form, their Organisation and
maintenance;
• Personnel for managing and providing the services;
• Physical facilities including computers and telecommunication networks;
• Getting feedback and evaluation of services; and
• Providing details of financial liabilities.

Organizing
This refers to the creation of an operational structure for the reference division. The
structure is determined on the basis of analysis of work and all the different activities of
the division. An illustrative organsational structure is as follows:

Staffing
Staffing refers to the type, quality and the number of persons required to perform
various functions of the division. The head of the division with good academic background and
professional experience must have the competence and ability to lead the division. Reference
mangers, faced with rapid changes, must be motivated to take on new and unexpected roles that
could involve partnership with libraries and negotiations with web developers, electronic database
vendors, and e-journal publishers.

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Directing
Traditionally, head of the division should give direction to the staff in every aspect of work of the
division and get the best out of them. But, due to rapid technological changes, the hierarchy is
flattening out to accommodate new vibrant roles and services necessitated by the new learning
style. These new roles cover electronic resource management, web management, reference
marketing, virtual reference service, etc. Now, self-directed or team-based management is being
practiced in the reference division, where all members of the team are given an opportunity to
learn each other’s job with the idea of making reference services more integrated. The trend now
is towards “self-regulating management team” that adopts a system of rotating coordinators rather
than head of reference division to manage the team.

Controlling
It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any
to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that
everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to
predict deviations before they actually occur.

According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper
progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any
deviation”.

According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance
activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to
obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore, controlling has following steps:

▪ Establishment of standard performance.

▪ Measurement of actual performance.
▪ Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if
any.

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❖ Developmental goal and policies for information services
(1) Build strong relationships with the campus community through excellent service,
communication and collaboration.
(2) Enhance teaching, learning, research, discovery and scholarship by building excellent
collections, services and spaces.
❖ Community information services
CIS: The Concept
Community Information (CI) is the combination of two terms i.e. Community and Information.
The term “Information” is used to identify many concepts; hence it is extremely difficult to define
it precisely. Normally, information is a message, communicated by a communicator to a receiver.
It is the product of human action in mind, which may be abstract or concrete. Therefore, it is the
raw material that is used in knowing, making decisions, taking actions, thinking and learning.
Community is a body of people in the same locality or a body of people leading a common life or
a group of people having common rights or a group of people having a common possession or
enjoyment.
In the context of librarianship, it is a group of people with shared meaning and shared
communication. Community Information (CI) is the information for the survival and growth of the
community or it is that information which is required by the member of the community to make
effective use of the available resources around them. CI is that information which helps to solve
their day to day problems related to survival such as health, education, housing, legal protection,
sound economic development, political rights etc and also to participate in social, political,
cultural, legal and economic progress of the society either individually or collectively. The
information services through which community information (CI) is provided to communities is
called Community Information Service (CIS).
Need for CIS
CIS is very much needed to make the people of a community informed about the changes around
themselves and to improve their standard of living in all respect. In the present information age,
information is considered to be a resource, a product and thereby a need. Hence, the problem of
developing countries is not merely economic poverty but also information poverty, which should
be met on a priority basis. Such kind of productive, survival and developmental information is

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called Community Information (CI) which is crucial for socioeconomic development of a
community.

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Chapter Five: Current issues in Information Services
❖ Current issues in information services, to include topics rose on list serves or in very
current literature
Traditionally, libraries were collection of books, manuscripts, journals, and other sources of
recorded information. In the last 50 years, libraries have increasingly developed into a provider of
information resources and services that do not even require a building. The term digital library is
used to refer to the vast collection of information to which people gain access remotely.

Loganathan and Rajan (2017) explained that the use of digital or virtual library is among the
trending issues in information service delivery.
Digital library: digital library can be defined as one in which all the texts and spoken books are
stored as digital files, which will take a long time to achieve. A digital or virtual library is the
online access provided by other facilities or it may mean a website which offers links to various
sites with a large store of information in a catalogue or archived form. The term may refer to all
material related to any subject that is available on the Internet. A digital library generally is part
of a network with linkages to other libraries.

Listserv
The term Listserv (written by the registered trademark licensee, L-Soft International, Inc., as
LISTSERV) has been used to refer to electronic mailing list software applications in general, but
is more properly applied to a few early instances of such software, which allows a sender to send
one email to the list, and then transparently sends it on to the addresses of the subscribers to the
list.
Following library science organizations using listserv for information sharing:
ALA (American Library Association)
ALA Offices
Intellectual Freedom Round Table
ALA NMRT (New Members Round Table) Discussion List
LHRT (Library History Round Table)
AASL (American Association of School Libraries)

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ACRL (Association of College and Research Libraries)
ALCTS (Association for Library Collections and Technical Services)
ALSC (Association for Library Service to Children)
ATLAFF (Association of Library Trustees, Advocates, Friends, and Foundations)
ASCLA (Association of Specialized and Cooperative Library Agencies)
LITA (Library and Information Technology Association)
LLAMA (Library Leadership and Management Association)
PLA (Public Library Association)
RSA (Reference and User Services Association)
YALSA (Young Adult Library Services Association)
SAA (Society of American Archivists)
SLA (Special Libraries Association)
ILA (Illinois Library Association) e-newsletter
ISLMA (Illinois School Library Media Association)
PUBYAC (Public libraries, Young Adults, and Children)
jESSE (Library and Information Science Education Issues)
IFLA (International Federation of Library Associations)
IMLS (Institute of Museum and Library Services)
AALL (American Association of Law Libraries)
Medical Library Association

❖ Marketing and visibility of information services

Concept of Marketing:

Marketing involves studying target market needs, planning for the suitable goods and services,
pricing, effective distribution and relation for information and creating motivation for the market.
marketing as the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully formulated programs
to bring about voluntary exchanges of value with target markets, for the purpose of achieving
organizational objectives.

Library and information professionals are involved in the process of marketing because they
identify user’s information needs, acquire and package information to meet these needs. marketing

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concept is based on the principle of an exchange occurring between two parties (i.e. the librarians
and users). Marketing is about relationships, about responding to the needs of others. For libraries,
this means identifying patrons' needs, communicating how they can help patrons fulfil those needs,
and deliver services accordingly.

For any commercial Organisation marketing is a strategy. It is not a task. This applies also to
libraries - “marketing information services is … a strategic activity”. Nothing stands still in the
commercial world and, with constant technological developments and frequent restructuring,
nothing stands still in the information world. This means that, like commercial organizations,
libraries and information services face a moving target.

Visibility - Drawing media attention:

Examples from other organizations, such as supermarkets, charities and tourism, demonstrate how
they have taken an opportunity to draw national and international media attention and to promote
themselves favorably to a wide audience. Techniques demonstrating the significance of the right
timing, the importance of having the right resources in place and using the right means of
communication to reach the various audiences involved relate in the same way to libraries as to
other organizations. Just as, for example, supermarkets encourage regular customers, image and
environment are vital for any Organisation, including libraries, not only to attract people in the
first place but also to persuade them to return for more.

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References
Farmer, L.S.J., Ed. (2007) The human side of reference and information services in academic
libraries: adding value in the digital world. Chandos Publishing, Oxford.

McGraw Hill, 2001. Reference and Information Services: An Introduction. 3rd ed. Westport, CT:
Libraries Unlimited. A copy will be available on Reserve in SLIS Library.

Satya, A. (2013). “Information Sources And services” Lovely Professional University: Phagwara,
New Delhi, 113-136.

Bopp, R.E. & Smith, L.C. (2001). Reference and Information Services: An Introduction. 3rd ed.
Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. A copy will be available on Reserve in SLIS Library.

Farmer, L.S.J., Ed. (2007) The human side of reference and information services in academic
libraries: adding value in the digital world. Chandos Publishing, Oxford.

Franco, A. (2003). "Gateways to the Internet: Finding Quality Information on the Internet." Library
Trends 52(2), 228-246.

Mann, Thomas. Library Research Models: a Guide to Classification, Cataloguing, and Computers.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

GURDEV SINGH. (2013) Information Sources, Services And Systems. Prentice Hall India
Learning Private Limited, Delhi, India.

Bopp, R.E. & Smith, L.C. (2001). Reference and Information Services: An Introduction. 3rd ed.
Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. A copy will be available on Reserve in SLIS Library.

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