Soils

Soils
1. India map of soils

2. ⁠a tabular for of soils- what are they rich in and what are they poor in
3. Important soil and features

3. ⁠soil problems- which problem is in which part of India.

4. ⁠names of some local soils and associated terms.

5. ⁠all terms of soil conservation and management techniques

6. ⁠soil conservation programs in India.

 Soils

Important Soils of India and its features

• Alluvial Soils:
o Covers approximately 40% of India’s land area.
o Deposited by rivers; found in the northern plains and river valleys.
o Found extensively in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains.
o Also present in deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
o Khadar: Newer alluvium deposited annually near river courses, more fertile.
o Bhangar: Older alluvium found away from river beds, contains kankar
(calcareous deposits).
o Highly fertile soil, supporting intensive agriculture.
o Major Crops:
▪ Wheat, rice, sugarcane, maize, oilseeds.
o Reason for Suitability:
▪ Rich nutrient content and adequate moisture retention make it ideal for
crops requiring fertile and irrigated soil.
• Black Soils:
o Also known as Regur Soil or Cotton Soil.
o Formed from the weathering of basaltic lava rocks.
o Found extensively in the Deccan Plateau region.
o Covers areas of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
o High capacity to retain moisture, which makes it ideal for rainfed crops.
o Develops deep cracks during the dry season, improving soil aeration.
o Plays a significant role in supporting India's cotton-growing regions.
o Its ability to retain moisture is beneficial for rain-dependent agriculture.
o Major Crops:
o Cotton (hence called cotton soil), wheat, jowar, millets, and pulses.
o Reason for Suitability:
o High moisture retention supports cotton and other rainfed crops.
• Red and Yellow Soils:
o Derived from the weathering of crystalline igneous rocks.
o The red color is due to the presence of iron oxides.
o Yellow color appears when the soil is in a hydrated form.
o Found in regions with warm and moist climates.
o Widely used for dry farming due to its porosity and ability to drain water quickly.
o Contributes significantly to agriculture in peninsular India.
o Found in regions with warm and moist climates.
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o Major Crops:
▪ Millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, and wheat (with fertilizers).
o Reason for Suitability:
▪ Adaptable to crops that can withstand nutrient deficiencies and thrive in
porous, well-drained conditions.
• Laterite Soils:
o Formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternating wet and dry periods.
o Result of intense leaching (loss of silica) caused by tropical rains, leaving behind
iron and aluminum oxides.
o Reddish due to the presence of iron oxide.
o Generally low in fertility due to leaching.
o Fertility can be improved with the addition of fertilizers and organic manure.
o Also used as a building material due to its hardness when exposed to air.
o Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for
tree crops like cashewnut.
o Major Crops:
▪ Tea, coffee, cashew, spices, and rubber.
o Reason for Suitability:
▪ Found in regions with heavy rainfall, suitable for plantation crops that
thrive in acidic soils.
• Arid Soils:
o Arid soils range from red to brown in colour
o They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature.
o Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack
moisture and humus.
o Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of the
increasing calcium content downwards.
o These soils are poor and contains little humus and organic matter.
o Major Crops:
▪ Barley, millet, pulses, and drought-resistant crops.
o Reason for Suitability:
▪ Suited for hardy crops that require minimal water and can tolerate
salinity.
• Saline Soils:
o Formation: Found in arid and semi-arid regions; result of poor drainage and
excessive evaporation.
o Texture: Contains high salt content.
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o Nutrients: Poor in organic matter and nitrogen.

o Fertility: Requires reclamation to support crops.
o Major Crops:
▪ Barley, cotton, and wheat (with reclamation).
o Reason for Suitability:
▪ When treated, they can support crops that tolerate salinity.
• Forest Soils:
o The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment
where they are formed.
o Himalayan region, northeastern states, and hilly areas of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
o Loamy and silty in valleys, coarse-grained on slopes.
o Rich in organic matter but acidic in nature.
o Major Crops:
▪ Tea, coffee, spices, and fruits like apples and oranges.
o Reason for Suitability:
▪ High organic content supports plantation and horticultural crops.
o Peaty soils:
They are found in areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a
good growth of vegetation.
o Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent.
o It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and
the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu

A tabular for of soils- what are they rich in and what are they poor in
Soil Type Rich In Poor In
Potassium, phosphoric acid, Nitrogen, humus, phosphorus
Alluvial Soil lime in old alluvium regions
Calcium carbonate, Phosphoric acid, nitrogen,
Black Soil magnesium, potash, lime organic matter
Ferric oxide (iron), aluminium, Nitrogen, phosphorus, humus,
Red Soil potassium lime
Iron oxide, aluminium, trace Nitrogen, potassium,
Laterite Soil elements phosphorus, organic matter
Soluble salts, gypsum, calcium Nitrogen, organic matter,
Arid Soil carbonate humus
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Organic matter, humus,

Mountain Soil nitrogen in surface layers Potash, lime, phosphorus
Organic carbon, humus,
Peaty/Marshy Soil moisture Potash, phosphorus, calcium

Soil problems- which problem is in which part of India.

Soil Problem Description Regions Affected

Himalayan region,
Chambal ravines
(Madhya Pradesh,
Loss of topsoil due to water, wind, or Rajasthan), Western
Soil Erosion deforestation. Ghats
Indo-Gangetic Plains
(Haryana, Punjab, Uttar
Salinity and Excess salt accumulation, poor Pradesh), Gujarat,
Alkalinity drainage, and waterlogging. Rajasthan
North-Eastern states
(Assam, Meghalaya,
Low pH due to leaching of bases like Manipur), Western
Acidic Soils calcium and magnesium. Ghats
Indo-Gangetic Plains,
Coastal regions of West
Saturation of soil with water, reducing Bengal, Odisha, Andhra
Waterlogging aeration and crop productivity. Pradesh
Decline in fertility due to overuse, All over India, especially
deforestation, and improper Punjab, Haryana, and
Soil Degradation irrigation. Maharashtra
Wind-blown sand covers fertile land, Rajasthan (Thar Desert),
Sand Dunes reducing agricultural potential. Gujarat
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Soil fertility loss due to repeated North-Eastern states

Shifting cycles of cultivation and fallow (Nagaland, Mizoram,
Cultivation periods. Tripura)
Loss of soil structure and fertility due Jharkhand, Odisha,
Excessive Mining to mining activities. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka
Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Compaction and erosion due to Madhya Pradesh,
Overgrazing livestock overuse of grazing lands. Maharashtra
Delhi-NCR, Mumbai,
Loss of fertile agricultural land due to Bengaluru, Kolkata,
Urbanization expansion of cities and infrastructure. Chennai

⁠Names of some local soils and associated terms.

Local Name Associated State(s) Description

Also known as black cotton soil,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya rich in clay and suitable for
Regur Soil Pradesh, Karnataka cotton cultivation.
New alluvium, deposited by
rivers, fertile, light-textured,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, and good for crops like rice and
Khadar Soil Haryana wheat.
Older alluvium, less fertile than
Khadar, contains more clay and
Bangar Soil Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana lime nodules.
Coarse gravel and sand soil
found at the foothills of the
Bhabar Soil Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar Himalayas, highly porous.
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Moist, rich in organic matter,

supports crops like sugarcane,
Terai Soil Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar rice, and wheat.
Waterlogged, acidic soil found
Kari Soil Kerala in low-lying areas, often saline.
Found along the coasts, fertile
Coastal Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra for rice, coconut, and cashew
Alluvium Pradesh cultivation.
Coarse-textured soil, rich in
Red Sandy Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, iron, suitable for millet,
Soil Odisha groundnut, and pulses.
Soil with calcareous nodules,
low fertility, found in arid and
Kankar Soil Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana semi-arid regions.
Found in rainfed areas,
supports dryland agriculture
Barani Soil Rajasthan, Punjab like bajra and jowar.
Found in areas of high rainfall,
rich in iron and aluminium,
suitable for tea, coffee, and
Laterite Soil Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu cashew.
High calcium carbonate
content, poor fertility, used for
Chalky Soil Rajasthan, Gujarat specific crops like pulses.

All terms of soil conservation and management techniques

Technique Description
Plowing along the natural contours of the land to reduce water runoff and soil
Contour Plowing erosion.
Terrace Farming Creating step-like terraces on slopes to prevent soil erosion and retain water.
Strip Cropping Growing crops in alternate strips to reduce wind and water erosion.
Shelter Belts Planting rows of trees and shrubs to act as windbreaks, reducing wind erosion.
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Planting cover crops (like legumes) to protect soil between main crop cycles,
Cover Cropping improving organic matter and fertility.
Covering the soil with organic materials (like straw or leaves) to conserve
Mulching moisture and reduce temperature fluctuations.
Integrating trees and shrubs into farmland to enhance biodiversity and soil
Agroforestry fertility.
Small, temporary dams built across streams to slow water flow and reduce gully
Check Dams erosion.
Gully Plugging Filling small gullies with stones, vegetation, or soil to prevent further erosion.
Constructing earthen embankments along field edges to prevent water runoff
Bunding and retain soil.
Reforestation and
Afforestation Planting trees to restore degraded land and stabilize soil.
Zero Tillage Growing crops without plowing the soil to maintain its structure and moisture.
Alternating crops in a sequence to maintain soil fertility and prevent depletion of
Crop Rotation specific nutrients.
Planting grass in natural drainage channels to reduce erosion and allow safe
Grassed Waterways water flow.
Capturing and storing rainwater for agricultural use, reducing waterlogging and
Rainwater Harvesting erosion.
Using natural manure, compost, and biofertilizers to improve soil structure and
Organic Farming fertility without chemicals.
Building stone barriers along slopes to slow water runoff and prevent soil
Stone Walls or Dykes erosion.

Soil conservation programs in India.

SCHEMES FOR SOIL CONSERVATION IN INDIA

Several initiatives and schemes have been implemented in India to address soil conservation
and promote sustainable land management. Some noteworthy measures include:

Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA):

Launched from 1955 onwards to safeguard hill slopes in Jhum areas.

Implements soil and water conservation measures on a watershed basis to protect against
erosion.
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NABARD Loan – Soil & Water Conservation Scheme under RIDF (2001
Onwards):

Envisages promoting sustainable development through soil and water conservation.

Facilitates the conservation and management of soil and water resources, contributing to
sustainable agricultural practices.
Rashtriya Krishi Vigyan Yojana (RKVY):

Focuses on protecting topsoil, enhancing soil fertility, and improving crop production.
Targets watershed areas, including wastelands, river valleys, and ecosystems as a whole.
Soil Health Card Schemes:

Aims to promote soil test-based and balanced use of fertilizers.

Enables farmers to achieve higher yields at a lower cost by providing information on the
appropriate nutrient levels for specific crops based on soil quality.
Aims to increase awareness among growers about optimal nutrient management.
These schemes collectively contribute to soil conservation efforts, emphasizing sustainable
practices and holistic watershed management across various regions in India.

Year
Program/Initiative Launched Objectives Key Features
Soil Conservation in the Reduce soil erosion and Focuses on afforestation, terracing,
Catchments of River 1962 siltation in rivers and contour bunding, and gully plugging in
Valley Projects (RVP) reservoirs. catchment areas.
Integrated Watershed 2009 (now Restore ecological Emphasizes participatory watershed
Management part of balance, conserve water, management, soil conservation, and
Programme (IWMP) PMKSY) and improve soil quality. livelihood generation.
Promote sustainable
farming practices,
National Mission for 2010 including soil health Supports practices like organic farming,
Sustainable Agriculture management and rain- agroforestry, and integrated nutrient
(NMSA) fed farming. management.
Combat desertification
and restore degraded Focuses on afforestation, sand dune
1977
Desert Development land in arid and semi-arid stabilization, and rainwater harvesting
Programme (DDP) areas. in desert regions.
Watershed Conserve soil and water Implements measures like contour
Development 1974 resources to enhance bunding, check dams, and
Programme (WDP) agricultural productivity. reforestation in rainfed and hilly areas.
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Increase forest cover to

National Afforestation prevent soil erosion and Encourages afforestation,
1989
and Eco-Development restore degraded reforestation, and eco-restoration
Programme (NAEP) ecosystems. projects.
Support agriculture,
including soil Includes watershed management and
2007 conservation projects, soil health improvement as
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas through state-level components of agricultural
Yojana (RKVY) initiatives. development.
Improve soil fertility and
promote balanced use of Provides farmers with SHCs detailing
2014
Soil Health fertilizers through Soil nutrient levels and tailored fertilizer
Management (SHM) Health Cards (SHCs). recommendations.
Mahatma Gandhi Generate rural
National Rural employment while Activities include afforestation,
2006
Employment Guarantee supporting soil and water contour bunding, and construction of
Act (MGNREGA) conservation projects. farm ponds and check dams.
Develop rainfed
National Watershed agriculture through soil
Development Project 1990 and water conservation Promotes integrated farming systems,
for Rainfed Areas and vegetation soil conservation, and drought-
(NWDPRA) management. proofing measures.
Restore fertility of alkali
and saline soils to Practices include gypsum application,
1985
Reclamation of Alkali improve agricultural leaching, and afforestation in affected
and Saline Soils productivity. regions like Punjab and Haryana.
Mitigate the impact of
droughts through soil and Emphasizes water harvesting,
1973
Drought Prone Area water conservation in afforestation, and pasture
Programme (DPAP) arid and semi-arid areas. development in drought-prone zones.
Conserve ecosystems and Part of the National Action Plan on
2010 restore degraded land to Climate Change (NAPCC), includes soil
National Green Mission combat climate change. conservation measures.
Plantation of mangroves, sand dune
Prevent coastal soil stabilization, and seawall construction
1985
Erosion Control in erosion due to wave in coastal states like Odisha and Tamil
Coastal Areas action and wind. Nadu.

PYQs on Soil
 Soils

1980
Q.1) Heavy rainfall affects soil by

a. Increasing its acidity

b. Increasing its alkalinity
c. Reducing its fertility
d. None of these

Answer: Reducing its fertility

Explanation:

• Heavy rainfall can lead to soil erosion, where the topsoil, which is rich in nutrients, is
washed away. This results in a reduction of soil fertility because the most fertile layer of
the soil, containing organic matter and nutrients, is removed.
• Moreover, in areas with heavy rainfall, leaching occurs, where water percolates through
the soil and removes essential nutrients like calcium, potassium, and magnesium,
further diminishing the soil's fertility.
• It does not typically affect the acidity or alkalinity of the soil in a direct, consistent
manner. Instead, its primary impact is on the nutrient content, leading to reduced
fertility.

Thus, heavy rainfall is most associated with reducing soil fertility due to erosion and leaching.

1979
Q2.) It has been found recently that the acidity of the soil increases because of

a. Leaching away of bases

b. Increased use of ammonia
c. Increased use of urea
d. Increased use of rock phosphate

Answer: Leaching away of bases

Explanation:
• Leaching away of bases:
o Leaching is the process where water percolates through the soil and removes
soluble substances. In the case of soil, bases like calcium, magnesium, and
potassium are leached away by heavy rainfall or irrigation. These bases help
neutralize soil acidity. When they are removed, the soil becomes more acidic
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because there are fewer basic ions to balance the hydrogen ions (which cause
acidity).
• Increased use of ammonia:
o Ammonia-based fertilizers can contribute to soil acidity, but they are not the
primary cause. When ammonia is applied to the soil, it gets converted into
ammonium ions (NH₄⁺), which release hydrogen ions (H⁺) during nitrification,
making the soil more acidic. However, this effect is usually slower and more
localized.
• Increased use of urea:
o Urea, when applied in large quantities, can indirectly lead to acidification over
time due to its conversion into ammonium (NH₄⁺), which releases hydrogen ions.
However, it does not directly cause an immediate increase in soil acidity like
leaching does.
• Increased use of rock phosphate:
o Rock phosphate, used to supply phosphorus to plants, contains calcium and can
have a neutralizing effect on soil acidity, not an acidifying one. It does not
contribute to increasing soil acidity directly.

Q3.) Why the Indian farmers plough their fields during the time interval between two crops ?

a. In order to keep the soil loose for further cultivation

b. To increase the porosity of the soil
c. To escape drought
d. To prevent clodding

Ans – D. To prevent clodding

Explanation: Indian farmers plough their fields during the time interval between two
crops to avoid the growth of weeds, to loosen the soil, and for sowing seeds of next
crop. It also prevents clodding.

1982
Q.4) Contour bunding is used
(a) To stop the winds in sandy deserts
(b) To irrigate desert areas
(c) To prevent erosion in hilly areas
(d) None of the above

Answer: (c) To prevent erosion in hilly areas

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Explanation:

• Contour bunding is a soil conservation technique used in hilly areas to prevent soil
erosion. It involves creating embankments (bunds) along the contour lines of a slope.
This method helps in reducing the speed of water runoff, thus preventing soil erosion,
conserving moisture, and maintaining soil fertility. It is especially effective in regions
with sloped terrain, where heavy rainfall can lead to significant soil erosion.
• Option (a): Contour bunding does not stop winds in sandy deserts; it is designed for
erosion control in hilly areas, not deserts.
• Option (b): While contour bunding helps conserve water and prevent erosion, it is not
primarily used to irrigate desert areas.

Thus, the correct answer is (c) To prevent erosion in hilly areas.

1994
Q.5) Which one of the following types of erosion is responsible for the formation of Chambal
Ravines?
(a) Splash
(b) Sheet
(c) Rill
(d) Gully

Answer: (d) Gully

Explanation:

The Chambal Ravines, located in the Chambal River Basin, are a result of gully erosion. Gully
erosion occurs when water, usually from heavy rainfall, cuts deep channels into the soil,
forming steep-sided valleys or ravines. This type of erosion is particularly prevalent in arid and
semi-arid regions with loose soil, where vegetation is sparse, and the surface water runs off
quickly, cutting deep into the land.

• Splash erosion refers to the dislodging of soil particles by raindrops, which is a minor
erosion process.
• Sheet erosion is the removal of thin layers of soil across a broad area by the action of
rainfall and surface runoff.
• Rill erosion involves small channels forming on the surface, but these are much smaller
than gullies.
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Since gully erosion is the primary cause of the formation of the Chambal Ravines, the correct
answer is (d) Gully.

2010
Q6. When you travel in certain parts of India, you will notice red soil. What is the main reason
for this colour?
(a) Abundance of magnesium
(b) Accumulated humus
(c) Presence of ferric oxides
(d) Abundance of phosphates

Answer: (c) Presence of ferric oxides

Explanation:

Red soil in India typically appears due to the presence of ferric oxides, which are iron
compounds that give the soil a reddish color. This soil is formed under conditions of high
temperature and moderate rainfall. The red color comes from the oxidation of iron minerals in
the soil, particularly hematite (Fe₂O₃), which is responsible for the characteristic red hue.

• Option (a): While magnesium can be present in soil, it is not responsible for the red
color of the soil.
• Option (b): Humus gives soil a darker color, but it is not the reason for the red color in
red soils.
• Option (d): Phosphates are essential nutrients for plants, but they do not contribute to
the color of the soil.

Thus, the correct answer is (c) Presence of ferric oxides.

2011
Q.7) Salinization occurs when the irrigation water accumulated in the soil evaporates, leaving
behind salts and minerals.
What are the effects of salinization on the irrigated land?
(a) It greatly increases the crop production.
(b) It makes some soils impermeable.
(c) It raises the water table.
(d) It fills the air spaces in the soil with water

Answer: (b) It makes some soil impermeable.

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Explanation:

Salinization is the process in which water evaporates from the soil, leaving behind soluble salts
and minerals. Over time, these salts accumulate in the soil, leading to the following effects:

• It makes some soils impermeable: The accumulation of salts in the soil can cause it to
become more compact and less permeable. The salts can clog the soil's pore spaces,
which reduces water infiltration and root penetration, making it harder for plants to
access water and nutrients.
• It does not greatly increase crop production: In fact, salinization can harm crops, as the
salts can affect the plants' ability to absorb water and nutrients, leading to lower crop
yields.
• It does not raise the water table: Salinization is often associated with poor drainage or
excessive irrigation, which can lead to waterlogging (not raising the water table), but
not necessarily raising the water table itself.
• It does not fill the air spaces with water: Salinization can cause the soil to lose its
structure and become compacted, reducing the amount of air in the soil, but it does not
"fill air spaces with water."

Thus, the correct answer is (b) It makes some soils impermeable.

2014
Q.8) In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated with which of the following?
1. Terrace cultivation
2. Deforestation
3. Tropical climate
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 only

Answer: (b) 2 only

Soil erosion
• Soil erosion is the removal of the topmost fertile layer of the soil through wind or
water.
• Causes of Soil Erosion:
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o Over-grazing, Deforestation, Action of wind, water, glacier, etc.

o Topography i.e steep slopes & heavy rainfall;
o Faulty methods of agriculture like over-irrigation, shifting agriculture, etc;
o Anthropogenic factors like mining, industrial activities, etc.

2023
Q.9) Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: The soil in tropical rainforests is rich in nutrients.
Statement-II: The high temperature and moisture of tropical rainforests cause dead organic matter in the
soil to decompose quickly.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statement?

a. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for
Statement-I
b. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for
Statement-I
c. Statement-1 is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
d. Statement-1 is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

Answer: D
Let’s analyze each statement:
Statement-I: The soil in tropical rainforests is rich in nutrients.
• This statement is incorrect. The soil in tropical rainforests is not necessarily rich in
nutrients. The constant leaching and rapid decomposition of organic matter in these
ecosystems often result in nutrient-poor soils.
Statement-II: The high temperature and moisture of tropical rainforests cause dead organic
matter in the soil to decompose quickly.
• This statement is correct. The high temperature and moisture in tropical rainforests
create ideal conditions for the rapid decomposition of dead organic matter in the soil.
The warm and humid environment promotes the activity of decomposers, such as
bacteria and fungi, which break down organic materials at an accelerated rate.
Therefore, the correct answer is (d) Statement I is incorrect, but Statement II is correct.

1989
Q.10) Fertility of soil can be improved by

1. Removing dead earthworms

2. Adding dead earthworms
3. Adding living earthworms
4. Removing living earthworms and adding dead earthworms
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Answer: C
Fertility of soil can be improved by adding living earthworms. Worms help to increase the
amount of air and water that gets into the soil. They break down organic matter, like leaves and
grass into things that plants can use. When they eat, they leave behind castings that are a very
valuable type of fertilizer.