ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my

biology teacher Ms JASJEET SINGH as well as my
principal sir Mr RAJESH SHARMA who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic “PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE “ which also
helped me in doing a lot of research . I am really thankful to
them .

And also I should thank my parents and friends who helped

me a lot to complete this project in the time frame . I would like
to thank the internet for all the services it provided me in the
completion of this project .

Finally , I would wish to thank everyone who displayed

appreciation for my word and motivated to continue my work .
Thanks to all .
 CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
MENDEL’S LAW OF
INHERITANCE
CODOMINANCE
PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERS
BLOOD GROUP
 INTRODUCTION
PHENOTYPE :
“Phenotype“ refers to an observable trait.“Pheno“ means
“observable“ and comes from same root as the word
“phenomenon” . And so it‘s an observable type of an
common trait , such as height (or) absence of a
character in an organism .
Phenotype are related and used to relate a difference in
a DNA sequence among individuals in traits , be it
height (or) disease (or) hair colour .An individuals’s
phenotype may change continuosly through their entire
life due to changes in environmental conditions and the
morphological and physiological changes related with
aging .Visible (or) observable characteristics comprise
colour , shape , size , behaviour and biochemical
properties .

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 MONOHYBRID
CROSS
” A monohybrid cross is the hybrid of two individuals
with homozygous genotypes which results in the
opposite phenotype for a certain genetic trait “ .

For monohybrid cross , Mendel began with a pair

of pea plants with two contrasting traits i.e. , one
tall and another dwarf . The cross - pollination of
tall and dwarf plants were tall . He called this as
a first hybrid generation and offspring were called
Filial, (or) F progeny .

He conducted experiments with seven contrasting

pairs and observed that the entire F progeny showed
one pattern in their behaviour i.e., they resembled one of
the parents . Another parent’s character was completely
absent .

2
 MONOHYBRID
CROSS
Mendel continued his experiment with self -
pollination of F progeny plants . Surprisingly , he
observed that one out of four F progeny plants
were dwarf while other three were tall . The
tall and the short plants were in the ratio 3:1
phenotypically .
Finally he concluded that some ‘ factors ‘ are
inherited by offspring from their parents over
successive generations .

3
 DIHYBRID CROSS
“Dihybrid cross is the cross between two different
genes that differ in two observed traits of same
kind of species . “
“In a dihybrid cross , the parents carry different
pair of alleles for each trait . One parent carries
homozygous recessive allele while the other one
carries homozygous dominant allele .The offsprings
produced after the crosses in the F generation are
all heterozygous for specific traits .
During monohybrid cross of these traits , he
observed the same pattern of dominance and
inheritance . The phenotypic ratio 3:1 of yellow and
green colour and of round and wrinkled seed shape
during monohybrid cross was retained in dihybrid
cross as well . Thus he concluded that the factors
controlling the traits are inherited independent of
one another .

4
DIHYBRID CROSS
Mendel took a pair of contrasting traits
together for crossing , for example colour and
the shape of seed at a time . He picked the
wrinkled green and round yellow seed and
crossed. He obtained only round-yellow seeds in
the F generation.This indicates that round
shapes and yellow colour of seeds are dominant
in nature.

5
 RATIO OF
MONOHYBRID AND
DIHYBRID CROSS:
A cross between two types of same species considering
only the transmission of our character is called
monohybrid cross .

Phenotypic ratio = 3:1

Genotypic ratio = 1:2:1
A cross between two types of plants where both
individuals are heterozygous for two different traits
is called dihybrid cross .
Phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1
Genotypic ratio = 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
The Punnet square is a tabular form developed by
Reginald Punnette to determine the possible
genotype .

6
 MENDEL’S LAW
OF INHERITANCE :
Gregor Johann Mendel was a scientist who is
recognised as the father and founder of genetics .
Mendel conducted many experiments on the pea plant
(Pisum sativum ) between 1856 and 1863 . He
studied the results of experiments and deducted many
observations .
The two experiments lead to the formation of
Mendel’s Laws known as Mendel’s Laws of
Inheritance or Principles of inheritance which
are :

Law of dominance
Law of segregation
Law of association
Law of independent assortment

7
LAW OF DOMINANCE :

The Law of dominance is used to explain the

expression of only one of parental characters in a
monohybrid cross in the F and the expression of
both in the F . It also explains the proportion of
3:1 obtained at F

Characters are controlled by discrete units

called factors . Factors occur in pairs . In a
dissimilar pair of factors one member of the
pair dominates (domintant) in or over the
recessive trait present in single plant .

8
 LAW OF
SEGREGATION

Law of Segregation is based on the fact the alleles do

not show any blending and that both the characters are
recovered as such in the F generation though one of
these is not seen at the F generation (or) stage .

Though the parents contain two alleles during gamete

formation , the factors (or) alleles of a pair segregate
from each such that a gamete receives only one of the
two factors . Homozygous produces similar gametes
while heterozygous produces two kinds of gamete in
equal proportions .

9
 zyg

10
 LAW OF
INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT:
Law of Independent Assortment states that a pair of
traits segregate independently of another pair during
gamete formation
As the independently of another pair during heredity
factors assort independently of another traits get equal
opportunity to occur together
Its that is segregation of R and r is dependent of
segregation of Y and y . This results in four types
of gametes RY , Ry , rY , ry .
The dihybrid crosses between the parental genotype
RRYY (round yellow seeds) and rryy (green wrinkled
seeds) explains the law. Here the chances of
formation of gametes with the gene R and the gene r
are 50:50. Also, the chances of formation of gametes
with the gene Y and the gene y are 50:50. Thus, each
gamete should have either R or r and Y or y.

11
 LAW OF ASSOCIATION

Law of Association states that a pair of traits segregated

(or) separate during formation would attached (or) fuse at
the time of zygote formation. This two trait are
independent . This law is not considered as true Mendel 's
law . Because have some exceptions and fit for all type of
plants and examples taken .

CODOMINANCE
Codominance occurs when both the alleles of a gene lack
dominant and recessive relationships and both are
observed phenotypically the same degree .

The phenotypic effect of each allele is observable in the

heterozygous condition. Alleles which show are independent
effect are called as Codominant alleles .

12
It is the form of inheritance wherein the alleles of a gene
pair in heterozygote are fully expressed. As a result the
phenotype offspring is the combination of phenotype of the
parent .
Thus , the trait is neither dominant nor recessive.
Codominance in humans is explained with the example of
ABO grouping of blood and in plants that bears flowers
with two distinct colour phenotypes i.e.,white spotted red
flower crossed with red (or ) white flowers .
EXAMPLE :
The gene I is in charge of ABO blood types in human .
Sugar polymers protrude from the surface of the plasma
membrane of red blood cells , and the kind of sugar is
controlled by gene I .
I , I ,and I are the really of gene I .
Alleles I and I create create a slightly different types of
sugar , whereas allele I produce no sugar at all

13
The allele I is dominant with the allele I . Both I and I are
completely dominant to the allele I
when person has Both I and I antigen on their surface, their
blood type is AB .
AB blood type in humans is an example of codominance.
In AB blood type the phenotypic effect of both I and I
alleles is observed.

PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERS:
Phenotypic variation in humans is a direct consequences of
genetic variation, which acts in conjunction with
environmental and behavioural factors to produce
phenotypic diversity. In this project we will discover some
of the phenotypic character present in humans.Genetic
variants are classified by two Basic criteria: their genetic
composition and their frequency in the population.

14
 Let us take seven different phenotype
characters :
Ear lobe
Eye colour
Tongue rolling
Hair colour
Hair texture
Thumb curvature
Widow's peak.
EARLOBE :
Earlobe Definition: The earlobe, also known as the lobule, is
the soft, fleshy lower part of the external ear, below the
external auditory canal.
Composition: It is composed of connective tissue and lacks
the cartilage present in the rest of the ear.
Variation: The earlobe varies in size and shape among
individuals.
Attachment: It can be attached or unattached to the side of
the head.

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Cultural Significance:This part of the ear has cultural
significance in various societies and is often used in
anthropological studies of human populations.
Attached Earlobes (Recessive Trait):
Individuals with attached earlobes typically have the
genotype "ll" (homozygous recessive), where "l" represents
the allele for attached earlobes.
Both parents must either have attached earlobes (ll) or be
carriers (Ll) to pass on the trait to their offspring.
Example: Both parents with attached earlobes (ll) have a
child with attached earlobes (ll).
Unattached Earlobes (Dominant Trait):
Unattached earlobes are typically determined by the
presence of at least one dominant allele ("L").
Individuals can have unattached earlobes if they have the
genotype "LL" (homozygous dominant) or "Ll"
(heterozygous).
Example: If one parent has unattached earlobes (LL) and
the other has attached earlobes (ll), their child might have
unattached earlobes (Ll).

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 EYE COLOUR
Eye Color: Eye color is a phenotypic characteristic
determined by the pigmentation of the iris.
Common Colors: The most common eye colors include
brown and blue.
Genetics: Eye color is influenced by multiple genes, but for
simplicity, it is often explained using dominant and
recessive alleles.
Brown Eyes: Dominant (B).
Blue Eyes: Recessive (b).
Melanin: The amount of melanin in the iris determines eye
color. Higher melanin levels result in brown eyes, while
lower levels result in blue eyes.
Inheritance: Eye color follows Mendelian inheritance
patterns, which can be predicted using Punnett squares.
Dominant Eye Color : If a person inherits at least one
dominant allele for eye color, it will be expressed. For
example, if a person inherits one or two dominant alleles
for brown eyes (let's use "B" to represent the dominant
allele for brown eyes), their eye color will be brown .

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Recessive Eye Color: If a person inherits two recessive
alleles for eye color, the trait will be expressed. For example,
let's use "b" to represent the recessive allele for blue eyes. If a
person inherits two recessive alleles (bb), their eye color will
be blue, regardless of what alleles they inherit from the
other parent.
Complexity of Eye Color Inheritance:
Polygenic Traits: Eye color is polygenic, meaning multiple
genes contribute to the final color. The OCA2 and HERC2
genes are significant, but other genes also play roles in the
pigmentation of the iris.
OCA2 Gene: Primarily influences the amount of melanin
produced in the iris. Variants of this gene can lead to
different levels of melanin, affecting eye color
HERC2 Gene: Controls the expression of the OCA2 gene.
Specific variants in the HERC2 gene can significantly
influence whether the OCA2 gene produces high or low
amounts of melanin.

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 TONGUE ROLLING:

Tongue rolling is a specific phenotypic ability where an

individual can roll the lateral edges of their tongue upwards
into a tube-like or U-shaped form.
This ability varies among individuals and is often cited in
genetics as a classic example to illustrate simple Mendelian
inheritance patterns.
The capacity to roll the tongue is traditionally considered to
be controlled by a single gene with two alleles, where the
allele for the ability to roll the tongue (T) is dominant over
the allele for the inability to roll the tongue (t).

Dominant Trait:
Example: In tongue rolling, the ability to roll the tongue is
a dominant trait (T). If an individual inherits at least one
dominant allele for tongue rolling from either parent (Tt or
TT), they will be able to roll their tongue.

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 Recessive Trait:
Example: In tongue rolling, the inability to roll the tongue
is a recessive trait (t). If an individual inherits two recessive
alleles for tongue rolling from each parent (tt), they will not
be able to roll their tongue.

HAIR COLOUR :
Hair color is determined by multiple genes, primarily the
interactions between two types of melanin: eumelanin
(which produces brown and black colors) and pheomelanin
(which produces red and yellow colors). The genetic basis of
hair color can be quite complex due to polygenic inheritance,
where multiple genes contribute to the final phenotype.
Dominant and Recessive Traits :
Dominant Traits:Dominant traits are those that are
expressed even if only one allele (variant of a gene) is
present.In the context of hair color, the allele for brown
hair (B) is often considered dominant over alleles for other
hair colors.

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Recessive Traits:Recessive traits require two copies of the
allele (one from each parent) to be expressed.For example,
the allele for blond hair (b) is recessive. This means that a
person needs to inherit two copies of the blond hair allele
(bb) to have blond hair.

Genetic Basis of Hair Color :

1. Eumelanin and Hair Color:
High levels of eumelanin lead to black or dark brown hair.
Moderate levels of eumelanin result in light brown hair.
Low levels of eumelanin can contribute to blond hair.
2. Pheomelanin and Hair Color:
High levels of pheomelanin lead to red or auburn hair.
Combination with low levels of eumelanin results in lighter
red or strawberry blond hair.
Simplified Genetic Models
Single-Gene Model (Hypothetical Simplification):
Brown Hair (B): Dominant allele.
Blonde Hair (b): Recessive allele.

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If we simplify the inheritance to a single gene with two
alleles:
BB or Bb: Individual will have brown hair.
bb: Individual will have blond hair.
Multi-Gene Model:
In reality, hair color is influenced by multiple genes. Here
are some of the genes known to influence hair color:
MC1R (Melanocortin 1 Receptor):Variants in this gene are
strongly associated with red hair.Certain alleles of MC1R
are recessive. Individuals with two copies of the recessive
MC1R alleles typically have red hair.
OCA2 (Oculocutaneous Albinism II):This gene affects the
amount of melanin produced. Variations can contribute to
lighter hair colors.
TYR (Tyrosinase) and TYRP1 (Tyrosinase-related protein
1):These genes are involved in the melanin production
pathway. Variants can impact the shade and intensity of
hair color.

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SLC24A4 and KITLG:These genes are associated with the
variation in blond hair, particularly in European
populations.

HAIR TEXTURE :
Hair texture, much like hair color, is influenced by multiple
genes and involves complex genetic interactions. The
primary aspects of hair texture include straight, wavy, and
curly hair.
Dominant and Recessive Traits :

Dominant Traits:Dominant traits are expressed when at

least one dominant allele is present.For hair texture, the
allele for curly hair (C) is typically considered dominant .
Recessive Traits:Recessive traits are expressed only when
two copies of the recessive allele are present.The allele for
straight hair (s) is considered recessive.

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Genetic Basis of Hair Texture :
1. Single-Gene Model (Hypothetical Simplification):
Curly Hair (C): Dominant allele.
Straight Hair (s): Recessive allele.
Wavy Hair (Cs): A heterozygous combination can result in
an intermediate phenotype, such as wavy hair.
In this simplified model:
CC: Curly hair.
Cs: Wavy hair.
ss: Straight hair.
Multi-Gene Model: In reality, hair texture is influenced by
multiple genes, including:
TRICHOHYALIN (TCHH): This gene is involved in the
structure of hair follicles and has been associated with
straight and curly hair.
Keratin Genes (KRT71, KRT74): These genes contribute to
the structural integrity of hair. Variants can influence
whether hair is curly or straight.

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EDAR (Ectodysplasin A Receptor): This gene affects hair
thickness and texture. Certain variants are associated with
straight hair, especially in East Asian populations.

Additional Genetic Considerations :

While the simplified single-gene model helps in
understanding basic inheritance patterns, the actual
determination of hair texture involves multiple genes and
their interactions. Here are a few points to consider:
Incomplete Dominance: In some cases, the heterozygous
condition (Cs) can result in an intermediate phenotype, such
as wavy hair.
Polygenic Inheritance: Hair texture is influenced by the
cumulative effect of several genes, leading to a wide range
of textures from straight to very curly.
Environmental Factors: While genetics play a major role,
environmental factors such as humidity and hair care
practices can also influence hair texture.

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 THUMB CURVATURE

The curvature of the thumb, often referred to as

"hitchhiker's thumb" (a condition where the thumb can bend
backward at the last joint more than usual), is another trait
that can be explained through the concepts of dominant and
recessive alleles.
Dominant and Recessive Traits :

Dominant Traits:Dominant traits are those that are

expressed when at least one dominant allele is present.For
thumb curvature, the allele for straight thumb (T) is often
considered dominant.
Recessive Traits:Recessive traits are expressed only when
two copies of the recessive allele are present.The allele for
hitchhiker's thumb (t) is considered recessive.
Genetic Basis of Thumb Curvature :
1. Single-Gene Model:
Straight Thumb (T): Dominant allele.
Hitchhiker's Thumb (t): Recessive allele.

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In this simplified model:
TT: Individual will have straight thumbs.
Tt: Individual will have straight thumbs (carrier of the
hitchhiker's thumb allele).
tt: Individual will have hitchhiker's thumbs.
Example of Genetic Inheritance
Consider a scenario where:
Parent 1 (Tt): Has straight thumbs but carries the allele for
hitchhiker's thumb.
Parent 2 (Tt): Also has thumbs and carries the allele for
hitchhiker's thumb.
The chances of their child having:
Straight thumbs (TT or Tt) = 75%
Hitchhiker's thumbs (tt) = 25% .

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 WIDOW'S PEAK :

A widow's peak is a distinct V-shaped point in the hairline

in the center of the forehead. This trait, like many physical
traits, can be explained using the principles of dominant
and recessive alleles.
Dominant and Recessive Traits :
Dominant Traits:Dominant traits are those that are
expressed when at least one dominant allele is present.For a
widow's peak, the allele for a widow's peak (W) is
considered dominant.
Recessive Traits:Recessive traits are expressed only when
two copies of the recessive allele are present.The allele for a
straight hairline (w) is considered recessive.

Genetic Basis of Widow's Peak

1. Single-Gene Model :
Widow's Peak (W): Dominant allele.
Straight Hairline (w): Recessive allele.

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In this simplified model:
WW: Individual will have a widow's peak
Ww: Individual will have a widow's peak.
ww: Individual will have a straight hairline.
Additional Considerations :

While the single-gene model provides a simplified view, it's

important to note that many traits can be influenced by
multiple genes and environmental factors. For widow's
peak:

Incomplete Dominance: Typically, the dominant-recessive

relationship is clear, but in some genetic traits, incomplete
dominance can lead to intermediate phenotypes.

Polygenic Traits: Some traits, though primarily determined

by one gene, can be influenced by other genetic factors.

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Antigens and Antibodies:
Antigens:Antigens are molecules capable of inducing an
immune response. They are typically proteins or
polysaccharides found on the surface of cells.In the context
of blood groups, antigens are present on the surface of red
blood cells. The main antigens for blood grouping are A, B,
and Rh factor (Rhesus factor).
Antibodies:Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune
system that recognize and bind to specific antigens to
neutralize or destroy them.In the ABO blood group system,
antibodies are found in the plasma and are specific to the
antigens not present on the individual’s red blood cells. For
example, a person with blood type A has anti-B antibodies
in their plasma.
The ABO Blood Group System
The ABO system classifies human blood into four main
types based on the presence or absence of A and B antigens
on the red blood cells:

30
Blood Group A:
Antigens: A antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
Antibodies: Anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
Compatibility: Can donate to A and AB; can receive from A
and O.
Blood Group B:
Antigens: B antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
Antibodies: Anti-A antibodies in the plasma.
Compatibility: Can donate to B and AB; can receive from B
and O.
Blood Group AB:
Antigens: Both A and B antigens on the surface of red
blood cells.
Antibodies: No anti-A or anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
Compatibility: Can donate to AB only; can receive from all
blood types (universal recipient ) .

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Blood Group O:
Antigens: No A or B antigens on the surface of red blood
cells.
Antibodies: Both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the
plasma.
Compatibility: Can donate to all blood types (universal
donor); can receive from O only.
The Rh Blood Group System :
Rh Factor:The Rh system is the second most important
blood group system in transfusion medicine.
The primary antigen of this system is the D antigen,
commonly referred to as the Rh factor .
Individuals with the D antigen on their red blood cells are
Rh-positive (Rh+), while those without it are Rh-negative
(Rh-).
Rh Compatibility:Rh-negative individuals can develop
antibodies against Rh-positive blood if exposed to it
through transfusion or pregnancy.

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Compatibility for transfusions is critical to avoid hemolytic
reactions. An Rh-negative person should ideally receive Rh-
negative blood.
Blood Transfusion and Compatibility :
Blood Transfusion:
Blood transfusion is a medical procedure where blood or
blood components are transferred from one person (donor) to
another (recipient).
Compatibility between donor and recipient blood types is
essential to prevent transfusion reactions, which can be life-
threatening.
Transfusion Rules:
O- (Universal Donor): Can donate to any blood type
because it lacks A, B, and Rh antigens.
AB+ (Universal Recipient): Can receive from any blood
type because it has A, B, and Rh antigens, and lacks anti-
A, anti-B, and anti-Rh antibodies.
Type-Specific: Ideally, transfusions are matched exactly to
prevent reactions.

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Clinical Significance :
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN):Occurs when an
Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive fetus.The
mother’s immune system may produce anti-Rh antibodies
that cross the placenta and destroy fetal red blood
cells.Preventive treatment involves administering Rh
immunoglobulin (RhIg) to Rh-negative pregnant women.
Blood Typing and Cross-Matching:Blood typing determines
an individual’s ABO and Rh blood groups.Cross-matching
is a lab test to ensure compatibility between donor and
recipient blood before transfusion. It involves mixing donor
red blood cells with recipient plasma and observing for
agglutination (clumping).
Advances and Research :
Genetic Basis:The ABO and Rh blood groups are inherited
traits determined by specific genes.Research into the genetic
basis of blood types helps in understanding variations and
improving transfusion medicine.

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 Synthetic Blood:Ongoing research aims to develop synthetic
blood substitutes to address shortages and provide safe
alternatives for transfusions.

CONCLUSIONS :
Monohybrid Cross :
Conclusion: A monohybrid cross demonstrates the principles
of Mendelian inheritance, particularly the law of
segregation. Through studying monohybrid crosses, we can
observe how a single pair of contrasting traits is inherited
from one generation to the next. This fundamental genetic
experiment shows that offspring inherit one allele from each
parent and that these alleles segregate independently during
gamete formation. The classic 3:1 phenotypic ratio in the
F2 generation confirms this principle.

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Dihybrid Cross
Conclusion: A dihybrid cross expands on Mendelian
inheritance by examining two traits simultaneously. The
key takeaway from dihybrid crosses is the law of
independent assortment, which states that alleles of
different genes assort independently of one another during
gamete formation. This principle is illustrated by the
9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation, reflecting the
combination of two independent monohybrid crosses.
Understanding dihybrid crosses is crucial for predicting the
genetic variation in offspring for multiple traits.
Codominance
Conclusion: Codominance provides a distinct pattern of
inheritance where both alleles in a heterozygous organism
are fully expressed, resulting in a phenotype that displays
both traits simultaneously. Unlike simple dominance, where
one allele masks the expression of another, codominance
ensures that both alleles contribute equally to the phenotype

36
 A classic example is the AB blood type in humans, where
alleles A and B are both expressed, resulting in a unique
phenotype that displays characteristics of both alleles.
Phenotypic Characters
Conclusion: The study of phenotypic characters, such as ear
lobe type, eye color, hair color, hair texture, thumb
curvature, and widow's peak, highlights the diversity of
human traits and their genetic basis. Each of these traits
can follow different patterns of inheritance, including
simple Mendelian, polygenic, and multifactorial
inheritance. By examining these phenotypic characters, we
can gain insights into how genetic variation and
environmental factors contribute to human diversity.
1.)Ear Lobe: Free vs. attached earlobes follow a Mendelian
inheritance pattern, with the free lobe typically being
dominant.
2.)Eye Colour: Eye color is determined by multiple genes,
leading to a wide range of phenotypes .

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Tongue Rolling: The ability to roll the tongue is often cited
as a simple Mendelian trait, with the ability to roll being
dominant. However, some studies suggest that multiple
genes may be involved.
4.)Hair Colour: Hair color is also polygenic, with melanin
production playing a key role.
5.)Hair Texture: The texture (curly, wavy, straight) is
influenced by multiple genes and their interactions.
6.)Thumb Curvature: The hitchhiker's thumb (bent) vs.
straight thumb is an example of simple dominant-recessive
inheritance.
7.)Widow's Peak: The presence or absence of a widow's
peak follows Mendelian inheritance, with the peak being a
dominant trait.
Blood Group and Rh Factors :
Conclusion: Blood group inheritance, including the ABO
and Rh factor systems, showcases multiple inheritance
patterns, including codominance and simple dominance .

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 The ABO blood group system is governed by a single gene
with three alleles (A, B, O), where A and B are codominant,
and O is recessive. The Rh factor, determined by a separate
gene, follows a simple dominant-recessive inheritance
pattern, where the positive Rh factor is dominant over the
negative. Understanding blood group inheritance is crucial
for medical applications such as blood transfusions, organ
transplants, and managing Rh incompatibility in
pregnancies.
RESULT :
•Genetics is a branch of biology which deals with principles of
Progeny resembling inheritance and its practices. Progeny
resembleing the in parents in morphology and physiological
features thas attention of many biologists.
• Mended was the first to study this phenomenon
systematically,while studying the pattern of inheritance in pea
plants of contrasting characters. He propored the perinciples of
inheritance through 'MENDEL'S LAW OF INHERITANCE"

39
He proposed that the factors ( later known as genes )
regulating the characters are found in pairs known as
alleles . He observed that the expressed of the characters in
the offspring follow a definite pattern in F and F
generation .
Not all characters show true dominance . Some characters
show incomplete and some show co -dominance .
Blood comprisers of a fluid matrix plasma and formed
elements . Red Blood Cells (RBCs , erythrocytes ) , White
Blood Cells ( WBCs , leucocytes ) , and platelets
(thrombocytes ) constitute the formed elements .
Blood of humans are grouped into A,B,AB,and O systems
based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens , A
and B on the on Red Blood Cells . Another blood grouping
is the alone based on the presence or absence of another
antigen called Rhesus factors (or) on the surface of Red
Blood Cells .
After knowing that the genes are located on the chromosomes , a good
correlation was drawn between Mendel 's of segregation and
assortment on chromosome during meiosis .

40
Many genes were linked to sex also , and called as sex -
linked genes . The the two sexes (male and female) where
found to have a set of chromosomes , which were common
and another set which was different . The chromosomes
which were different into sexes were named as sex
chromosomes (or) allosome .The remaining set was known as
autosome .
This led the discovery of genetic disorders .
Genetic disorders : Genetic disorders occur when a mutation
(a harmful change to a gene, also known as a pathogenic
variant) affects your genes or when you have the wrong
amount of genetic material.
There are two types of genetic disorders :
Mendelian disorders ( determined by alteration or mutation
in the single gene.)
chromosomal disorders (caused due to absence or excess or
abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosomes.)
These disorders can be cured by gene therapy .
These can be cured at fetal stage by utero stem transplant .

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

NEWSPAPER:
* The Times of India 📰
* Indian Express (magazine)

📚 BOOKS :
* NCERT- Textbook
Biology .
* Richard Dawkin's "The
🧬
Selfish Gene "

INTERNET :
* wolframalpha.com
*Videos.pexels.com
* Asciiflow .com.
REMARKS :