Topic : Central Nervous System

Name : Raheem Fatima

Roll number : 24010521-039
Program : Doctor of pharmacy
Submitted to : Ma’am Aneeka Sarwar
Date : 6-12-2024
 Content
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 Central Nervous System

1. Structure of CNS

The brain
 Spinal cord

2. Functions
3. Protective mechanism
4. Disorders and diseases
5. Neuroplasticity
6. Conclusion
Introduction:
. Both of these are protected by three layers of membranes known as meninges. For
further protection, the brain is encased within the hard bones of the skull, while the
spinal cord is protected with the bony vertebrae of our backbones.

A third form of protection is cerebrospinal fluid, which provides a buffer that limits
impact between the brain and skull or between spinal cord and vertebrae. The human
brain is incredibly compact, weighing just 3 pounds. It has many folds and grooves,
though. These give it the added surface area needed for storing the body's important
information.

The spinal cord is a long bundle of nerve tissue about 18 inches long and 1/2-inch thick.
It extends from the lower part of the brain down through spine. Along the way, nerves
branch out to the entire body.

Define
The Central nervous System is the processing centre of the body and consists
of the brain and the spinal cord.

 Brain :
The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex
(the outermost part of the brain and the largest part by volume) contains an
estimated 15–33 billion neurons, each of which is connected to thousands of
other neurons. In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial
(support) cells make up the human brain. Our brain uses around 20% of our
body’s total energy.
The brain has three main sections: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.

The Forebrain

The forebrain is the largest and most complex part of the brain. It consists of the cerebrum — the
area with all the folds and grooves typically seen in pictures of the brain as well as other
structures under it.The cerebrum contains the information that essentially makes you who you
are: your intelligence, memory, personality, emotion, speech, and ability to feel and move.
Specific areas of the cerebrum are in charge of processing these different types of information.
These are called lobes, and there are four of them: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
lobes.

The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex (also known as "gray matter"). Information
collected by the five senses comes into the brain to the cortex. This information is then directed
to other parts of the nervous system for further processing. For example, when you touch the hot
stove, not only does a message go out to move your hand, but one also goes to another part of the
brain to help you remember not to do that again.

The Midbrain

The midbrain, underneath the middle of the forebrain, acts as a master coordinator for all the
messages going in and out of the brain to the spinal cord.

The Hindbrain

The hindbrain sits underneath the back end of the cerebrum. It consists of the cerebellum, pons,
and medulla. The cerebellum also called the "little brain" because it looks like a small version
of the cerebrum.The pons and the medulla, along with the midbrain, are often called
the brainstem. The brainstem takes in, sends out, and coordinates the brain's messages. It also
controls many of the body's automatic functions, like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure,
swallowing, digestion, and blinking.

How Does the Nervous System Work?

The basic workings of the nervous system depend a lot on tiny cells called neurons. The brain
has billions of them, and they have many specialized jobs. For example, sensory neurons send
information from the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin to the brain. Motor neurons carry
messages away from the brain to the rest of the body.All neurons relay information to each other
through a complex electrochemical process, making connections that affect the way you think,
learn, move, and behave.

Intelligence, learning, and memory. As you grow and learn, messages travel from one neuron
to another over and over, creating connections, or pathways, in the brain. It's why driving takes
so much concentration when someone first learns it, but later is second nature: The pathway
became established.

Memory is another complex function of the brain. The things you've done, learned, and seen are
first processed in the cortex. Then, if you sense that this information is important enough to
remember permanently, it's passed inward to other regions of the brain (such as the hippocampus
and amygdala) for long-term storage and retrieval. As these messages travel through the brain,
they too create pathways that serve as the basis of memory.

Movement. Different parts of the cerebrum move different body parts. The left side of the brain
controls the movements of the right side of the body, and the right side of the brain controls the
movements of the left side of the body. When you press your car's accelerator with your right
foot, for example, it's the left side of your brain that sends the message allowing you to do it.

Basic body functions. A part of the peripheral nervous system called the autonomic nervous
system controls many of the body processes you almost never need to think about, like
breathing, digestion, sweating, and shivering. The autonomic nervous system has two parts: the
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous.

The parasympathetic nervous system does the opposite: It prepares the body for rest. It also
helps the digestive tract move along so our bodies can efficiently take in nutrients from the food
we eat.

The Senses

Sight.

Sight probably tells us more about the world than any other sense. Light entering the eye forms
an upside-down image on the retina. The retina transforms the light into nerve signals for the
brain.

Hearing.

Every sound you hear is the result of sound waves entering your ears and making your eardrums
vibrate. These vibrations then move along the tiny bones of the middle ear and turn into nerve
signals.
Taste.

The tongue contains small groups of sensory cells called taste buds that react to chemicals in
foods. The taste buds send messages to the areas in the cortex responsible for processing taste.

Smell.

Olfactory cells in the mucous membranes lining each nostril react to chemicals you breathe in
and send messages along specific nerves to the brain.

Touch.

The skin contains millions of sensory receptors that gather information related to touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain and send it to the brain for processing and reaction.

Structure Of Spinal Cord

The Spinal nerves arise from different regions of the vertebral column and are named
accordingly, the regions are – Neck, chest, pelvic and abdominal. The Spinal cord runs
through a hollow case from the skull enclosed within the vertebral column Cross-section
of spinal cord displays grey matter shaped like a butterfly surrounded by a white matter.

Grey matter consists of the central canal at the central and is filled with a fluid called
CSF (Cerebrospinal fluid). It consists of horns (four projections) and forms the core
mainly containing neurons and cells of the CNS. There are two dorsal and two ventral
horns.

The white matter consists of a collection of axons permitting communication between

different layers of CNS. A tract is a collection of axons and carries specialized
information. Ascending tracts and descending tracts send and transmit signals from the
brain respectively to various nerve cells across the body.Spinal nerves act as
mediators, communicating information to and from the rest of the body and the spinal
cord.

Neuroplasticity:
  History

The term plasticity was first applied to behavior in 1890 by William

James in The Principles of Psychology where the term was used to describe "a
structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at
once" The first person to use the term neural plasticity appears to have been the Polish
neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski.

 Definition
Neuroplasticity is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change
through growth and reorganization.Neuroplasticity, also known as neural
plasticity or just plasticity.

Neuroplasticity is the brain’s capacity to continue growing and evolving

in response to life experiences. Plasticity is the capacity to be shaped,
molded, or altered; neuroplasticity, then, is the ability for the brain to
adapt or change over time, by creating new neurons and building new
networks.

neuroplasticity, capacity of neurons and neural

networks in the brain to change their connections
and behaviour in response to new information,
sensory stimulation, development, damage, or
dysfunction.
 Developmental plasticity occurs when neurons in
the young brain rapidly sprout branches and
form synapses. Then, as the brain begins to
process sensory information, some of these
synapses strengthen and others weaken.
Eventually, some unused synapses are eliminated
completely, a process known as synaptic pruning,
which leaves behind efficient networks of neural
connections. Other forms of neuroplasticity
operate by much the same mechanism but under
different circumstances and sometimes only to a
limited extent. These circumstances include
changes in the body, such as the loss of a limb or
sense organ, that subsequently alter the balance
of sensory activity received by the brain. In
addition, neuroplasticity is employed by the brain
during the reinforcement of sensory information
through experience, such as
in learning and memory, and following actual
physical damage to the brain (e.g., caused
by stroke), when the brain attempts to
compensate for lost activity.

How neuroplasticity occurs

Neuroplasticity can allow the brain to recover, at least to some extent, from strokes and traumatic
injuries. If there’s sensory system damage, the brain may be able to find a workaround solution
or enhance functioning in another sensory system.

Types of neuroplasticity

There are two broad types of neuroplasticity, structural and functional. It can involve neurons as
well as other types of cells in the brain’s support structure.

1. Structural neuroplasticity
Structural neuroplasticity can involve the creation of new synaptic connections between nerves.
New connections are strengthened through repeated activation, and researchers have suggested
that this may be related to an increase in neurotransmitter receptors. It’s not yet clear whether
neurogenesis (the creation of new neurons) occurs in adult humans or not; the olfactory bulb and
hippocampus have been suggested as regions where this may occur.

2. Functional neuroplasticity

Functional neuroplasticity involves the brain reorganizing to use different neural circuits to
compensate for a loss of function in a particular area. This can happen through shifting functions
over to the other hemisphere of the brain or to circuits that originally served a different purpose.

Functions:

The three main functions of your central nervous

system are to Receive sensory information
and Process the information it receives
(integration) and Respond with motor output
The central nervous system is the
body’s processing centre.The brain
controls most of the functions of the
body, including:

1. awareness
2. movement
3. thinking
4. speech
 5. the 5 senses — seeing, hearing,
feeling, tasting and smelling
The spinal cord is an extension of the
brain. It carries messages between
the brain and the rest of the body via
a network of peripheral nerves
Nervous system diseases
Disorder:

Central nervous system

diseases or central nervous system
disorders are a group of neurological
disorders that affect the structure or
function of the brain or spinal cord,
which collectively form the central
nervous system (CNS). These
disorders may be caused by such
things as infection, injury, blood
clots, age related degeneration,
cancer, autoimmune disfunction, and
birth defects.
6.Vascular disorders: Such as
stroke, transient ischemic attack
(TIA), and subarachnoid
hemorrhage
7. Infections: Such as meningitis,
encephalitis, and epidural
abscess
8. Structural disorders: Such as
brain or spinal cord injury, Bell's
palsy, and carpal tunnel
syndrome
9.Functional disorders: Such as
headache, epilepsy, dizziness, and
neuralgia
10. Degenerative diseases: Such as
Alzheimer's, multiple sclerosis,
and Parkinson's
11. Tumors: Such as cancerous and
non-cancerous growths
12. Autoimmune disorders: Such as
when the immune system attacks
the body's own cells
 13. Organic disorders: Such as
ADHD, which is thought to be
caused by imbalances in the
brain

Neurotransmission and neurons

Neurons:

Neurons are nerve cells that send

messages all over your body to allow
you to do everything from breathing
to talking, eating, walking, and
thinking.

Neurotransmission:
The process by which neurons use
neurotransmitters to send and
receive messages

The type of neurotransmitter determines whether it has an

excitatory or inhibitory effect on the neuron:

Excitatory neurotransmitters
Cause the neuron to "fire off the
message" and continue passing it
along to the next cell. Examples
include epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and glutamate.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Block or prevent the chemical
message from being passed
along. Examples include gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA),
glycine, and serotonin.
The brain and nervous system are
made of billions of nerve cells, called
neurons. Neurons have three main
parts: cell body, dendrites, and axon.
The axon is covered by the myelin
sheath. The transfer of information
between neurons is called
neurotransmission.The primary difference between a
neuron and a neurotransmitter is that a neuron is a cell in the body (also
called a nerve cell) while a neurotransmitter is a chemical compound that a
neuron releases which allows neurons to send messages and communicate
with other neurons. Neurons emit neurotransmitters through the process of
neurotransmission. Types of neurons include sensory neurons (those that
interpret smell, taste, touch, etc...) and motor neurons (those that control
parts of the body, such as muscles.) Neurotransmitters include organic
chemical compounds such as amino acids, peptides, and monoamines.

Diseases:
 There are more than
600 neurologic diseases. Major
types include: Diseases caused by
faulty genes, such as Huntington's
disease and muscular dystrophy.
Problems with the way the
nervous system develops, such as
spina bifida

 Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a long-term brain
condition where a person has
 repeated seizures.it can cause
symptoms such as loss of
consciousness, unusual jerking
movements as well as other
unusual feelings, sensations and
behaviours.

Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a type of dementia that affects your thinking,

behaviour and ability to do everyday tasks.

Alzheimer’s disease is caused by a build-up of certain proteins in

your brain, and gets worse over time.

While Alzheimer’s disease is more common in older people, it is not

a normal part of ageing.

Bell's palsy
Bell's palsy is a sudden weakness
1.

or paralysis on one side of your

face.
2. Bell's palsy is diagnosed by
ruling out other causes of your
symptoms.
 3. Most people recover from Bell's
palsy within about 6 months
without treatment.
Multiple sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an illness
involving damage to the myelin layer
that protects your nerves,
preventing signals going from your
brain to your body.
Most people with MS have relapses
of symptoms followed by periods of
recovery (remission).MS can cause
many different symptoms, including
trouble with muscle control and
vision, tiredness, pain and changes
in thinking.
Protective mechanism
The central nervous system (CNS) has several protective
mechanisms, including:

Bony structures
The brain is protected by the
skull, and the spinal cord is
protected by the vertebrae.
Meninges
The brain and spinal cord are
cushioned by three layers of
membranes called the meninges:
the dura mater, arachnoid mater,
and pia mater.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
CSF flows through the brain's
ventricles and around the spinal
column, providing mechanical
support, regulating ion
composition, and maintaining
chemical stability. CSF also
 nourishes the CNS and removes
waste products.
Blood–brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier limits the
entry of leukocytes from the
blood into the CNS

Conclusion of central nervous system:

The central nervous system (CNS) is the most important part

responsible for managing

of the nervous system and is

the body's functions. The nervous system

is a complex framework of cells. It
functions through the connectivity of
the billions of neurons that compose
the brain.The Central Nervous
System (CNS) is the most important
unit in an organism as it is the
‘centre’ or the hub which instigates
information, commands and
coordinates and also influences all
the other activities within a body.
Thus it is often called the central
processing unit of the body.