SHAKISO TVET COLLEGE

MODULE TITLE:
Determining Best-Fit Topology
MODULE CODE:
EIS ICT HNS3 01 1221

Compiled by Andualem Desalegn 1

 A network administrator/supervisor

 A network administrator/supervisor is the person who is responsible for setting

up user accounts and maintain a network.

 The network administrator provides each new user with a user ID and starter
password. In this way centralized administration and support can be achieved.

 Note: Network administration tasks include:

• Managing users and security.

• Making resources available.

• Maintaining applications and data.

• Installing and upgrading application and operating system software.

Compiled by Andualem Desalegn 2
Terminologies

Compiled by Andualem Desalegn 3

 Terminologies

 Stand-Alone Computer : A computer that is not connected to a

network

 Peers are computers which use and provide network resources.

 Clients are computers that uses but do not provide network

resources

 Servers are powerful computers that provide network resources

Compiled by Andualem Desalegn 4

 Terminologies

 Note: The server has:-

• Powerful processors
• Large size memory (RAM)
• Hard disk with High storage capacity (RAID)
• More powerful network adapter/network interface card (NIC)
• Enhanced operating system

Compiled by Andualem Desalegn 5

 Terminologies

• Media—the communication channel (bounded or

unbounded) that make the physical connections.
• Network Resources any service or device, such as files,
printers, or other items, made available for use by
members of the network.
• Example: Shared data, Shared printers and other peripherals, &
shared applications

• Node: each device in the network

Compiled by Andualem Desalegn 6

 Trends in Computing …
Size

Number
One Computer for One Computer for Many Computers
Many People One Person for One Person

From old to new computing paradigm

7
 Network Types

1) Local Area Network (LAN)

 LAN refers to networks that have small geographical coverage

usually within a building or a campus.
 LANs are found in most organizations, businesses, government
offices, educational institutions, and in home computing
environment.

2) Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Wide area networks are networks that cover very large
geographical area such as a country or the whole world. 8
 Typical WANs are the telephone networks operated by most long
distance telephone companies.
 Large companies having offices scattered around the world use
WAN to connect their computers.
 WAN usually use combination of several types of communication
media such as cables, satellites, Microwaves, fiber-optics.
 Because a WAN has no geographical limitations, it can connect
computers and other devices in separate cities or on opposite
sides of the world.
 A multinational corporation with linked computers in different
countries is using a WAN. Probably the ultimate WAN is the
Internet. 9
 Examples of WAN:

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): a network that

transmits data and information over citywide distance and at a
greater speed than LAN.

 Internet It is a global collection of networks, both big and small.

It is a giant(very big) network.

 Intranet: Unlike the WWW, intranets are available only

to user with in the company network system. Intranet is
a very common service in large networked organizations.
10
 Extranet: Although similar to intranet, extranet provides
selected users from outside the organization to access
data from the internal network. Extranets are commonly
used by suppliers to provide data to company clients.

11
 Network Hardware Components
Cabling system and Connectors

COPPER MEDIA
 Twisted-Pair Cable

 In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated

strands of copper wire twisted around each other.
 There are two type of twisted pair cable:
1. Unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP cables)
2. shielded twisted-pair cables (STP cables)

12
 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable
 UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type of
twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming the most popular LAN
cabling.
 The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters, about 328 feet.

13
 There are 7 standards categories of UTP:

• Category 1
 Consists of two twisted pairs of copper wire
 Voice-grade cable
 Traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not data
transmissions

• Category 2
 Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per foot .
 Certifies UTP for data transmissions
 Bandwidth = 4 MBPS
14
• Category 3
 Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
 Bandwidth = 16 MBPS

• Category 4
 Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
 Bandwidth = 20 MBPS

• Category 5
 Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
 Bandwidth = 100 MBPS 15
• Category 5e
 Improved version of category 5
 Bandwidth = 1000 MBPS

• Category 6
 Similar to CAT 5e.
 Contains a physical separator between the 4 pairs to reduce electromagnetic
interference
 Bandwidth = 1000 MBPS

16
 What is potential problem with all types of cabling?
»Crosstalk

 Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line bleed into another
line 17
Twisted-Pair Cabling Components

 Connection hardware Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone

connectors to connect to a computer.

RJ-45 connector and jack

18
 Distribution racks and rack shelves Distribution racks and rack
shelves can create more room for cables where there isn't much floor
space. Using them is a good way to organize a network that has a lot
of connections.
 Expandable patch panels These come in various versions that
support up to 96 ports and transmission speeds of up to 100 Mbps.
 RJ-45 jacks single or double connector snap into patch panels and
wall plates
 Wall plates these support two or more RJ-45 jack

19
20
 Twisted-Pair advantages/disadvantages

 Pros/Advantage
- It has a large installed base and is a familiar technology. (i.e. most buildings
are already wired with UTP) hence it is available in the market
- It is relatively inexpensive and easy to install.
- It does not require grounding/bonding (process of binding things together)
no ground fault
 Cons/Disadvantage
 High-quality UTP systems require specialized installation
procedures.
 More susceptible to EMI, RFI, crosstalk and attenuation than other
media (i.e. Data transmission length is limited to 100m max.
 Not recommended for LAN that requires a high level of security
because it can be tapped
21
 Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

 STP cable uses a woven/wounded copper/aluminum-braid jacket

that is more protective and of a higher quality than the jacket used
by UTP.
 STP also uses a foil (very thin sheet of metal) wrap(cover) around
each of the wire pairs.
 This gives STP excellent shielding to protect the transmitted data
from outside interference, which in turn allows it to support higher
transmission rates over longer distances than UTP.

22
 Advantage and Disadvantage of STP Cable

 Pros/Advantage

 Provides better performance than UTP in environments with high

noise levels of unwanted electrical signals.

 Provides higher transmission rate than UTP

 Cons/Disadvantage

 It is more labor-intensive than UTP to install.

 More expensive than UTP

23
 Susceptible to ground faults through the shield.
 Coaxial Cable
 In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire
surrounded by insulation, a braided metal shielding, and an outer
cover.

 The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal mesh (or
other material) that surrounds some types of cabling.

 Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray electronic

signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and distort
the data.
 Cable that contains one layer of foil insulation and one layer of24
braided metal shielding is referred to as dual shielded.
25
 Types of Coaxial Cable

 There are two types of coaxial cable:

- Thin (thinnet) cable
- Thick (thicknet) cable

 Thinnet Cable Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64

centimeters (0.25 inches) thick. Because this type of coaxial cable
is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type
of network installation.
 Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to
approximately 185 meters (about 607 feet) before the signal starts
to suffer(weak) from attenuation.
26
 Thicknet Cable Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable
about 1.27 centimeters (0.5 inches) in diameter.
 Thicknet cable is sometimes referred to as Standard Ethernet
because it was the first type of cable used with the popular network
architecture Ethernet.
 Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a thinnet cable core.

27
 Thinnet vs. Thicknet Cable

 As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more difficult it is to

work with.

 Thin cable is flexible, easy to install, and relatively inexpensive.

 Thick cable does not bend easily and is, therefore, harder to install.

 This is a consideration when an installation calls for pulling cable

through tight spaces such as conduits and troughs.

 Thick cable is more expensive than thin cable, but will carry a
signal farther.
28
 Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware

 The BNC cable connector: The BNC cable connector is either

soldered or crimped to the end of a cable.

29
 The BNC T connector the This connector joins the network
interface card (NIC) in the computer to the network cable.

30
 The BNC barrel connector . This connector is used to join two
lengths of thinnet cable to make one longer length.

31
 The BNC terminator: A BNC terminator closes each end of the
bus cable to absorb stray signals. Otherwise, the signal will
bounce(rebound) and all network activity will stop.

32
 Coax cable advantage and disadvantages

 Coax advantages
- It is less susceptible to interference than UTP (has noise-rejection
characteristics )
- Better bandwidth
- Transmit data for greater distances
- Relatively inexpensive
- Transmit voice, video, and data
 Coax disadvantages
- Due to its high metallic content, coax cable is usually more expensive than
UTP
- Coaxial cable is more expensive to install than UTP
- requires grounding/bonding (i.e. poor shield connection creates big
problem)
33
 Optical Media

 Fiber-Optic Cable
 Optical fiber cable contains glass (or in some cases, plastic) fibers
rather than copper wire.
 Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light
pulses rather than electrical pulses.
 Optical fiber strands are thin filaments of glass consisting of an
inner core and an outer cladding.
 Both the core and the cladding are glass (plastic), and each has a
different refractive index (light passing capability) less dense
medium has more refractive index than more dense medium
 When these light pulses strike the cladding (dense medium) they
are reflected back into the core because the cladding has a lower
refractive index than the core. This keeps the transmitted signal34
within the core as it travels down the fiber.
 The diameter of the core varies with the type of optical
fiber. Single-mode optical fiber has a core diameter of
approximately 8.5 µm while the most commonly used
type of multimode optical fiber has a core diameter of
62.5 µm. The cladding diameter for both is 125 µm.
 The symbol µm represents a unit of length known as a
micron or micrometer. It is equal to one-millionth of a
meter (0.000001 meter).
 The potential bandwidth, or information-transmission
capacity, of optical fiber is greater than that of twisted-pair
or coax cable.
 For this and other reasons, the use of optical fiber has 35
continued to grow in LAN implementations.
 Optical fiber advantages

 Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical

signals through copper. This translates into lower attenuation and
higher bandwidth than copper, allowing transmission to occur over
longer distances and/or at greater speeds.

 High level of immunity to EMI/RFI since signals are sent as light

and not as electricity.

 Smaller size & weight

36
 Optical fiber disadvantage

 Due to the required conversions between light and electricity, more

expensive electronics are required than with copper-based systems.

 Requires specialized installation procedures.

 Expensive

37
38
Fiber optic cable (Indoor)

39
40
41
Single-mode versus multimode fiber

42
 Fiber Optic Cable Connectors

 Fiber optic cables are most susceptible to signal dispersion at its

connectors. Fiber optic cable uses different types of connectors.
The most popular fiber optic connector currently in use are:-

 Straight Tip (ST) connector:- It is a connector that uses a

mechanism similar to the BNC connectors used by thinnet. The
most popular

 Subscriber connector (SC):-are square shaped and have release

mechanisms to prevent the cable from accidentally being
43
unplugged
44
Note: we use Fusion Splicer shown in the figure below to connect fiber optic
cable to the network hardware

45
 Selecting Cabling

 To determine which cabling is the best for a particular site you

need to answer the following questions:
- How heavy will the network traffic be?

- What level of security does the network require?

- What distances must the cable cover?

- What are the cable options?

- What is the budget for cabling?

46
Cable Comparison Summary

1-
47
1-
48
49
 Media converters
 Media converters interconnect different cable types—twisted pair,
fiber, and Thin or thick coax—within an existing network.

50
Fundamentals of Communication Signals

 The information carrying signals are divided into two broad

classes;
- Analog
- Digital
 Analog Signals
 Analog signals are continuous electrical signals that vary in time
as shown in figure below.

51
 Digital Signals

 Digital signals are non-continuous, they change in individual

steps. They consist of pulses or digits with discrete levels or
values. Digital signals can be modeled/represented by binary
number system.

52
 1. Analog signal
 Analog signal is a continuous time signal and they are
characterized by their wave length, amplitude and frequency.

53
 Amplitude: the maximum value
 Wavelength: the distance between two consecutive peak values
 Frequency is the number of times per second that the wave cycle
repeats or oscillates. Shorter wave length produce higher
frequencies b/c the waves are closer together
 The unit used to measure the frequency is Hertz which means
cycles/second. The unit can be expanded by adding prefixes as
follows.
 Kilo (K) = 103 = 1 Thousand
 Mega (M) = 106 =1 Million
 Giga (G) = 109 = 1 Billion
 Tera (T) = 1012 = 1 Trillion
54
 Peta (P) = 1015 = 1 Quadrillion
 Exa (p) = 1018 = 1 Quintillion
- 1 kilohertz = 1000 Cycles/second
- 1 Megahertz = 1000,000 Cycles/second
- 1Gigahertz = 1000,000,000 Cycles/second
- 1 Terahertz = 1000,000,000,000 Cycles/second etc.

55
 In analog communication, Bandwidth is the width of the range (or
band) of frequencies that an electronic signal uses on a given
transmission medium.

 In this usage, bandwidth is expressed in terms of the difference

between the highest-frequency signal component and the lowest-
frequency signal component.

 Since the frequency of a signal is measured in hertz , a given

bandwidth is the difference in hertz between the highest frequency
the signal uses and the lowest frequency it uses. 56
2. Digital signal
 A signal which is discrete with respect to time is called digital
signal.

57
 In digital communication, bandwidth is often used as a synonym for
data transfer rate - the amount of data that can be carried from one
point to another in a given time period (usually a second). This kind
of bandwidth is usually expressed in bits (of data) per second (bps).
Occasionally, it's expressed as bytes per second (Bps).
 Note: The bandwidth of digital signals is usually measured in bits
per second (BPS). The unit can be expanded by adding prefixes as
follows.
 1 Kilo = 1000 approximately
 1 Kilo= 1024= 210 Exactly 58
 Bit and Baud rate
 A character is represented by 8 bits. When a character is sent to
the communication channel by the transmitter, additional bits are
added to it like start and stop bits as shown in the figure below.

59
 Baud rate total number of bits per second, regardless of the
information content of the signal.

 Bit rate is the number of information bits per second.

Sometimes the channel efficiency = bit rate/baud rate

 you can calculate the maximum transmission rate, in characters per

second, for a given communication setting. This rate is just the
baud rate divided by the bits per frame. In the case above, we have
a total of eleven bits per character frame. If the transmission rate is
60
set at 9600 baud, then we get 9600/11 = 872 characters per second.
 Fundamentals of Signal/data transmission

 Data signals can be sent over a network cable in one of two ways:
broadband or baseband

 BASE BAND TRANSMISSION

- Signal travels over short distances

- This technique allocates the entire bandwidth to a single channel.

- It is best suited for LAN.

- Only supports digital signaling but can do so at very high speeds.

61
 BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
- It divides the available bandwidth into multiple channels.

- Since there are many channels available for transmission, more than one device
can transmit at a time; therefore, simultaneous transmissions can occur without
collisions.

- Broadband transmission can transfer large quantities of information at a time.

- It is not limited to handling only digital transmission but also can support
analog traffic, making it capable of handling traditional voice and video signals
simultaneously with data.

- Broadband transmission was designed for signaling over long distances, with
channel lengths measured in kilometers or miles hence it is best suited for
62
WAN
 STANDARD ETHERNET WIRING SCHEME
CRIMPING (TERMINATING TWISTED PAIR CABLES)

Types of CRIMPING
There are two types of crimping:-
Straight-through cables(||)
Crossover cables (X)
Rolled Cable ()

Compiled by Andualem Desalegn 63

1. Crimping for creating Straight-through cables (||)
Use straight-through cables for the following
To connect:-dissimilar device
•Router to hub
•Router to switch
Switch to PC or server
Hub to PC or server
Network printer to hub or switch

64
 Crimping Standards

Example: T568B
Steps
You must strip the jacket 3 to 5 cm using striper

65
•There are orange, green, blue, and brown pairs. Each pair has one wire with solid-color
insulation and one wire that is white with bands of the pair’s color
•Arrange the wires in their correct order, as per the standard given above

• Cut the wires straight across so that no more than 1.25 cm (a half inch) of wires are
exposed from the jacket. This controls terminal cross-talk interference
• Be sure to cut straight across or the wires will not all reach the pins when you push
them into the connector

66
2. crimping for creating Crossover cables (X)

Use crossover cable for the following

•Switch to switch
•Hub to hub
•Router to router
•PC to PC
•Router to PC
•Switch to hub

67
•This also crimps the cord at the back end of the connector for strain relief to keep the cord from
pulling out if the cord is pulled.
After you have connected both ends, test your cord. Misconnection is very common, so every
cord must be checked using network cable tester

Network cable tester

Note
•Pin 1 & Pin 2 are transmit
•Pin 3 & Pin 6 are receive
68
Or
Example: T568B

3. Crimping for creating Rolled Cable ()

Although rolled cable isn’t used to connect any Ethernet connections together,
you can use a rolled Ethernet cable to connect a computer to a router for
configuration

69
Instruments required for crimping are the following
•RJ-45/11 Crimpier
•Punch Down Tool

70
Punch Down Tool is used for Connecting on RJ-45 Jack using one of the two standards

Important!! (Avoid bad crimping)

71
72
 2. Cable ducting/ trunking

•Cable Trunk/duct/Raceway is used for wire/cable enclosure applications in commercial,

industrial and residential LAN environments. Cable ducts/raceways includes a full
complement of accessories, such as pre-applied adhesive backing, fittings, and joints, so
your wire management systems can be 100% customized.

•Standard products

73
3.5. 3 TERMINATING CO-AX CABLE
The BNC cable connector is either soldered or crimped to the end of a cable.
Basic tools required for terminating coaxial cable.

•Crimp tool
•Sheath striper
•Pair of snips

74
Step 1 Remove the sheath/outer insulator

Step 2 Remove the inner insulator

Step 3 Slide the female connector on to

the cable

75
Step 4 Crimp the connector

76
 Network Interface Card (NIC)

 Network interface cards (NICs) provide the interface between cables,

and computers.

 The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer and

server on the network.

 After the NIC has been installed, the network cable is attached to the
card's port to make the actual physical connection between the
computer and the rest of the network.

77
78
 The role of the NIC is to:

 Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.

 Send the data to another computer.

 Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling
system.

 Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that
can be understood by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

79
 The NIC takes data that is traveling in parallel as a group and
restructures it so that it will flow through the 1-bit-serial path of the
network cable.

 This is accomplished through the translation of the computer's

digital signals into electrical or optical signals that can travel on the
network's cables.

 The component responsible for this is the transceiver

(transmitter/receiver).
80
Parallel data stream converted to a serial data stream

81
 Server
 Servers are usually very powerful computers both in processing
power and in their storage capacity. Different dedicated servers can
be configured depending on the need of the organizations, such as:

Types of server
 File servers – servers that provide centralized data storage which
will be shared among the LAN users.
 Print server – servers that control one or more printers and provide
print service to LAN users.
 Database server – servers that centrally store database and provide
data to client application in the LAN.
 Web server – servers that store web pages that will be viewed using
browsers in the network.
82
 Email server – servers that are used to manage and control email
communications across the network.

Workstation
 A workstation is a high-end microcomputer designed for technical
or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be used by one
person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local area
network and run multi-user operating systems. The term
workstation has also been used to refer to a mainframe computer
83
terminal or a PC connected to a network.
 Network Operating System (NOS)

 The core of a network is the network operating system.

 Just as a computer cannot operate without an operating system, a

network of computers cannot operate without a network operating
system.

 Every network operating system provides basic services to the

computers on its network. These services include:
- Coordinating the activities of the various devices on the network to ensure
that communication takes place as and when required.
84
 - Providing clients with access to network resources, including files and such
peripheral devices as printers and fax machines.

- Ensuring the security of data and devices on the network through centralized
administration tools.
 In short the NOS loaded on server has the following functions?
- NOS manages network resources
- Controls the flow of data
- Maintain security
- Tracks user accounts
- NOS enables clients to access remote drives as if they were on the clients own
machine
- Allow servers to process requests from clients and decide whether that client
85
can use a particular resource
 Examples of NOS:-
- Novel Netware,
- Windows NT server
- Windows 2000/2k server
- Windows 2000/2k advanced server
- UNIX
 NOS has two components
- Network server software
- Network client software
 In most cases, software must be installed on the server and client
for interoperability.

86
 Network server software
- Installed on a file server

- Controls file access from the server hard disk

- Manages the print queue

- Tracks user id and password

 Network client software

- Installed on the local hard disk of each workstation

- Gathers your login information

- Handles drive mapping

87

- And directs printout to the network printer

 LAN Architecture
1. What is LAN architecture?

2. Access methods
- CSMA/CD

- CSMA/CA

- TOKEN PASSING

- DEMAND PRIORITY

3. Transmission technique

88
 What is network architecture?
 If asked to define the word architecture, one may answer that it is the
design and related information needed to construct something.
 Just as the architecture of a building determines its appearance and
function, LAN architecture defines the appearance and influences the
function of the LAN.
 The appearance of the LAN is primarily determined by its
transmission channel infrastructure—normally, this is its cabling
system.
 The function of a LAN is influenced by the manner in which the
devices on the LAN communicate with each other.
 The word architecture groups together the fundamental technical
ingredients that, combined together, make a LAN.

89
 Five components are used to define the architecture of a LAN. They
are as follows:
 Transmission medium
- This defines what is used to connect the devices on the LAN.
 Topology
- This defines how the transmission medium is used to connect the devices on the
LAN.
 Access method
- This is the way in which a station on the LAN obtains the opportunity to send
or receive signals over the transmission medium.
 Transmission technique
- This is the manner(way) by which the signals or messages sent by a station
travel through the transmission medium.
 Transmission speed
- This is the rate at which the signals or messages are able to travel through the
transmission medium.
90
 The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a
maximum speed of 10 Mbps (phenomenal at the time) over coaxial
cable.
 The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree topologies,
depending on the type of cables used and other factors. This heavy
coaxial cabling was expensive to purchase, install, and maintain,
and very difficult to retrofit into existing facilities.
 The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair
wire.
 Common twisted pair standards are 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and
1000BaseT. The number (10, 100, 1000) ands for the speed of
transmission (10/100/1000 megabits per second); the "Base" stands
for "baseband" meaning it has full control of the wire on a single
frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted pair" cable.
91
 Fiber cable can also be used at this level in 10BaseFL.
Fast Ethernet
 The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps.
 Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive network
concentrators/hubs and network interface cards.
 In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary.
Fast Ethernet standards include:
- 100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
- 100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
- 100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
- 100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
92
 Gigabit Ethernet
 Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission
speed of 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps).
 It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper.
- 1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
- 1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
- 1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
- 1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
- 1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
 The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit
Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) and 100 Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),

93
 Ethernet Protocol Summary

Protocol Cable Speed

Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps

94
 Access Methods
 The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the
network cable and takes data from the cable is called an access
method.
 Once data is moving on the network, access methods help to
regulate the flow of network traffic.
Traffic Control on the Cable
 To understand traffic on a computer network, it helps to use an
analogy.
 A network is in some ways like a railroad track, along which
several trains run.
 When a train is on the track, all other trains must abide by a
procedure that governs how and when they enter the flow of traffic.
 Without such a procedure, entering trains would collide with the95

one already on the track.

 Multiple computers must share access to the cable that connects
them.
 However, if two computers were to put data onto the cable at the
same time, the data packets from one computer would collide with
the packets from the other computer, and both sets of data packets
would be destroyed.

96
 If data is to be sent over the network from one user to another, or
accessed from a server, there must be some way for the data to
access the cable without running into other data.
 And the receiving computer must have reasonable assurance that
the data has not been destroyed in a data collision during
transmission.
 Access methods need to be consistent in the way they handle data.
 If different computers were to use different access methods, the
network would fail because some methods would dominate the
cable.
 Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous
access to the cable.
 By making sure that only one computer at a time can put data on
the network cable, access methods ensure that the sending and
receiving of network data is an orderly process.

97
The four Major Access Methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the
network media include:

1. Carrier-Sense Multiple Access Methods (With Collision Detection)

–CSMA/CD

2. Carrier-Sense Multiple Access Methods ( With Collision

Avoidance)-CSMA/CA

3. Token-Passing Methods That Allow Only a Single Opportunity To

Send Data.

4. Demand-Priority Methods.

98
 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access
method

 Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with

collision detection (CSMA/CD), each computer on the network,
including clients and servers, checks the cable for network traffic.

99

Computers can transmit data only if the cable is free

 Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there
is no traffic on the cable can it send data.

 Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other

computer can transmit data until the original data has reached its
destination and the cable is free again.

 Remember, if two or more computers happen to send data at exactly

the same time, there will be a data collision.

 When that happens, the two computers involved stop transmitting

for a random period of time and then attempt to retransmit.

 Each computer determines its own waiting period; this reduces the
chance that the computers will once again transmit simultaneously.
100
 With these points in mind, the name of the access method—carrier-
sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)—makes
sense.

 Computers listen to or "sense" the cable (carrier-sense).

Commonly, many computers on the network attempt to transmit
data (multiple access); each one first listens to detect any possible
collisions.

 If a computer detects a possible collision, it waits for a random

101
period of time before retransmitting (collision detection).
 CSMA/CD Considerations

 The more computers there are on the network, the more network
traffic there will be.
 With more traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to
increase, which slows the network down, so CSMA/CD can be a
slow-access method.
 After each collision, both computers will have to try to retransmit
their data. If the network is very busy, there is a chance that the
attempts by both computers will result in collisions with packets
from other computers on the network.
 If this happens, four computers (the two original computers and the
two computers whose transmitted packets collided with the
original computer's retransmitted packets) will have to attempt to
retransmit. These proliferating retransmissions can slow the
102
network to a near standstill.
 The CSMA/CD process /Algorithm/

 Step 1

• Anode listens to the network activity for a carrier signal (CS) that indicates
the network is in use.
• At any given time, multiple nodes may be listening.
• If a node hears a signal, the node defers (backs off) for a random amount
103

of time.
 Step 2

• Hearing no carrier signal (CS), a node sends its packet (s) onto the network
and monitor the channel to make certain there are no collisions.
• Note that the transmission moves in both directions along the bus.
• This is necessary to ensure that all nodes get the message at the same time,
so that each node hears the same network. 104
 Step 3

• Because of the multiple access (MA) property, another node may have
done the same thing, so that the two messages are moving along the bus
at the same time.

105
 Step 4

• In such a case, a collision occurs. The packets are garbled/distorted.

• The node closest to the collision detects it and sends out a Jamming
signal, notifying all nodes that a collision has taken place.
• A node involved in a collision backs off for a randomly determined amount
of time before trying again to access the network.
• On a busy network, such an attempt may be repeated many times before
the transmission is successful.
• If collisions are still detected after many attempts, the user may be
informed that the network is too busy to transmit. 106
 • Note:

 It is a contention method
 With more traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to
increase, which slows the network down, so CSMA/CD can be a
slow-access method.
 Using a CSMA/CD network with many users running several
database applications can be very frustrating because of heavy
network traffic.
 CSMA/CD works best when most network activity is light.
 To use this access method, a node must be able to detect network
activity (carrier sense (CS) and to detect collisions (Collision
detection (CD). Both of these capabilities are implemented in
hardware on board of the NIC.
 Used by Ethernet networks
107
 It is a probabilistic access method
 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method

 Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)

is the least popular of the three major access methods.

 In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to transmit before it

actually transmits data.

 In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this

allows them to avoid transmission collisions.

 Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the

amount of traffic on the cable and slows down network
108
performance.
 The CSMA/CA process
 Step 1

• Anode listens to the network activity for a carrier signal (CS) that
indicates the network is in use.
• At any given time, multiple nodes may be listening.
• If a node hears a signal, the node defers (backs off) for a random 109

amount of time.
 Step 2

• Hearing no CS, a node sends a request to send (RTS) signal onto the
network.
• The signal is broadcast in both directions.
110
 Step 3

• If it is sending to a particular node (directed transmission), the sender

waits for a clear to send (CTS) reply.
• If no reply is received within a predefined time, the node assumes there
is a collision and backs off for a random amount of time. 111
 Step 4

• If a CTS is received, of if the message is intended as a broadcast

transmission, the node begins sending its packet(s).
• In the case of a broadcast transmission, the node doesn’t wait for
CTS 112
 Note:
- Broadcasting the intent (i.e. RTS) to transmit data
increases the amount of traffic on the cable and slows
down network performance.
- This method is used by Apple’s LocalTalk networks
- It is a probabilistic access method

113
 Token-Passing Access Method
 In the access method known as token passing, a special type of
packet, called a token, circulates around a cable ring from computer
to computer.

 When any computer on the ring needs to send data across the
network, it must wait for a free token.

 When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of it

if the computer has data to send.
 The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames,
and additional information, such as addressing, is attached to the
114
frame in the form of headers and trailers
 While the token is in use by one computer, other computers cannot
transmit data. Because only one computer at a time can use the
token, no contention and no collision take place, and no time is
spent waiting for computers to resend tokens due to network traffic
on the cable.
 Token passing is a deterministic media access method in which a
token is passed from node to node according to a predefined
sequence.
 A token is a special packet , or frame which is created by the first
computer turned on.
 At any given time, the token can be available or in use. When an
available token reaches a node that node can access the network.
115
 The TOKEN-PASSING process

 A network device with a message to send captures the token as it

passes by on the channel.

 The message is attached to the token.

 The message-bearing token continues to circulate on the channel.

 As the token stops at a device, it is checked to see if the message is

for that device. If the message is not for that device, the message-
bearing token is put back onto the transmission channel to be sent to
the next device. When the message reaches the destination device,
116
that device will recognize its address and will read the message.
 The destination device then attaches an acknowledgment of receipt
to the token which continues to circulate.

 When the sending device receives the acknowledgment of receipt,

it clears the token so it may be used by another device. The token-
passing scheme is most commonly used in ring- or star-wired ring
topologies.

 NOTE:
 The first computer that is turned on creates the token.
 The token-passing scheme is most commonly used in ring- or star-
wired ring topologies.
 Network architecture that supports token passing as an access
method include ARCnet, FDDI, and IBM’s Token Ring. 117
 Demand Priority Access Method

 First developed by Hewlett-Packard, this standard combines the

concepts of Ethernet and ATM.

 It uses ―intelligent ―hub that allocates more bandwidth to frames

that have been assigned a higher priority by the sending computer.

 The hub scans its ports and then allocates bandwidth according
each frames priority.

 This is extremely valuable for real-time audio and video

transmission. 118
 Demand priority is an access method used in 100Base VG (VG
stands for Voice grad) or 100VG-AnyLAN networks.

 It is 10 times faster than the original Ethernet speeds.

 This technology is quickly outdated because of its overhead due to

port scanning.

 The original Ethernet is updated to fast Ethernet (100mbps) to

replace 100VG-AnyLAN.

 Demand priority shifts network access control from the workstation

119
to the hub. This access method works with star topology.
 Demand-Priority Considerations

 In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between

the sending computer, the hub, and the destination computer.

 This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts

transmissions to the entire network.

 In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and
repeaters directly connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD
environment, each hub knows the address of every node in the
network.
120
 Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD
including:
- The use of four pairs of wires.

- By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at the
same time.

- Transmissions through the hub.

- Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the network.
The computers do not contend on their own for access to the cable, but
operate under the centralized control of the hub.
121
 The DEMAND-PRIORITY process

 A station needing to transmit sends a request to the hub.

 The station is given permission to transmit by the hub.
 The hub switches the incoming transmission to the destination
device. Transmissions are between sender and receiver only, and
are not broadcast.
 When multiple requests for transmission arrive at the hub at the
same time, the highest priority is serviced first—two priorities are
possible, high and normal.
 If two requests having the same priority arrive at the same time, the
hub’s port sequence number acts as the tie breaker.
 Stations can receive at the same time they transmit.
 An advantage of demand priority is the ability to designate priority
service to time-sensitive traffic such as real-time video. 122
123