FLUID MECHANICS

MR B. MUJOKORO
 Fluid Mechanics

 Deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics)

or in motion (fluid dynamics) and the interaction of
fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

 Fluid refers to any substance in the gaseous or

liquid phase which can flow under the influence of a
force.

 Unlike solids, fluids deform continuously under the

influence of a shear stress, no matter how small.
 Fluid Mechanics

 Fluids readily deform under minimal forces and the

molecules of the fluid experiences different effects
as a result of the applied force.

 When a force is applied to a solid, it tends to affect

the whole object.

 However, when a force is applied to a fluid, the

molecules at the point of application of the force are
affected differently than those elsewhere.
 Fluid Mechanics


 Fluid Statics

 Fluids enclosed in vessels with no net movement or

at rest are referred to as static.

 The physics and measurement pressure of static

fluids differs with that of dynamic fluids (fluids in
motion).

 In order to determine the pressure changes in a

stationary system, one requires an understanding of
all the forces acting on that system.
Variation of Pressure in Fluids

 Consider the rectangular

volume element shown in
the figure.
 There are 3 forces acting
on it, i.e.
1. Weight of the liquid
above it.
2. Weight of the volume
element itself, and
3. Reaction for of the
liquid below it.
 Variation of Pressure in Fluids

 Since everything remains static, then all forces

acting on the system balance,

PA = (P + dP)A + ρgAdy
PA – (P + dP)A – ρgAdy = 0,
where P is the pressure on the lower side
Removing brackets and simplifying, we get

dP = – ρgdy
 Meteorology:
The Hydrostatic Balance Equation


 Fluid Statics

dP = – ρgdy
 For constant density fluids, if we integrate the above
equation with limits from P1 and P2 and y1 and y2, we get
P2 – P1 = – ρg(y2 – y1)
P1 = P2 + ρg(y2 – y1)
 If we extend y2 to the surface, then P2 becomes
atmospheric pressure, (y2 – y1) becomes the depth, h.
Then the pressure at any point in a stationary fluid
exposed to the atmosphere becomes;
P = Patm + ρgh
 Fluid Statics

 P = Patm + ρgh is called the absolute pressure.

 Most instruments however measure the difference in

pressure between a point and a known ref. this is
called gauge pressure

 Gauge pressure is;

P = ρgh
Clearly from the equations
of both the absolute and
gauge pressure it can be
seen that:
Pressure is independent of
dimensions (shape) of the
container but only depends
on the depth.
 Pressure Measurement

 The most commonly used instrument is a U-tube

manometer.
Pᵣ One end can be closed
(absolute pressure msrnt)
or open (gauge pressure
msrnt)
Pₐ

The inlet has a valve. This is

the end which is connected to
The liquid which is normally
the system to be msrd, e.g,
used is mercury.
gas supplies, vacuum, blood
pressure, etc
The Barometer

 A barometer is a tool that

measures atmospheric
pressure.

 How it works: the height

of the liquid in the tube
increases as the
atmospheric pressure
increases.
 Pascal’s Principle

 “Achange in the pressure applied to an enclosed

fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of
the fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel”

 It can be illustrated by a hydraulic jack, were a force

applied on a small cross sectional area transmits a
pressure undiminished to a larger cross sectional
area to lift a load.
 Pascal’s Principle:
The Hydraulic Jac

P = F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂

F₂ = (A₂/A₁).F₁

It can be seen that the

hydraulic jack is a
force multiplier whose
multiplication factor is
equal to the ratio of the
cross-sectional areas.
Example
Calculate the force on
the wheels if the fluid
chambers design is,
i. Rectangular
ii. Cylindrical
 Pascal’s Principle:
The Heimlich Maneuver

 It is the application of a sharp pressure in to the

abdomen which then is transmitted to the throat,
thereby ejecting any food particles that was lodged
in the throat.
 Also called abdominal thrusts.
 Archimedes Principle

 When a body is immersed in a liquid it is buoyed up

and appears to lose weight.
 The upward force is called the upthrust of the liquid
on the body and is due to the pressure exerted by the
liquid on the lower surface of the body, being greater
than that on the top surface.
“The upthrust (force) experienced by a body
completely or partly immersed in a liquid is equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced”.
Upthrust = weight of displaced liquid
 Archimedes Principle
& The Human Body

 What do you think will happen to your weight if all

the fluids (which constitutes over 70% of your body)
were to be removed?
 Is the weight going to increase or decrease?
 On one hand, by Archimedes principle cells and
organs suspended in fluids have an apparent weight.
 On the other hand, the whole system has a constant
weight since the loss is apparent.

 So which one is it? More weight or less weight?

 Fluid Dynamics

 Most applications of fluid mechanics are mostly

concerned with fluids in motion or objects moving
through fluids.

 However, the motion of real fluids is complicated;

nonetheless, with certain simplifying assumptions a
good comprehension of this subject can be obtained.
 Classification of Fluid Flows
1) Uniform flow; steady flow
 If we look at a fluid flowing under normal circumstances - a river for
example - the conditions (e.g. velocity, pressure) at one point will vary
from those at another point, then we have non-uniform flow. If the
conditions at one point vary as time passes, then we have unsteady
flow.
 Under some circumstances the flow will not be as changeable as this.

 Uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction
at every point in the flow it is said to be uniform. That is, the flow
conditions DO NOT change with position.

V
0
x
 Non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every
point the flow is non-uniform.
 Classification of Fluid Flows

1) Uniform flow; steady flow

 Steady: A steady flow is one in which the
conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section)
may differ from point to point but DO NOT change
with time.
V
0
t

 Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions

change with time, the flow is described as
unsteady.
 Classification of Fluid Flows

 Combining the above we can classify any flow in to

one of four types:
 Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change
with position in the stream or with time. An
example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant
diameter at constant velocity.
 Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from
point to point in the stream but do not change with
time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with
constant velocity at the inlet - velocity will change
as you move along the length of the pipe toward
the exit.
 Classification of Fluid Flows

 Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time

the conditions at every point are the same, but will
change with time. An example is a pipe of constant
diameter connected to a pump pumping at a
constant rate which is then switched off.
 Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the
flow may change from point to point and with time
at every point. An example is surface waves in an
open channel.
 You may imagine that one class is more complex
than another – steady uniform flow is by far the
most simple of the four.
 Classification of Fluid Flows

2) Viscous and inviscid flows

 An inviscid flow is one in which viscous effects do

not significantly influence the flow and are thus
neglected. In a viscous flow the effects of viscosity
are important and cannot be ignored.

 It is more difficult to create an inviscid flow

experimentally, because all fluids of interest (such
as water and air) have viscosity.
 Classification of Fluid Flows

 The question then becomes: are there flows of

interest in which the viscous effects are negligibly
small?

 The answer is "yes, if the shear stresses in the flow

are small and act over such small areas that they
do not significantly affect the flow field.“

 Inviscid flows are of primary importance in flows

around streamlined bodies,
 Classification of Fluid Flows

2) Viscous and inviscid flows

 Classification of Fluid Flows

3) Incompressible and compressible flows

 All fluids are compressible - even water - their

density will change as pressure changes. Under
steady conditions, and provided that the changes
in pressure are small, it is usually possible to
simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is
incompressible and has constant density.
 incompressible flow is defined as one in which the
density of each fluid particle remains relatively
constant as it moves through the flow field.
 Classification of Fluid Flows

4) Laminar and turbulent flows

 Classification of Fluid Flows

4) Laminar and turbulent flows

 Viscous or Laminar: in which the fluid particles
appear to move in definite smooth parallel path
with no mixing, and the velocity only in the
direction of flow.
 Classification of Fluid Flows

 Transitional: in which some unsteadiness becomes

apparent (the wavy filament).

 Turbulent: in which the flow incorporates an

eddying or mixing action. The motion of a fluid
particle within a turbulent flow is complex and
irregular, involving fluctuations in velocity and
directions.
 Mixing is very significant in turbulent flow, in which
fluid particles move haphazardly in all directions
 Bernoulli's Thm

 It relates the pressure, velocity and elevation of a

moving ideal fluid following streamline flow.
 It states that the velocity of a fluid is high were the
pressure is low and low were the pressure is high.

 The continuity eqn is given by;

A₁v₁ = A₂v₂
 This represents the volume flow rate V/t (prove this).
 Bernoulli's Thm

 From the continuity equation, we see that velocity is

high when the cross – sectional area is small and vice
– versa.
 Bernoulli’s equation for a pipe carrying a fluid, at a
height h to be,
E/V = ½ ρ v² + ρ g h + P = Constant
where P is the pressure being exerted on the fluid, E is
energy, V is volume.
 The total mechanical energy of the flowing fluid
remains constant.
 Bernoulli’s theorem is the principle of energy
conservation for ideal fluids in steady, or streamline
flow.
 FLOWMETERS

 These measure the rate of flow of a fluid through a

pipe.

 Many perioperative testing of pulmonary function,

and monitoring ventilation tests are based on the
measurement of gas flow and volume.

 In clinical practice, measurement is usually made

indirectly, using a property of the gas that changes
with gas flow or volume and which can be more
easily determined.
 FLOWMETERS

 For gas delivery systems, flow is generally constant

and is given by;
V = Q t, where V is volume, Q is flow and t is time.
 Flowmeters can either be gas/liquid or mixed fluid.
For gas flowmeters;
1. Spirometer (ventilation measurement)

2. Pneumotachograph (resistance – pressure)

3. Vane meters, etc

 FLOWMETERS

 Venturi meters and orifice flowmeters are among

others.
 A venturi tube consists of a horizontal tube with a
constriction and replaces part of a piping system.
 The tube open up very gradually past the
constriction, this smooth tapering prevents
turbulence.
 FLOWMETERS

 Venturi tubes uses Bernoulli’s principle, which states

that the velocity of a fluid is high were the pressure
is low and low were the pressure is high.
 The general equation for calculating flow rate
through either an orifice or venturi meter is;

 Where Cd is flow discharge, Ao is Area of constriction and β

ratio of diameter of constriction to normal
 ENTRAINMENT

 This is an application of Bernoulli effect, were a

flowing fluid is used to draw in a second fluid.
 Either the main driving fluid or the entrained fluid
maybe liquid or gaseous, i.e a gas can be entrained
into a liquid or a liquid can be entrained into a gas.
 ENTRAINMENT

1. WATER ASPIRATOR

A rapidly moving stream of water entrains air and

produces negative pressure or suction at the
entrainment port.
 ENTRAINMENT

2. Oxygen and other therapeutic gases are dry when

they are taken from tanks/supply lines. A
considerable amount of moisture must be added to
the gas in order to prevent dehydration of the
patient.

Oxygen therapy: The flow of 100 per cent

oxygen through the mask draws in a
controlled amount of room air (21 per cent
oxygen). Commonly available masks
deliver 24, 28, 31, 35, or 40 per cent oxygen.
COPD, new borns, respiratory trauma etc
 Other Applications of
Fluids: Biological Systems

Fluids (liquids or gasses) play important roles in living

systems such as;

i. Protection
ii. Lubrication
iii. Transport
iv. Medium for synthesis, etc

• A knowledge of the basic properties of fluids such as

pressure, surface tension and viscosity is necessary in
order to understand how living systems function.
 Other Applications of
Fluids: Biological Systems

1. Hemorheology - Blood viscosity is largely

determined by the plasma viscosity and the
hematocrit. The viscosity of blood helps in the
diagnosis of a number of diseases.
o For example, the plasma viscosity is higher in
patients undergoing acute cardiovascular events
such as stroke, MI, or sudden cardiac death.
o Development of anemia, sickle cell disease,
postmenopausal epidemiology, postmortem
diagnosis can be studied.
 Other Applications of
Fluids: Aerodynamics
 Study of fluid motion
around an object and
motion of an object
through a fluid.

 Propulsion system of
aircrafts and space
vehicles, automobiles,
high speed trains, ships,
tall buildings and bridges.
 Other Applications of
Fluids: Piping and Turbines
Other Applications of
Fluids: Meteorology
The End