TEACH YOURSELF

M e c h a n i c s - II
1st Edition

For BS Physics/Chemistry/Mathematics students

Dr. Anwar Manzoor Rana

Department of Physics
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan

&

Dr. Syed Hamad Bukhari

Department of Physics
G.C. University Faisalabad, Sub-Campus, Layyah

&

Jamshid Alam Khan

Department of Physics
Postgraduate College,
Khanewal

Quanta Publisher, 2660/6C Raza Abad, Shah Shamas, Multan.

Contents

1 Rotational Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Relationship between Linear and Angular Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Parallel Axis and Perpendicular Axis Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Parallel Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Perpendicular Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Illustrations of Parallel Axes and Perpendicular Axes Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Rotational Dynamics of Rigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Combined Rotational and Translational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Rolling without Slipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.8 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.9 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2 Relation between Torque and Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Stability of Spinning Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 The Spinning Top or Precessional Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.7 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.8 Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3 Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Universal Gravitation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1 Henry Cavendish Experiment for measuring value of G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Gravitational Effect of a Spherical Mass Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4 Gravitational Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5 Calculation of Escape Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.6 Gravitational Field and Gravitational Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.7 Radial and Transversal Components of Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.8 The Motion of Planets and Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
 3.9 Motion of Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.10 Energy Consideration in Planetary and Satellite Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.11 Universal Law to the Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.12 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.13 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.14 Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

4 Bulk Properties of Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2 Elastic Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3 Tension, Compression and Shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4 Elastic Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5 Poisson’s Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.6 Relation between Y, K and η . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.7 Fluid Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.8 Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.9 Role of Surface Tension in Formation of Liquid Drop and Bubble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.10 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.11 Fluid Flow through a Cylindrical Pipe (Poiseuille’s Law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.12 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.13 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.14 Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5 Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3 The Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Consequence of Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.5 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.6 Twin Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.7 Transformation of Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.8 Variation of Mass with Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.9 Mass Energy Relation or Relativistic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.10 Relativistic Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.11 Lorentz Invariant Relativistic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.12 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.13 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.14 Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Chapter 1

Rotational Dynamics

BY the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

? Understand the relationship between linear and angular variables.
? Use perpendicular and parallel axis theorem related to momentum of inertia.
? Understand the force and torque, mass and inertia and relation of inertia with rota-
tional K.E.
? Apply these theorems to find out moment of inertia of various objects.
? To analyze the rotational dynamics of rigid objects.

Introduction
In this chapter we shall consider the causes of rotation which forms a subject called
rotational dynamics. When a force is applied at a certain location to a rigid body it
rotates about any particular axis, the resulting motion depends upon the location of the
application of the force. From experiments we know that a given force applied to a body
at one location may produce a different rotation at some other location.
The quantity which takes into account both the magnitude of the force applied, location
and the direction in which it is applied is called torque. It is also defined as the
turning effect of force produced in a body about an axis. Just as we regard
force as push or pull, we can regard torque as twist.
We also know from experiments that the effect required to put a body into rotation
depends on the distribution of mass in the body. The closer the mass to the axis of
 CHAPTER 1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

rotation, the easier it is for the force to rotate the body about that axis. This inertial
quantity that takes into account the distribution of mass of the body around the axis of
rotation is called rotational or moment of inertia. Rotational inertia is not an intrinsic
property like mass. The equation, for rotational dynamics is:

Torque = Moment of Inertia × Angular Acceleration

τ =I α

1.1 Relationship between Linear and Angular Vari-

ables

Linear Motion Angular Motion

1. Linear Displacement x 1. Angular Displacement φ

dx dφ
2. Linear Velocity v = dt 2. Angular Velocity ω = dt
dv dω
3. Linear Acceleration a = dt 3. Angular Acceleration α = dt
dp dL
4. Force F = ma or F = dt 4. Torque τ = I α or τ = dt
R R
5. Work W = F dx 5. Work W = τ dφ
1
6. Kinetic Energy K = 2
mv 2 6. Kinetic Energy K = 12 mω 2
7. Power P = F v 7. Power P = τ ω
8. Linear Momentum p = mv 8. Angular Momentum L = Iω
9. Linear Impulse = F t 9. Angular Impulse = τ t
10. Mass (Translational Inertial) m 10. Rotational Inertia I

Relationship between Linear and Angular Variables (Scalar Form)

When a rigid body rotates about fixed axis, every particle in the body moves in circle.
We can describe the motion of such a particle either in linear variables or in angular
variables. The relationship between linear and angular variables can be developed as
follows: Consider a particle located at point P in body at a distance r from axis of rotation
through A. This point P will move in a circle of radius r. Suppose this particle covers

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 1.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LINEAR AND ANGULAR VARIABLES

Fig. 1.1. A particle located at point P in body at a distance r from axis of rotation through A.

a distance s along the arc when body rotates through an angle φ in counterclockwise
direction. Now,
s = rφ

Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. t,

ds d
= (rφ)
dt dt
ds dφ
=r
dt dt
ds dφ
= rω ∵ = ω(angular velocity)
dt dt
ds
v = rω ∵ = v(linear velocity or tangential) (1.1)
dt
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. t,

dv d
= (rω)
dt dt
dv dω
=r
dt dt
dv dω
= rα ∵ = α(angular acceleration)
dt dt
dv
aT = rα ∵ = aT (tangential component of acceleration) (1.2)
dt
mv 2
The radial component of acceleration is given from centripetal force relation Fc = r
and Newton’s 2nd law of motion F = ma, so

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Chapter 2

Angular Momentum

BY the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

? Understand angular variables, angular momentum and its connection with torque.
? Comprehend law of conservation of angular momentum and identify in which it is held.
? Explain spinning motion of an object.

2.1 Introduction
Angular momentum is a quantity that plays an important role in rotational dynamics.
Like the law of conservation of linear momentum, the law of conservation of angular
momentum is a fundamental law of physics, equally valid for relativistic and quantum
systems. Just as the idea of linear momentum helps us to analyze translational motion,
angular momentum helps us to analyze the rotational motion. The resultant torque acting
on a system about an axis through the center of mass equals the time rate of change of
angular momentum of the system regardless of the motion of the center of mass. This
fact applies even if the center of mass is accelerating, provided (τ ) and (L) are evaluated,
relative to the center of mass. The net external torque acting on a rigid object, rotating
about a fixed axis equals the moment of inertia about the rotational axis multiplied by
the object’s angular acceleration relative to that axis.
In general the expression L = Iω is not always valid. If a rigid object rotates about
an arbitrary axis L and ω may points in different directions. In this case, the moment of
inertia can’t be treated as a scalar. Strictly speaking, L = Iω applies only to rigid objects
 2.1. INTRODUCTION

of any shape that rotate about one of three mutually perpendicular axes (principal axes)
through the center of mass.
Angular Velocity
Angular velocity is defined as, the rate of change of angular displacement. It is denoted
by ω and is written as:
∆θ
ω =
∆t
It is a vector quantity and its direction is along the direction of rotation given by right
hand rule. The SI unit of angular velocity is radian per second (rad.s−1 ) .
Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity. It is denoted by
α and is written as
∆ω
α =
∆t
It is a vector quantity and its direction is along the direction of rotation is given by right
hand rule. The SI unit of angular acceleration is radian per second second (rad.s−2 ) .
Equations of Angular Motion
The equations of angular motion as follows:

ωf = ωi + αt
1
θ = ωi t + αt2
2
2
2αθ = ωf − ωi2

These angular equations are true only in the case, when the axis of rotation is fixed. So
that all the angular vectors have the same direction. Hence, they can be manipulated as
scalars.
Angular Momentum of a Particle
If a particle has angular motion, then it possesses angular momentum. It is denoted by
#»
L. It is defined as the cross product of position vector #» r of the particle w.r.t.
#»
the point about which particle is rotating and linear momentum P of the
particle.

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 CHAPTER 2. ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Mathematically,
#» #»
L = #»
r ×P
#»
Consider a particle of mass m and linear momentum P = m #» v , located at point P with
#»
position vector #»
r to the origin O of an inertial frame of reference. Angular momentum L
is a vector quantity. Its direction is normal to plane of rotation or along axis of rotation.
The magnitude of angular momentum L is given by

Fig. 2.1. The schematic picture of angular momentum of a particle of mass m

L = rP sin θ
L = rP⊥ = r⊥ P

P⊥ = P sin θ = component of P perpendicular to r

r⊥ = r sin θ = component of r perpendicular to P

For circular motion, r and P are perpendicular to each other at every point on the path
i.e. θ = 90◦ ,

L = rP sin 90◦
L = rP (1)
L = mvr

Where m is mass of particle, v is its linear speed and θ is angle between r and P .

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Chapter 3

Gravitation

BY the end of this chapter, you will be able to;

? Understand the law of gravitation.
? Find gravitational force inside and outside of spherical object.
? Establish relation between gravitational force, energy and potential.
? Understand Kepler’s law and how to apply them to heavily bodies.

3.1 Introduction
An important concept of physics is the gravitation, a force that holds the moon in its
orbit around earth, and holds earth in its orbit around the Sun. Isaac Newton said that a
force has to be acting on the moon, because without such a force the moon would move
in a straight line path rather than in its almost circular orbit. Newton reasoned that this
force was the gravitational attraction exerted by the earth on the moon. Newton saw that
the same force of attraction that causes the moon to follow its path around the earth also
causes an apple to fall from a tree. In this chapter, we will discuss the law of universal
gravitation and laws of planetary motion developed by Kepler, followed from the law of
universal gravitation and the concept of conservation of angular momentum. Newton was
the first to propose an exact mathematical form and used that form to show that the
motion of heavenly bodies should be conic sections.
 CHAPTER 3. GRAVITATION

Gravitation
“The property of a massive particle or big body to attract every other particle is known as
gravitation”. Gravitational property of earth is known as gravity. Every body in universe
possesses two properties inherently due to its mass:

• Inertia
• Gravitation

3.2 Universal Gravitation Law

Newton got the idea of gravitation by fall of an apple and applied this property of
gravitation to the motion of earth and heavenly bodies. There are three overlapping realm
into which we can discuss gravitation:

• The gravitational attraction between two bowling balls.

• The attraction of ourselves and objects around us by the earth.
• On the scale of solar system and of the interaction of stars and galaxies, gravitation is
the dominant force.

To explain origin of gravitational force, Newton put forward the law of gravitation
based on empirical laws of planetary motion. According to this law: “Every particle in
the universe attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to
product of their masses and is inversely proportional to square of distance between them.
The direction of the force is along the line joining the particles”. If F is gravitational force
between two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r then according to
this law:
F ∝ m1 m2 (3.1)
1
F ∝ (3.2)
r2
Combining Eqs.(3.1) and (3.2), we get
m1 m2
F ∝
r2
m1 m2
F =G 2 (3.3)
r

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 3.2. UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION LAW

Where, G is a constant and known as universal gravitational constant. Its value is 6.67 ×
10−11 N m2 kg −2 . Constant G is universal as it has same volume for all pairs of particles
in universe. Hence, Newton’s law of gravitation is also universal. The gravitational force
between two particles is independent of the presence of other bodies and the properties
of the medium involved between them.
Vector Form
Force exerted by m1 on m2 with position vector #»
r directed from source toward field
point.
#» m1 m2
F21 = G 2 r̂21 (3.4)
r
Also force exerted by m2 on m1 with position vector #»
r 12 directed from source toward
field point.
#» m1 m2
F 12 = G 2 r̂12
r
#» m1 m2
F 12 = − G 2 r̂21 ∵ r̂12 = −r̂21 (3.5)
r
So, from Eqs.(3.4) and (3.5), we get
#» #»
F12 = −F21 (3.6)

Thus, Eq.(3.6) shows that two bodies exert force on each other which is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction.

3.2.1 Henry Cavendish Experiment for measuring value of G

Apparatus

• Light rigid rod

• Two small lead sphere
• Two large lead sphere
• Suspension wire
• Lamp scale arrangement

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Chapter 4

Bulk Properties of Matters

BY the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

? Understand basic terms related to elastic properties of matter.
? Understand elastic modulus and their relations.
? Understand fluid dynamics, surface tension, viscosity and effect of the temperature on
them.

4.1 Introduction
Matter is divided into three states: solid, liquid and gas. A solid has a definite volume
and shape, a liquid has definite volume but no definite shape and a gas has neither definite
volume nor definite shape. A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged
and held together by weak cohesive forces and forces exerted by the walls of a container.
Both liquids and gases are fluids. Fluid dynamics deals with the aspects of fluid flow.
Note that the extent to which fluids yield to shearing forces depends on a quantity called
the viscosity which is the main topic of this chapter. We can understand the phases of
matter and what constitutes a fluid by considering the forces between atoms that make
up the matter in three phases. The physics of fluids is the basis of hydraulic engineering,
a branch of engineering that is applied in many fields.
 CHAPTER 4. BULK PROPERTIES OF MATTERS

Physical Basis of Elasticity

All bodies can be deformed more or less by applying suitable forces and may regain their
original shape on removal of the applied forces. In fact the rigid bodies are not perfectly
rigid. Solids are made up of atoms and the atoms do not have hard surfaces. In an atom,
electrons are revolving in various shells and sub-shells. So an atom can be visualized as
a spherical cloud of negative charge having positive charge at its center (nucleus). The
surfaces of such electron cloud are not hard. They can be de-shaped by applying fores
externally. There are interatomic forces, which bind atoms together in solids. However, the
atoms vibrate about their mean position just like bodies connected with springs. When we
stretch or compress rigid bodies, we apply forces on them which are of enough magnitude
to change interatomic spacing that result in deformation of the bodies.

4.2 Elastic Properties of Matter

When an external force acts on a body, relative displacement of its various parts takes
place. The displaced particles tend to come to their original position to restore the original
length, volume or shape of body and thus exert a restoring force. All bodies can more
or less, be deformed by applying forces on them. In the simplest case of deformation, an
equal compression applied in all directions to a body may produce a change of volume but
no change in shape or the forces applied may cause a change of shape keeping its volume
constant. Under these conditions, the body is said to be constrained.
Elasticity
The property of a material object to regain its original condition, when the deforming
forces are removed is called elasticity.
Plasticity
The material objects, which do not recover their original condition after deforming forces
are removed, are called plastic bodies and this property of material objects is called
plasticity.

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Stress
When a deforming force is applied on an object, an equal and opposite force is developed
in it which brings it back to its original shape and size after deforming force is removed.
This, “restoring force per unit area of the surface of the object on which it acts is called
stress”. Stress has the same units and dimensions as that of pressure.

Force
Stress =
Area
F
σ =
A
£ ¤
Dimensions = M L−1 T −2

The unit of stress is N m−2 or P a. The stresses are of different kinds depending upon the
type of deformation they produce. There are three types of stresses:
1-Tensile Stress
When a deforming force changes the length of the objects then it is said to be tensile
stress.
2-Compressional Stress
When a deforming force is normally acting on an object and it changes the volume of
object, then this stress is called compressional stress.
3-Shearing Stress
When a deforming force changes the shape of an object i.e. if shear or twist is produced
in the object by applying deforming forces, then the stress is called shearing stress or
tangential stress.
Strain
The relative change produced in size or shape of an object under the effect of applied
force is known as strain. Strain has no units or dimensions, because it is a ratio between
two similar quantities. Strain has three types:
1-Tensile Strain
If the deforming force produces a change (increase or decrease) in length of an object then
ratio of change in length to original length of an object is known as tensile or longitudinal

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Chapter 5

Special Theory of Relativity

BY the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

? Understand why Galilean transformation fails.
? Understand what are Lorentz transformation.
? Comprehend how dynamics will change for fast moving objects.
? Use time and space in context of special theory of relativity.
? Established a relation between relativistic momentum and energy.

5.1 Introduction
In equations of motion with constant acceleration developed by Galileo and laws of motion
given by Newton, mass, length and time (which are base quantities of mechanics) are
considered as invariants i.e. they have same values for all observers irrespective of their
state of motion. Einstein argued that when objects are not moving with very high velocities
comparable to velocity of light or relative to each other. What happen when objects start
to move with velocity close to velocity of light. In this regard, he presented two theories:

1- Special theory of relativity, which deals with inertial frames of reference

2- General theory of relativity, which deals with non-inertial frame of reference.

In this chapter, we are concerned with only special theory of relativity. But before describ-
ing it, it is pertinent to first discuss transformation equations of coordinates and velocities
given by Galileo for inertial frames of references. Only then we will be able to appreciate
 CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

the transformation equation given by Lorentz, which are in agreement with postulates of
special theory of relativity.
Frame of Reference
A system of coordinate-axes which defines the position of a particle or an event in two or
three dimensional space is called frame of reference.
Inertial Frame of Reference
“A frame of reference which is either at rest or moves with uniform velocity relative to
earth is called inertial frame of reference”. It means that acceleration of an inertial frame
of reference is zero. No ideal frame of reference is available on this earth. However, the
earth whose acceleration is negligibly small can be considered as an inertial frame of
reference. An inertial frame of reference is also called non-accelerated frame of reference.
Examples:

1. Room
2. Laboratory or rail compartment moving with uniform velocity relative to earth.

Non-inertial Frame of Reference

“A frame of reference which moves with certain acceleration relative to other frame of
reference is called non-inertial frame of reference”. It is also called an a accelerated frame
of reference.
Event
Any thing that occurs suddenly or instantaneously, at a point in space is called an event.
It involves both position and time of occurrence.
Observer
A person or equipment which can locate, record, measure and interpret an event is called
an observer.
Twin Paradox
The twin paradox assumes that one of the two twins travels to space, 99.9% of the speed
of light and comes back to Earth. It suggests that, “when the traveling twin returns, she
is younger than her twin sister who stayed on Earth”. The special theory of relativity

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states that time does not pass in the same way for everybody and varies depending on
the motion of the observer.
Einstein Paradox
Einstein imagined a paradox. Suppose an observer is traveling with speed of light parallel
to a beam of light in free space, “he would observe static electric and magnetic field
patterns”. Light waves are basically electro-magnetic waves, which consist of continuously
changing transverse electric and magnetic fields. According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory, changing magnetic field produces (induced) electric field and changing electric field
generates magnetic field. Thus light and other electromagnetic waves propagate away from
their source. This theory implies that static patterns of electric and magnetic field in free
space are not possible. Therefore, according to Einstein’s paradox:

I- Either Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory is wrong.

II- No observer can ever attain speed equal to that of light. There is no such restriction
in classical theory.

Einstein opinioned with conviction that Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory can not be
wrong. So he sought an alternative to kinematics of Galileo. In this regard special theory
of relativity was presented by him for inertial frame of reference. This theory is based on
some revolutionary postulates.

5.2 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity

For about two centuries, the mechanics of Galileo and Newton cope with all the experi-
mental tests and they believed in absolute nature of space and time. Based on his thought
experiment about catching a light beam, Einstein realized to replace the laws of relative
motion attributed to Galileo. In his 1905 paper entitled “on the electrodynamics of moving
bodies” offered the two postulates which form the basis of his special theory of relativity.
1-The Principle of Relativity
The laws of physics are same in all inertial frames of reference i.e. the laws of physics
that hold in one inertial frame of reference are not violated in any other inertial frame of
reference.

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