12.10.

2022

FLUID MECHANICS
CHAPTER 2: Fluid Statics (Week 3)

Prof. Dr. Zekeriya ALTAÇ and Prof. Dr. Necati MAHİR

Eskişehir Osmangazi University, School of Engng & Architecture

Absolute pressures are always positive,

Gage pressure can be either positive or negative depending on
whether the pressure is above atmospheric pressure (a positive
value) or below atmospheric pressure (a negative value).

A negative gage pressure is also referred to as a suction or

vacuum pressure.

In the SI system, the units are N/m2 or Pa (1 N/m2 =1 Pa).

Pressure is also be expressed as the height of a column of liquid.

Then the units will refer to the height of the column (mm, m, etc.),
and in addition, the liquid in the column must be specified (H2O,
Hg, etc.)
patm ( abs ) = 760 mm Hg (at sea level)
patm ( abs ) = 1atm=1.013bar=101.33kPa
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The measurement of atmospheric pressure

is usually accomplished with a mercury
barometer, which in its simplest form
consists of a glass tube closed at one end
with the open end immersed in a container
of mercury as shown in Figure.

The column of mercury will come to an

equilibrium position where its weight plus
the force due to the vapor pressure
balances the force due to the atmospheric
pressure. Thus,
patm = γh + pvapor
where γ is the specific weight of mercury.
In practice, the contribution of the vapor pressure can be neglected
since it is very small so that
pvapor ≈ 0 → patm ≈ γh
3

EXAMPLE Water at 10°C is the fluid in the pipe shown in figure, and
mercury is the manometer fluid. If the deflection is 60 cm and length is
180 cm, what is the gage pressure at the center of the pipe?

GIVEN: T=10°C, ∆h=0.6 m, ℓ = 1.8 m

FIND: Gage pressure at p4 =?
Assumptions: constant properties. p1 = 0
Properties: γw=9.81 kN/m3, γm=133 kN/m3.

SOLUTION: Start at Point (1) and work to Point (4)

Calculate the pressure at Point (2) using the hydrostatic equation Schematic
p2 = p1 + γ m ∆h12 → p2 = 0 + (133 kN3 )(0.60 m) → p2 = 79.8kPa
m
To find p3, hydrostatic with z3=z2 eq gives p3, water = p2, water = 79.8 kPa
When water-mercury interface is flat, pressure is contant across interface, so at
the interface, p3,mercury= p3,water. Using hydrostatic equation

p4 = p3 − γ wℓ → p4 = 79.8 kPa − (9.81 kN3 )(1.80 m) → p4 = 62.1kPa

m
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Pressure Measurement
Manometer – gravimetric device based upon liquid
level deflection in a tube
Bourdon tube – elliptical cross-section tube coil that
straightens under under influence of gas pressure
Mercury barometer – evacuated glass tube with open
end submerged in mercury to measure atmospheric
pressure
Pressure transducer – converts pressure to electrical
signal; i) flexible diaphragm w/strain gage ii) piezo-
electric quartz crystal

Manometers – Piezo Tube

The simplest type of manometer,
called a piezometer tube, consists of
a vertical tube, open at the top, and
attached to the container in which the
pressure is desired.

Because manometers involve

columns of fluids at rest,

p = γh + p0
pA can be determined by a measurement of h1 through the relationship
p A = γ1h1
Because Point (1) and Point (A) within the container are at the same
elevation, pA=p1.
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Manometer Equation
It is used to calculate pressure as measured by a manometer.
Since these equations are derived from the hydrostatic equa-
tions, they have the same assumptions: (1) constant fluid
density and (2) hydrostatic conditions

p1 + ∑ γ i hi − ∑ γ i hi = p2
down up

p1 pressure at Point (N/m2)

p2 pressure at Point (N/m2)
γi specific weight of fluid “i” (N/m3)
hi vertical displacement of fluid column "i" (m)
For DOWNWARDS vertical displacements use it with PLUS (+) sign,
For UPWARDS vertical displacements use it with MINUS (−) sign.
7

Manometers –U-tube manometer

The pressure at Points A and (1) are the same, and as
we move from Point (1) to (2) the pressure will increase
by γ1h1 and p2=p3 and popen=0. As we move vertically
upward the pressure decreases by γ2h2. So we write

pA can be written in terms of the column

heights as

If A does contain a gas, the

contribution of the gas column,
γ1h1, is negligible so that pA≈p2
and, in this case, we obtain

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The U-tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference

in pressure between two containers or two points in a given system.

At A pA=p1.

At Point (2) pressure increases by γ1h1.

p2=p3 and as we move to Point (4) pressure decreases by γ2h2.
As we move from Point (4) to (5), pressure decreases by γ3h3.
Finally, p5=pB. Thus,

or we can rewrite it for pressure

difference as

EXAMPLE What is the pressure of the air in the tank if ℓ1 = 40 cm,

ℓ 2 = 100 cm and ℓ 3 = 80 cm

GIVEN: ℓ1 = 40 cm, ℓ 2 = 100 cm, ℓ 3 = 80 cm

FIND: Tank pressure p2=?
Assumptions: (1) Tank is pressurized with
air, (2) Pressure in air comlumn neglected
Properties: SGoil=0.80, γmercury=133 kN/m3.

γ oil = SGoil γ water = 0.80(9.81 kN3 ) = 7.85 kN3

m m
γ air ≅ 0

SOLUTION: Apply the manometer equation from (1) to (2)

p2 − γ oil ℓ1 + γ air ℓ 2 − γ m ℓ 3 = p1
p2 = 0 + (133 kN3 )(0.80 m) − 0 + (7.85 kN3 )(0.4 m)
m m

p2 = 109.54 kPa gage

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EXAMPLE Water flows through pipes A and B. Lubricating oil is in the

upper portion of the inverted manometer bends. Determine the pressure
difference, pA−pB. (SGw=0.998, SGoil=0.88 and SGHg=13.6)

GIVEN: Multiple manometer as shown.

FIND: Pressure difference, pA−pB
Assumptions: (1) Static fluid, (2) Incompressible fluid.
Properties: SGw=0.998, SGoil=0.88 and SGHg=13.6, γw=9810 N/m3

11

F
D

C
E Schematic

SOLUTION: Apply the monometer equation, working from Point B to Point A,

beginning at Point A we obtain

p A + γ water d1 − γ Hg d 2 + γ oil d3 − γ Hg d 4 − γ water d5 = pB

Pressure at specified interface points, along the manometer can be
obtained using the hydrostatic equation as follows:
pC − γ water d1 = p A , pD + γ Hg d 2 = pC , pE − γ oil d3 = pD
pF + γ Hg d 4 = pE , pB + γ water d5 = pF
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Rewriting this equation in terms of SG gives

p A − pB
= SGwater d5 + SGHg d 4 − SGoil d3 + SGHg d 2 − SGwater d1
γ water

Substituting the numerical values into the equation

p A − pB
= (0.998)(0.2 m) + (13.6)(0.127 m) − (0.88)(0.1m)
9810 N3
m
+(13.6)(0.076 m) − (0.998)(0.25 m)

We finally obtain
p A − pB = (9810 N
)(2.6229 m)
m3

= 25730.6 N2
m

= 25730.6 Pa= 25.73 kPa

13

Manometers – Inclined tube

One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle θ, and the differen-
tial reading ℓ2 is measured along the inclined tube. The difference in
pressure pA− pB can be expressed as

or

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The inclined-tube manometer is often used to measure small

differences in gas pressures so that if pipes A and B contain a
gas, then γ ≈ 0, γ ≈ 0 and
3 1

p A − pB = γ 2ℓ 2 sin θ

or
p A − pB constant
ℓ2 = ≡
γ 2 sin θ sin θ

where the contributions of the gas

columns h1 and h3 have been
neglected.

15

EXAMPLE An inclined-tube reservoir manometer is constructed as

shown. (a) Derive a general expression for the liquid deflection, L, in
the inclined tube, due to the applied pressure difference, ∆p. (b)
Obtain an expression for the manometer sensitivity, and (c) discuss
the effect on sensitivity of D, d, θ, and SGℓ.

GIVEN: Inclined tube reservoir manometer

FIND: (a) Expression for L in terms of ∆p. (b) General expression for
manometer sensitivity, (c) Effect of parameter values on sensitivity.
Assumptions: None
Properties: None required
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Schematic

SOLUTION: Apply hydrostatic equation between Points (1) and (2)

p1 − p2 = ∆p = ρℓ g (h1 + h2 )
To eliminate h1, note that the volume of manometer liquid is constant; the volume
displaced from the reservoir must equal the volume that rises in the tube, so

( )
2
∀1 = ∀2 → πD 2 h = πd 2 L → h = L d
4 1 4 1 D
In addition, from the geometry of the manometer, h2 =L sin θ. Substituting this
into hydrostatic equation gives
∆p
L=

( ) 
2
ρℓ g sin θ + D
d
 17

To find the sensitivity of the manometer, we need to compare this to the

deflection h a simple U-tube manometer, using water (density ρℓ), would
experience,
∆p
h=
ρℓ g
The sensitivity s is then
L ∆p
s= =
h SG sin θ + d
( )
2
ℓ
 D 
where we have used SGℓ=ρℓ /ρw. This result shows that to increase sensitivity,
SGℓ, sin θ, and d/D each should be made as small as possible. The designer
must choose a gage liquid and two geometric parameters to complete a design.

Gage Liquid
The gage liquid should have the small SG to increase sensitivity. The gage liquid
must be safe (without toxic fumes or flammability), be immiscible with the fluid
being gaged, suffer minimal loss from evaporation, and develop a satisfactory
meniscus. Thus the gage liquid should have relatively low surface tension and
should accept dye to improve its visibility.
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Diameter Ratio (d/D)

The plots show the effect of d/D on sensitivity for a vertical reservoir manometer
with gage liquid of unity specific gravity. Note that d/D=1 corresponds to ordinary
U-tube manometer; its sensitivity is 0.5 because for this case the total deflection
will be h, and for each side it will be h/2, so L=h/2. Sensitivity doubles to 1.0 as
d/D→0 because most of the level change occurs in the measuring tube.

For the minimum tube diameter d >6 mm to avoid excessive capillary effect. The
maximum reservoir diameter D is limited by the size of the manometer. If
d/D=0.1, then (d/D)2=0.01, and the sensitivity increases to 0.99, very close to the
maximum attainable value of 1.0.

19

Inclination Angle
The plot which shows the effect of inclination angle on sensitivity for d/D=0.
Sensitivity increases sharply as inclination angle is reduced below 30°. A practical
limit is reached at about 10°. The meniscus becomes indistinct and the level hard
to read for smaller angles.

Summary
Combining the best values (SG=0.8, d/D=0.1 and θ=10°) gives a manometer
sensitivity of 6.81. Physically this is the ratio of observed gage liquid deflection
to equivalent water column height. Thus the deflection in the inclined tube is
amplified 6.81 times compared to a vertical water column. With improved
sensitivity, a small pressure difference can be read more accurately than
with a water manometer, or a smaller pressure difference can be read with the
same accuracy.

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Hydrostatic Forces & Applications

21

Hydrostatic Forces
If a solid plate is immersed into the fluid, the pressure is also
acted upon the surface of the solid.
This pressure acts on the submerged area, thus generating a
kind of resultant force known as hydrostatic force. This force is
an integration of fluid pressure on an area.
Similar to pressure, the direction in which the force is acting is
always perpendicular to the surface.
To derive the hydrostatic force for a planar surface, consider the
solid plate shown in figure. For a small elementary area dA, the
force magnitude is:

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For a submerged plane

surface is inclined. Thus,
the determination of the
resultant force acting on
h y
hc yc the surface is more
complicated.
dF yR
FR Note that
x

For constant γ and θ

A
dA
xc
y xR ∫ ydA implies ∫∫ ydA
A A

IMPORTANT! Pay attention to how 23

the coordinate system is located.

The double integral is the first moment of the area with respect to
the x-axis, we can write
yc = 1A ∫∫ ydA
A
where yc is the y-coordinate of the centroid of the area A measured
from the x axis, thus it can be written as

FR = γAyc sin θ
or γ
hc = yc sin θ hc

FR = γhc A
FR = γhc A
WARNING!!!!!! Although our intuition might
suggest that the resultant force (FR) should
pass through the centroid of the area, this is
not actually the case.
A
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REMEMBER!... From Calculus (II)

For planar/plate systems

xc = 1A ∫∫ xdA,
A
yc = 1A ∫∫ ydA
A z =0

Ix = ∫∫ ( y + z 2 )dA, Iy = ∫∫ ( x + z 2 )dA
2 2

A A

I x = I xx = ∫∫ y I y = I yy = ∫∫ x dA, I z = I zz = ∫∫ ( x + y 2 )dA
2 2 2
dA,
A A A

I xy = ∫∫ xy dA,
A
I yz = ∫∫ yzdA,
A
I xz = ∫∫ xz dA
A

25

The y coordinate, yR, of the resultant force can be determined by the

summation of moments around the x-axis.

(p= p0 + ρgh )
I x or I xx
since

The integral in the numerator is the moment of inertia, Ix. Thus, we

can write

Use can now be made of the parallel axis theorem (Steiner formula)
to express Ix as

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where Ixc is the inertia (second) moment of the area with respect to
an axis passing through its centroid and parallel to the x axis.
Thus

Similarly we obtain

the resultant force does not pass through the centroid but rather
for non-horizontal surfaces is always below it, since Ixc/ycA >0

27

WARNING!!! Note that the centroids (for p0≠ 0) are written as

γ sin θ I xyc γ sin θ I xc
xR = xC + , yR = yC +
FR FR
where
FR = ∫( p 0 + ρgh )dA = ( p0 + γ hc ) A

Also remember hc = yc sin θ if p0 = 0 (gage) then

FR = γ ( yc sin θ) A
hc
In this case we obtain

γ sin θ I xyc γ sin θ I xc

xR = xC + , yR = yC +
γ sin θ yc A γ sin θ yc A

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I xc = π8 R 4

( )
I yc = 8π − 98π R 4
Parallel axis
theorem I nn = I nnC + Ad 2
(Steiner’s
Formula) I xy = I xyC + Ad x d y 29

EXAMPLE A tank of oil has a right-triangular panel near the bottom,

as shown in the figure. Omitting pa, find (a) hydrostatic force, and (b)
CP on the panel.

GIVEN: Tank with specified dimensions, & properties

FIND: (a) Fhydrostatic,R=? (b) Center of Pressure, CP=?
Assumptions: constant properties.
Properties: ρ=800 kg/m3, g=9.81 m/s2.

SOLUTION: Area of the triangle is A= 12 (6 m)(12 m)=36 m 2

30

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Placing the Coordinate System

Liquid level

You are free to place x-location and

its direction.
x = x0
x=0

31

O
y
The relevant inertia moments are
yC hC
1 bL3
I xx = 36
1 (6 m)(12 m)3 = 288 m 4
= 36
1 b(b − 2 d ) L2
I xy = 72 x
= 1 (6
72
m)(6 − 2(0)m)(12 m) 2

= 72 m 4
L = 12 O
b=6
(a) The depth to the centroid is hC=5+4=9 m;
thus the hydrostatic force is Schematic

FR =ρghC A = (800 kg
)(9.81 m2 )(9 m)(36 m ) 2 CG in local coord.
m3 s b L
( xc , yc ) = ( , )
=2.54 × 10 6 kg m
= 2.54×106 N 3 3
s2

hC 9m
xC = 2m , yC = = = 18m
sin 30 0.5 32

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(b) The CP position is obtained from

I xx (288 m 4 )
yR = yC + = 18 m+ = 18.44m
yC A (18 m)(36 m 2 )
I xy (72 m 4 )
xR = xC + = 2m + = 2.11m
yC A (18 m)(36 m 2 )

The resultant force F=2.54 MN acts through this point which is down and
to the right of the centroid as illustrated in the schematic.

HOMEWORK width=6 m
If the panel is x x
rectangular or
elliptical (as
shown), find
CP.
b=6 b=6

Answers: ( x, y ) R = (0, 16.75) ( x, y ) R = (0, 16.5625) 33

EXAMPLE An inclined rectangular surface shown in figure below,

hinged along edge A, is 5 m wide. Determine the resultant force, FR, of
the water and the air on the inclined surface.

GIVEN: w=5 m, L=4 m, D=2 m

FIND: FR=?
Assumptions: constant properties.
Properties: ρ=999 kg/m3, g=9.81 m/s2.

Schematic:

D
sin θ

SOLUTION: To determine FR, we need to find (a) the magnitude and (b) the line
of action of the force (the direction of the force is perpendicular to the surface).
We will solve this problem by using the algebraic equations.
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Since atm pressure p0 acts on both sides of the plate its effect cancels, and
we can work in gage pressures (p=ρgh). A = wL = (5 m × 4 m)=20 m 2
we have p0 =patm on both sides of the plate, so in FR=pcA for pressure we use
pc as a gage pressure, then the net force:

FR = pc A = γhi A = γLw  D + 12 L sin 30 

kg kN
FR = (999 3 )(9.81 m2 )(20 m 2 )  2 m+ 12 (4 m)( 12 )  = 588 kN
m s 1000 N
I xc
The y coordinate of the center of pressure is given by yR = yC +
AyC
For the inclined rectangular gate
D L 2m 4m
yC = + = + = 6m
sin 30 2 sin 30 2
A and Ixx are found as

1 1
I xc = wL3 = (5 m)(6 m)3 = 26.7 m 4
12 12
35

The y coordinate of the center of pressure is found as

I xc 26.7 m 4
yR = yC + = (6 m) + = 6.22m
AyC (20 m 2 )(6 m 2 )
I xyc
The x coordinate of the center of pressure is given by xR = xC +
AyC

xR = xC = 2.5m (I xy =0 for a rectangular gate)

36

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EXAMPLE The door shown in the side

of the tank is hinged along its bottom
edge. A pressure of 4800 Pa is applied
to the liquid free surface. Find the force
(Ft) required to keep the door closed.

GIVEN: p0=4800 Pa, L=1 m, b=0.6 m

FIND: Fhydrostatic,R=?
Assumptions: constant properties.
Properties: ρ=1600 kg/m3, g=9.81 m/s2.
yR
SOLUTION: This problem requires a free-body diagram
(FBD) of the door. The pressure distributions on the inside
and outside of the door will lead to a net force (and its
location) that will be included in the FBD. We can either
use absolute pressures (as on the left FBD) and compute
two forces (one on each side) or gage pressures and
compute one force (as on the right FBD). For simplicity
we will use gage pressures. Note that p0≠0 here.
Schematic
37

Schematic

The components of force due to the hinge are Ay and Az. The force Ft can be
found by taking moments about A (the hinge).

L γ sin θ
FR = pc A, A = bL, hC =
2
, yR = yC +
FR
I xx , ∑MA = 0

γ = ρg = (1600 kg3 )(9.81 m2 ) = 15 696 N

m s m3

The resultant force and its location are FR = ( p0 + γhC ) A = ( p0 + γ L2 )(bL)

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(
Thus we obtain FR = 4800 Pa + (15696 N 1m
)
m3 2 ) (0.6 m ×1m) = 7589 N
Taking moments about point A

 y 
∑ M A = Ft L − FR ( L − yR ) = 0 → Ft = FR  1 − R 
 L 
In this equation we also need to find the component of the
centroid yR which will also require Ixx inertia moment.

For rectangular plate bL3 (0.6 m)(1m)3

I xc = = = 0.05m 4
12 12
Then we find (θ=90°)
N
γ (1m) (15696 m3 )
yR = yC + I xc = + (0.05 m 4 ) = 0.6034m
FR 2 7589 N
Finally we obtain

 y   0.586 m 
Ft = FR  1 − R  = (7589 N) 1 −  = 3009.6 N
 L   1m 

39

Pressure Prism
Pressure varies linearly with depth as seen in figure, where pressure
is zero at the upper surface and equal to h at the bottom. From this
diagram the average pressure occurs at the depth h/2 and,
therefore, the resultant force acting on the rectangular area A=bh is

FR = pavg A = γ ( h2 ) A

c centroid
pc = γhC hC = h2 h
pavg = pc
h
⊗ h 3
FR
FR
CP center of
b pressure
γh γh

FR must pass through the centroid of the pressure prism (CP). 40

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Pressure distribution in the figure applies across the vertical surface

so we can draw the three-dimensional representation of the pres-
sure distribution as shown in figure (b).

This volume is called the pressure prism, and the magnitude of the
resultant force acting on the rectangular surface is equal to the
volume of the pressure prism. Thus, the fluid force is

The resultant force must pass through the centroid of the pressure
(CP) prism. For this volume the centroid is located along the
vertical axis of symmetry of the surface, and at a distance of h/3
above the base. This result can readily be shown to be consistent
with that obtained from

41

Vertical (rectangular) Plate

O p0

yC
s

yR
b
yC = hC = s + 12 b
pc = p0 + ρghC b ⊗ pavg = pc plate

a
FR = pc A

FR =  p0 + ρ g (s + b2 ) ab A=ab≡area
 
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Tilted (rectangular) Plate

O p0

θ hC yR
s
pavg = pc
yC = s + b2 Rectangular
hR Tilted plate
hC = (s + b2 )sin θ ⊗ A=ab≡area
b
pc = p0 + ρghC

FR = pc A

FR =  p0 + ρ g ( s + b2 )sin θ  ab
  43

Horizontal (rectangular) Plate

p0

FR = pc A
Rectangular
h FR = [ p0 + ρ g h ] ab Horizontal
yR = yC = hC = h plate
A=ab≡area
pc = p0 + ρghC

44

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EXAMPLE A car plunges into a lake following

an accident; lands at the bottom of the lake on its
wheels as seen in the figure. The door is 1.2-m
high and 1-m wide, and the top edge of the door 8m
is 8-m below the free surface of the water.
Determine the hydrostatic force on the door and
the location of the pressure center, and discuss if
the driver can open the door.

GIVEN: h=8 m, b=1.2 m, w=1 m

FIND: Fhydrostatic,R=?, (xR, yR)=? Schematic
Assumptions: 1) The bottom surface of the lake is horizontal.
2) The passenger cabin is well-sealed so that no water leaks inside.
3) The door can be approximated as a vertical rectangular plate.
4) The pressure in the passenger cabin remains at atmospheric value since there
is no water leaking in, and thus no compression of the air inside.
5) The weight of the car is larger than the buoyant force acting on it.
Properties: The density of lake water is 1000 kg/m3 throughout. g=9.81 m/s2.
45

SOLUTION: The average pressure on the

door is the pressure value at the centroid
(midpoint) of the door and is determined to
be
 b
Pave = PC = ρ g hC = ρg  s + 
 2
= (1000
kg
m3 (
)(9.81 m2 ) 8m +
s
1.2m
2 )
= 84.4 kN2
m

Area of the door (plate) A = wb = 1 m × 1.2 m= 1.2m 2

Then the resultant hydrostatic force on the door becomes

FR = Pave A = (84.4 kN2 )(1m × 1.2m) = 101.3kN

m

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KpW-OfVf-Pk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmrOWRx5xU8 46

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The pressure center is directly under the midpoint of the door, and its
distance from the surface of the lake is determined from

I xc I xyc
yR = yC + , xR = xC + ,
yC A yC A
For a rectangular plate ( xC , yC ) = ( 12 w, h + 12 b) = (0.5 m, 8.6 m)

Inertia moment of the plate through its centroid

I xc = 12
1 wb3 = 1 (1m)(1.2 m)3 = 0.144m 4
12
I xyc = 0m 4

0.144m 4
yR = 8.6m + = 8.614m xR = 0.5m + 0 = 0.5m ,
(8.6m)(1.2 m 2 )

47

Discussion:
A strong person can lift 100 kg, whose weight is 981 N or about 1 kN.
Also, the person can apply the force at a point farthest from the
hinges (1 m farther) for maximum effect and generate a moment of 1
kN×m.

The resultant hydrostatic force acts under the midpoint of the door,
and thus a distance of 0.5 m from the hinges. This generates a
moment of 50.6 kN×m, which is about 50 times the moment the
driver can possibly generate.

Therefore, it is impossible for the driver to open the door of the car.
The driver’s best bet is to let some water in (by rolling the window
down a little, for example) and to keep his or her head close to the
ceiling. The driver should be able to open the door shortly before the
car is filled with water since at that point the pressures on both sides
of the door are nearly the same and opening the door in water is
almost as easy as opening it in air.
48

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Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

Many surfaces (i.e., dams, pipes, and tanks etc) are non-planar. The
resultant fluid force can be determined by integration, this is a difficult
process and no general simple formulas can be developed.

Alternatively we consider the equilibrium of the fluid volume enclosed by

the curved surface of interest and the horizontal and vertical projections
of this surface. Consider a swimming pool shown in figure.

pa
We wish to find the resultant fluid force (FR)
acting on section BC.

Step 1. Specify the surface you are

interested in examining.

Labeled with A, B, and C, and colored with

FR blue.

49

pa Step 2. Isolate a volume of fluid that is

adjacent to the surface by creating planar
surfaces.

h The isolated body will look like when tilted

slightly and volume of the will be denoted by
ℓs ∀ f = As ws
FR
hs Step 3. Draw a free body diagram of the
fluid. The weight (W) of the isolated fluid
body act at the COM and points downwards.
Isolated Volume

W 50

25
 12.10.2022

There is a pressure force caused by the fluid

above which acts at the top planar surface.
We will call this surface F1.

h There is also a pressure force acting on the

F1 left planar surface which we will call F2.

Newton’s 3rd law tells us “if the fluid exerts

a force FR on a wall, then the wall exerts an
F2 FR
hs equal and opposite force on the fluid”.
FN = −FR
Thus if we determine the normal force FN, we
can then find the resultant force.
F1

⊗
FR
F2
FN
W 51

We apply the Newton’s 2nd law on the isolated

fluid body to determine the components of FN:

∑ F = ma
F1
h Since the fluid body is at rest ∑F = 0
hc
The normal force vector can be broken into its
vertical and horizontal components:
FR
F2 ⊗ hs F = FH i + FV j
In the horizontal direction:
∑ Fx = F2 − FH = 0
F2 = pc Aleft = γhC Aleft FH = F2
hC = h + 1h F1
2 s
FH
⊗
F2
FN
F2 = γ ( h + 1 h )( w h ) W FV
2 s s s 52

26
 12.10.2022

In the vertical direction:

∑ Fy = FV − F1 − W = 0
h FV = F1 + W
F1
F1 is the pressure force due to the weight of
the fluid directly above the isolated fluid
body.
F2 FR
hs F1 = Wabove = mabove g = (ρ∀above ) g
F1 = γ (hws ℓ s )
F1 can be also calculated as the pressure at the top of the isolated body times
the area of the top planar surface. F 1
F1 = p1 ( ws ℓ s )
FH
⊗
F2
FN
W FV
53

The weight of the isolated fluid body is

W = mf g = ρ∀ f g = γ∀ f
We need to calculate the volume of the
h isolated fluid.
F1
For simple shapes, it is easy to determine
the volume. For irreguar surfaces, it is
difficult and requires integration.
F2 FR
hs
The magnitude of the normal force is

FN = FN = FH2 + FV2
And the orientation angle is
F1
−1 FV
α = tan ( F )
H
FH
⊗
α F2
FN
FN W FV
54

27
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If the curved surface is a gate hinged at a some point O, we may need to

determine the moments all forced about the hinge.

CG
yR

CP If the fluid is static and the gate is not moving, then

there should be no net moment for the fluid body.
yH
FH acts at the same depth as F2.

F2 acts at the CP of the left planar surface. Distance to the CP is yR

I xc
yR = yC + , yC = h + 12 hs , A = ws hs
yC A
hs3 ws
I xC = , yH = h + hs − yR ,
12
55

ℓs / 2

ℓs F2 B
Moment arm of F1 : =
2 xC
Moment arm of W : = xC yH

Moment arm of FV : = xV xV

ℓs
∑ M B = FV xV − F1 − WxC = 0
2

1  ℓs 
xV =  F1 + WxC 
FV  2 

56

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When a curved surface is above the The hydrostatic force acting on a

liquid, the weight of the liquid and the circular surface always passes through
vertical component of the hydrostatic the center of the circle since the
force act in the opposite directions. pressure forces are normal to the
surface and they all pass through the
center.
57

EXAMPLE The gate shown is hinged at O

ℓ=5m
and has constant width, 5 m. The equation of
the surface is x=y2/a, where a=4 m. The depth
of water to the right of the gate is 4 m. Find the
magnitude of the force, Fa, applied as shown,
required to maintain the gate in equilibrium if
the weight of the gate is neglected.

GIVEN: w=5 m, D=4 m, x=y2/4

FIND: Fa=?
Assumptions: weight of gate is to be neglected.
Properties: ρ=999 kg/m3, g=9.81 m/s2.
schematic

58

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SOLUTION: The free body diagram (FBD) of the system is shown in Fig. (a).
Before solving we need to think about how we compute FV. However, we
have no fluid directly above the gate. We need to do a “thought experiment”
in which we imagine having a system with water on both sides of the gate
(with null effect), minus a system with water directly above the gate (which
generates fluid forces).

the system FBD (a)=the null FBD (b)−the fluid forces FBD (c)
the vertical and horizontal fluid forces on the system, FBD(a), are equal and
opposite to those on FBD(c). The magnitude and location of the vertical fluid
force FV are given by the weight and location of the centroid of the fluid
“above” the gate;

the magnitude and location of the horizontal fluid force FH are given by the
magnitude and location of the force on an equivalent vertical flat plate.

For FH, the centroid, area, and second moment of the equivalent vertical flat
plate are,
3
D wD
yc = hc = , A = Dw, I xx =
2 12 59

kg
FH = pc A = ρghc A = (999 )(9.81 m2 ) 12 (4 m)(4 m × 5 m)= 392kN
m3 s

I xx D wD 3 /12 D D 2D 2
y R = yc + = + = + = = (4 m)= 2.67 m
Ayc 2 ( wD )( D / 2) 2 6 3 3

For FV , we need to compute the weight of water “above” the gate. To do this we
define a differential column of volume (D−y)w dx and integrate
D2 / a D2 / a
ρgwD 3
FV = ρg ∀ = ρg ∫ ( D − y ) wdx = ρg ∫ ( D − ax ) wdx =
3a
0 0

ρgwD3 (999 kg3 )(9.81 m2 )(5 m)(4 m)3

FV = = m s
= 261kN
3a 3(4)
The location xR of this force is given by the location of the center of gravity of the
water “above” the gate. We recall from statics that this can be obtained by using
the notion that the moment of FV and the moment of the sum of the differential
weights about the y axis must be equal, so
60

30
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D2 / a D2 / a
ρgwD 5
xR FV = ρg ∫ x( D − y ) wdx = ρg ∫ ( xD − a x3/2 ) wdx =
10a 2
0 0

3D 2 3(4 m) 2
xR = = = 1.2m
10a 10(4 m)
Now that we have determined the fluid forces, we can
finally take moments about O (taking care to use the
appropriate signs),

∑ M O = −ℓFa + xR FV + ( D − yR ) FH = 0
1
Fa = ( xR FV + ( D − yR ) FH )
ℓ
1
Fa = ( (1.2 m)(261 kN) + (4 − 2.67)m(392 kN) ) = 167 kN
5m
This problem shows:
• Use of vertical flat plate equations for the horizontal force, and fluid weight
equations for the vertical force, on a curved surface.
• The use of “thought experiments” to convert a problem with fluid below a
curved surface into an equivalent problem with fluid above. 61

To compute the volume of water “above” the gate, recall CALCULUS II

d ∀ = dxdydz 0≤ x≤4 4x ≤ y ≤ 4
0≤ z≤w

w 4 4 4
∫z =0 ∫x =0 ∫y = 4x
dxdydz = ∫
x =0
(4 − 4 x ) wdx

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Multi-layered Fluid
Hydrostatic forces acting on a plane or
curved surface submerged in a multi-
layered fluid of different densities
can be determined by considering
different parts of surfaces in different
fluids as different surfaces, finding the
force on each part, and then adding
them using vector addition. For a plane
surface, it can be expressed as

FR = ∑ FR ,i =∑ pc ,i Ai
where pc ,i = p0 + ρi ghc,i is the pressure at the centroid of the
portion of the surface in fluid i and Ai is the area of the plate in that fluid.
The line of action of this equivalent force can be determined from the
requirement that the moment of the equivalent force about any point is
equal to the sum of the moments of the individual forces about the
same point.
63

Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability

The force that tends to lift the body is called
the buoyant force and is denoted by FB.

The buoyant force is caused by the increase

of pressure in a fluid with depth.

Fhydrostatic,top = ρ f gsA (acts downwards)

Fhydrostatic,bottomp = ρ f g ( s + h) A (acts upwards)

Fnet = FB = Fbottom − Ftop

FB = ρ f hA g = m f g = Fluid weight
∀
64

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fluid

Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting on a

body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to
the buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is
equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body.
That is
∀sub ρave,body
FB = W → ρ f g ∀sub = ρave,body g ∀total → =
∀total ρf
65

A solid body dropped into a fluid

will sink, float, or remain at rest at
any point in the fluid, depending
on its density relative to the
density of the fluid.

The submerged volume fraction of a floating body is equal to the ratio of the
average density of the body to the density of the fluid.

A body immersed in a fluid

(1) Remains at rest at any point in the fluid when ρ=ρf,
(2) sinks to the bottom when ρ>ρf, and
(3) rises to the surface of the fluid and floats when ρ<ρf,

66

33
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EXAMPLE A crane is used to lower weights into the sea (1025 kg/m3)
for an underwater construction project. Determine the tension in the rope
of the crane due to a rectangular 0.4-m×0.4-m×3-m concrete block (2300
kg/m3) when it is (a) suspended in the air and (b) completely immersed
in water.

kg kg
GIVEN: ρ sea ,w = 1025 , ρconcrete = 2300 , ∀ = (0.4m)(0.4m)(3m) = 0.48 m3
m3 m3
FIND: Tension of the rope in (a) air FT,air=? (b) water FT,water=?
Assumptions: (1) Buoyancy of air is negligible, (2) weight of the rope is
negligible
Properties: Given in the problem statement

Schematic:

67

SOLUTION: (a) The forces acting on the concrete block in air are its weight and
the upward pull action (tension) by the rope. These two forces must balance
each other, thus the tension in the rope must be equal to the weight of the block:

FT ,air = W = ρconcrete g ∀ FB,air ≈ 0

kg
FT ,air = (2300 )(9.81 m2 )(0.48 m3 ) = 10800N = 10.8kN
m3 s
(b) When the block is immersed in water, there is the additional force of
buoyancy acting upward. The force balance in this case gives

FB,water = ρsea ,w g∀
kg
FB,water = (1025 3 )(9.81 2 )(0.48 m ) = 4800N
m 3
= 4.8kN
m s

FT ,water = W − FB,water = (10.8 − 4.8) kN = 6.0kN

Discussion: Note that the weight of the concrete block, and thus the tension
of the rope, decreases by (10.8− 6.0)/10.8 ×100= 55% in water.
68

34
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EXAMPLE A hot air balloon (approximated as a

sphere of diameter 15 m) is to lift a basket load of
2670 N. To what temperature must the air be heated
in order to achieve lift off when the surrounding air
temperature is 15°C?
GIVEN: D=15 m, F=2670 N, Tair=15°C
FIND: Temperature of hot air T=?
Assumptions: (1) Ideal gas, (2) Atmospheric pressure throughout.
Properties: ρatm=1.2266 kg/m3, g=9.81 m/s2.
SOLUTION: Apply the buoyancy equation to determine the lift generated by
atmosphere, and apply the vertical force equilibrium equation to obtain the hot
air density. Then use the ideal gas equation to obtain the hot air temperature.

∀ = 16 πD 3 = 16 π(15 m)3 = 1767.15m 3 ∀ = 43 πR3 = 16 π(2 R)3 = 16 πD3

∑ Fy = 0 → Fbuo − Whot air − Wload = ρatm g∀ − ρhot air g ∀ − Wload = 0

ρhot air = ρatm −

Wload
g∀
(
= 1.2266 kg3 −
m ) m
2670 N
3
(9.81 2 )(1767.15 m )
= 1.0726 kg3
m
s
69

Finally, to obtain the temperature of this hot air, we can use the ideal gas
equation in the following form

 p   p 
 ρRT  = 
 hot air  ρRT atm

ρatm 1.2266 kg3

Thot air = Tatm = (15+273.15 ) m
= 329.5 K = 56.4o C
ρhot air 1.0726 kg3
m

Discussion: Absolute pressures and temperatures are always used in

the ideal gas equation. This problem demonstrates that for lighter-than-
air vehicles the buoyancy force exceeds the vehicle weight—that is,
the weight of fluid (air) displaced exceeds the vehicle weight.

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Stability
Body is stable (equilibrium position) when displaced, it returns to its
equilibrium position.

It is in an unstable when displaced, it moves to a new equilibrium

position.

Stability considerations are particularly important for submerged or

floating bodies. A small rotation can result in either a restoring or
overturning couple.

71

For the relatively tall, slender bodies, a small rotational displacement

can cause the buoyant force and the weight to form an overturning
couple as illustrated below.

Determining the stability of submerged or floating bodies can be

difficult since the analysis depends on geometry and weight of the
body.

72

36