FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION IWO

OSUN STATE NIGERIA.

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE

ASSIGNMENT ON

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

&
TRADITIONAL AFRICAN IDEAS ABOUT LEARNING

COURSE TITLE: SCIENCE EDUCATION 1

COURSE CODE: ISC112

Presented by:

GROUP ONE

ADAM HABEEBAT ADEOLA ISC D.M

BAMIMORE MARIAM ABAKE ISC/BIO
KAZEEM KEHINDE ISC/BIO

OGUNNIRAN TUNDE OLAMIDE ISC/BIO 23/ISC/003

OYEGBILE NASIF CSC/ISC
.
.
MR ADEDIRAN
(Lecturer-in-charge)

JANUARY, 2024

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Introduction
The nature of science with scientific discoveries has made it an imperative to pay serious
attention to scientific method. This is done with the view of ascertaining the way of science. Here
the question of science and what it is poses itself. Nevertheless, we must know ahead that the
concept of science and its analyses is deeply enmeshed in an avalanche of polysemicity. In other
words, the notion of science has been variously defined or described. But, here, we need a specific,
operational definition. First, we take on the concepts of history and philosophy.

History
The term history is an English version of the Greek historia and the Latin historia. While the Greek
historia means inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation; the Latin historia means story or
account. As coined by Nikolaos Gysis, historia is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well
as the discovery, collection, organization and presentation of information about those events. Also,
history could be termed a chronological account of events in time. This idea is well represented in
the Latin version of historia, which means story or account. As an academic discipline, history uses
a narrative technique to examine and analyze a sequence of past events as well as objectively
determine the dynamics and peculiar root causes of the events. Thus, history is characterized with:
1: Passion for research/investigation
2: Objectivity in recording the discoveries
3: Concern for the preservation of facts
4: Ability to understand/interpret facts and pieces of information

However, the 5th century Greek Herodotus has been identified as the father of the western
tradition of history. His unique interest in culture and the military interest of Thucydides, his
contemporary, became foundational to modern western history. The relevance of history need not be
over emphasized. Hence, George Santayana held that ‘those who cannot remember the past are
condemned to repeat it’.

Philosophy
The term philosophy is also an English version of the Greek phrase Philos tes Sophia. ‘Philos’
means ‘love’, ‘Philein’ means ‘to love’ and ‘Sophia’ means ‘wisdom’. Thus, etymologically (from
the root of the word), philosophy means ‘love of wisdom’. This literal translation, simple as it is,
aptly defines philosophy in entirety. But the concept of love here does not imply a mere affective
orientation or admiration of wisdom or knowledge. For instance, one could say of an eloquent
speaker, “I love (admire) his command of language” or of a persuasive/motivational speaker, “I
always love (admire) his gaits”. Again, one may be fascinated and endeared to plausible
results/outcome of certain intellectual endeavor; s/he may as well be in perpetual sincere
appreciation of what the human mind can/actually sachieve(s). Yet, such levels of affective
orientation do not, in the least sense, explain the word love, as used in the original Greek sense.
Love in this context, goes beyond a passive attitude to become an active exercise voluntarily
embarked upon. It goes beyond a passive attitude of admiring any given thing to become a
commitment to an active exercise of the intellects natural desire to understand. Philia, a feminine
gender of the verb philein, simply implies an irresistible drive (eros), a burning desire, a passion
which often overwhelms the individual. Love of wisdom therefore, goes beyond a passive
admiration of values and or concepts to imply an active radical exercise of the intellect in attempts
to articulate fundamental principles and evaluate/ justify certain claims, values or concepts. As an
exercise of love, it is a commitment freely embarked upon and exercised in an ambience of liberty
and simplicity. Hence, philosophy is a voluntary commitment to articulate fundamental principles,
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evaluate/justify certain claims and dispassionately search for values in human affairs/concerns
through a dynamic radical exercise of the intellect. In a similar vein, Olusegun Oladipo underscored
philosophy in three perspectives: as the formulation or construction of world-views, critical thinking
and as a rational, but non-scientific, quest for understanding ( Thinking about Philosophy,12).
Given this understanding of philosophy from the roots of the word, it becomes necessary to hold
that philosophy could be seen as a natural disposition and as a cultivated habit. It is a natural
disposition for those who have the propensity by nature, to articulate fundamental principles,
evaluate/ justify certain claims and dispassionately search for values in human affairs/concerns
through a dynamic radical exercise of the intellect. But it is a cultivated habit for those who, either
through formal tutelage or social acquaintance, voluntarily commit themselves to articulating
fundamental principles, evaluate/justify certain claims and dispassionately search for values in
human affairs/concerns through a dynamic radical exercise of the intellect.

What is Science?
Science is a systematic body of knowledge which is made, popularised, confirmed and sometimes
rejected by the scientific community. Otherwise expressed, science is a systematic body of
knowledge which is enacted, promulgated, ratified and sometimes repealed by the scientific
community (Essien, “The Logic of Scientific Method”, 2008). Science involves a step-by step
observation, experimentation and investigation of nature.
Etymologically, science means knowledge, from the Latin word ‘Scientia’. Natural philosophy was
the name under which science was studied before it broke away from philosophy when much
emphasis was placed on the scientific method by Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon and Thomas
Hobbes. The scientific method involves acquiring knowledge through critical observation,
formation of hypothesis or informed guess and experimenting to see whether the results match the
hypothesis. Results that match the hypothesis become theories and theories that pass the test of time
become scientific laws. In the scientific method is the scientific technique which involves the use of
scientific tools in carrying out experiments. The tools include physical tools such as the apparatus
and equipment used, and non-physical like the ideas that are in the mind of the researcher.

The Greek word “Episteme”, the Latin word “Scientia”, the German word “Wissenschaft”, and the
Russian word “Nauka” all refer to science as a systematic body of knowledge. For Heidegger, the
term “science” today means something essentially different from the “doctrina” and the “scientia”
of the Middle Ages, and also from Greek “episteme” (Heidegger, 1977). Heidegger means that one
commonly characterizes modern science in contradistinction to medieval science by saying that
modern science starts from facts while medieval science started from general speculative
propositions and concepts (Heidegger, 1977). For placing theory before facts and observation,
Popper may be referred to as thinking science the medieval way, if the said characterization of
science is anything to go by. Galileo’s thought experiment would not be far from this analysis,
therefore. Nonetheless, one may likely get a clearer view of the concept of “science” when it is
understood in broad and narrow senses.

The History and Philosophy of Integrated Science

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 I'm excited to dive into the history and philosophy of integrated science with you. Let's explore this
fascinating topic together!

The history of integrated science can be traced back to the recognition that scientific disciplines are
interconnected. In the past, scientific fields were often studied in isolation, but over time, scientists
began to realize that a more holistic approach was needed to fully understand the natural world. This
led to the emergence of integrated science, which aims to bring together different disciplines, such
as biology, chemistry, and physics, to gain a deeper understanding of the complex systems that
govern our universe.

One influential figure in the history of integrated science is Alexander von Humboldt. In the 19th
century, Humboldt conducted extensive scientific explorations, collecting data on various aspects of
nature. His work emphasized the interconnectedness of different scientific disciplines and the
importance of studying them together. Humboldt's holistic approach laid the foundation for the
integration of scientific knowledge.

Another key milestone in the history of integrated science is the development of systems theory.
Systems theory recognizes that natural phenomena are composed of interconnected parts that
interact with each other. By studying these interactions, scientists can gain a more comprehensive
understanding of complex systems. This approach has been particularly influential in fields such as
ecology, where the study of ecosystems requires an integrated understanding of various biological
and environmental factors.

In terms of philosophy, integrated science raises important questions about the nature of scientific
knowledge and the methods used to acquire it. One prominent philosophical perspective is that of
Thomas Kuhn, who introduced the concept of "paradigm shifts." According to Kuhn, scientific
knowledge doesn't progress in a linear manner, but rather through revolutionary changes in
dominant scientific theories. These paradigm shifts occur when new discoveries challenge existing
beliefs and lead to a fundamental rethinking of scientific frameworks.

Another influential philosopher of science is Paul Feyerabend, who advocated for methodological
pluralism. Feyerabend argued that there is no single "correct" scientific method and that different
approaches should be embraced to foster creativity and progress. He believed that rigid adherence to
a single methodology can stifle scientific innovation and limit our understanding of the world.

The history and philosophy of integrated science continue to evolve as scientists and philosophers
explore new ways of integrating knowledge from diverse disciplines. This interdisciplinary
approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena and opens up new
avenues for scientific exploration.

TRADITIONAL AFRICAN IDEAS ABOUT LEARNING

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Traditional African cultures have a rich and diverse set of ideas about learning and education. In
many African societies, learning is seen as a communal and lifelong process, where knowledge is
passed down from one generation to the next through oral traditions, storytelling, and practical
experiences.

Let's dive deeper into this fascinating topic and explore some examples of traditional African ideas
about learning.

One example of traditional African learning is through oral traditions and storytelling. In many
African cultures, stories are used as a means of transmitting knowledge, values, and cultural
heritage. Elders and storytellers play a vital role in sharing these stories, which often contain
important life lessons and moral teachings.

For instance, in West Africa, the Griots are the traditional storytellers and keepers of history. They
pass down the oral traditions of their communities through storytelling, songs, and poetry. Griots are
highly respected and are responsible for preserving the history, genealogy, and cultural traditions of
their people.

Another example is the use of apprenticeship and mentorship as a form of learning. In traditional
African societies, individuals learn practical skills and trades through hands-on experience and
guidance from skilled craftsmen or community members. This form of learning is often
characterized by a master-apprentice relationship, where the apprentice learns through observation,
imitation, and practice.

For instance, in the Maasai community of East Africa, young boys undergo a rite of passage called
"Emanyatta" to become warriors. During this process, they are mentored by older warriors who
teach them essential skills such as tracking, hunting, and herding. Through this apprenticeship, the
young boys acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to become responsible members of their
community.

In addition to oral traditions and apprenticeship, traditional African cultures also emphasize the
importance of communal learning. Learning is not seen as an individual pursuit but as a collective
endeavor that involves the entire community. This communal approach to learning fosters a sense of
belonging, cooperation, and shared responsibility.

For example, in the Akan culture of Ghana, there is a concept called "Nsamanfo," which means
"community of learners." This concept highlights the belief that everyone in the community has
something to contribute and learn from each other. It encourages individuals to share their
knowledge and experiences, creating a supportive and collaborative learning environment.

Furthermore, traditional African cultures often value holistic education, which encompasses not
only intellectual development but also spiritual, social, and emotional growth. Education is seen as a
means of nurturing the whole person and preparing individuals to contribute meaningfully to their
communities

Conclusion
In conclusion, traditional African societies often value experiential learning, where individuals
acquire knowledge and skills through hands-on activities and practical experiences. This can include
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activities such as farming, hunting, craftsmanship, and communal work. By actively participating in
these activities, individuals gain a deep understanding of their environment, develop practical skills,
and learn important life lessons.

It's important to note that traditional African ideas about learning and education vary across
different cultures and regions. Each community has its own unique practices and beliefs regarding
education. However, the overarching theme in traditional African cultures is the recognition of the
importance of learning as a lifelong journey that encompasses not only intellectual growth but also
the development of character, values, and a sense of community.

REFERENCE

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103.
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