Autonomous Nervous System:

• The autonomous nervous system is composed of a chain of nerve

ganglion which runs along the spinal cord.

• It controls all the involuntary actions in the human body.

• The autonomous nervous system can be divided into two parts :

• Sympathetic nervous system.

• Parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic Nervous System:

• This part of the autonomous nervous system increases the activity

of an organ as per the need.

• For example, during running, there is an increased demand for

oxygen by the body. This is fulfilled by an increased breathing rate and increased
heart rate.

• The sympathetic nervous system works to increase the breathing

rate the heart rate, in this case.

Parasympathetic Nervous System:

• This part of the autonomous nervous system slows down the

activity of an organ and thus has a calming effect.

• During sleep, the breathing rate slows down and so does the
heart rate.

• This is facilitated by the parasympathetic nervous system.

Receptors:
• Receptors are the specialized tips of the nerve fibres that collect the
information to be conducted by the nerves.

• Receptors are in the sense organs of the animals.

• These are classified as follows :
• Phono-receptors: These are present in inner ear.
Functions: The main functions are hearing and balance of the body.
 • Photo-receptors: These are present in the eye.
Function: These are responsible for visual stimulus.
• Thermo-receptors: These are present in skin.
Functions: These receptors are responsible for pain, touch and heat stimuli.
These receptors are also known as thermo receptors.
• Olfactory-receptors: These are present in nose.
Functions: These receptors receive smell.
• Gustatory-receptors: These are present in the tongue.
Functions: These helps in taste detection.
Human Brain:

• Human brain is a highly complex organ, which is mainly

composed of nervous tissue.

• The tissues are highly folded to accommodate a large surface

area in less space.

• The brain is covered by a three-layered system of membranes,

called meninges.

• Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the meninges.

• The CSF provides cushion to the brain against mechanical

shocks. Furthermore , protection.

• The human brain can be divided into three regions:

• Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.

• Mid-brain
• Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla
oblongata
(a) Fore-brain (CEREBRUM)
• Most complex/specialized part of the brain is cerebrum or the forebrain.
• The cerebrum is the largest part in the human brains.
• It is divided into two hemispheres called cerebral hemispheres.
Functions
• Thinking part of the brain
• Control the voluntary actions.
• Store information (Memory) and learning.
 • Centre associated with hunger.
• Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and integrates it.

Cerebellum:

• Cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole
structure. It coordinates the motor functions.

• When you are riding your bicycle, the perfect coordination between
your pedaling and steering control is achieved by the cerebellum.

Functions :

• It controls posture and balance.

• It controls the precision of voluntary action.
Medulla:

• Medulla forms the brain stem, along with the pons.

• It lies at the base of the brain and continues into the spinal cord.

• The medulla controls various involuntary functions, like hear beat

respiration, etc.

• It controls involuntary actions.

Functions :

• Blood pressure

• salivation

• vomiting

Pons:
It relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord, and higher parts of the
brain like the cerebrum and midbrain, also regulates respiration.

Spinal cord:

Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts massages between different parts
of the body and brain.

Protection of brain and spinal cord

• Brain is protected by a fluid filled(CSF) balloon which acts as

shocks absorber and enclosed in cranium (Brain box)

• Spinal cord is enclosed in vertebral column.

Endocrine System:

• The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands.

• A ductless gland is called endocrine gland.

• Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream.

• Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands.

• Hormone is mainly composed of protein.

• Hormones assist the nervous system in control and co-ordination.

• Nervous do not react to every nook and corner of the body and
hence hormones are needed to affect control and coordination in those parts.

• Moreover, unlike nervous control, hormonal control is somewhat

slower.

Hormones:
 • These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small
amounts by specialized tissues called ductless glands.

• They act on target tissues/organs usually away from their source.

• Endocrine System helps in control and coordination through

chemical compounds called hormones.

Endocrine Gland

Location
Hormones Produced
Functions
Pituitary gland (also known as the master gland)
At the base of the brain
Growth hormone (GH).

GH stimulates growth.

Thyroid Gland
Neck
Thyroxine
Controls general metabolism and growth in the body.
Adrenal gland
Above kidneys
Adrenalin
Prepares the body for emergency situations and hence is also called ‘Fight and flight’
hormone/emergency hormone/ stress hormone
Pancreas(mixed gland)
Near stomach
Insulin
Controls blood sugar level
Testis (male)
In Scrotum
Testosterone
Sperm production, development of secondary sexual characters during puberty.
Ovary (female)
Near uterus
Oestrogen
Egg production, development of secondary sexual characters during puberty.

Goitre:
Iodised salt is necessary because iodine mineral is essential part of thyroxin hormone so it is
important that we must consume iodised salt as in turn it is essential for thyroid gland as it
controls carbohydrate, proteins and fat metabolism for best balance of growth deficiency of
iodine might cause disease called goitre.

Diabetes:

Cause : It is due to deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by pancreas that is responsible to

lower/control the blood sugar levels.

Treatment : Patients have to internally administer injections of insulin hormone which helps in
regulating blood-sugar level.

Emergency situation

In case of flight or fight reaction to an emergency situation, Adrenal glands → release adrenaline
into blood → which acts on heart and other tissues → causes faster heart beat → more oxygen to
muscles → reduced blood supply to digestive system and skin → diversion of blood to skeletal
muscles → increase in breathing rate.

Feedback mechanism:

A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one substance in body influences the
level of another.

It controls amount and timing for secretion of hormones.

Coordination in Plants:

• Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system.

• Plants use chemical means for control and co-ordination.

• Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in

plants.

• Movements plants can be divided into two main types :

 1.Tropic movement 2. Nastic movement

1. Tropic Movement: There are four types of tropic movements.

(i) Geotropic movement: The growth in a plant part in response to the gravity is called geotropic
movement. Roots usually show positive geotropic movement, i.e. they grow in the direction of
the gravity. Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.

(ii) Phototropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to light is called phototropic
movement. Stems usually show positive phototropic movement, while roots usually show
negative phototropic movement. If a plant is kept in a container in which no sunlight reaches and
a hole in the container allows some sunlight; the stem finally grows in the direction of the
sunlight. This happens because of a higher rate of cell division in the part of stem which is away
from the sunlight. As a result, the stem bends towards the light. The heightened rate of cell
division is attained by increased secretion of the plant hormone auxin in the which is away from
sunlight.

(iii) Hydrotropic Movement: When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards the nearest
source of water. This shows a positive hydrotropic movement.

(iv) Chemotropism Movement: Chemotropism is the growth of an organism in

response to a chemical stimulus from outside the organism. This growth can
be positive or negative, depending on whether it's directed towards or away
from the stimulus. The growth of a pollen tube towards an ovule is an example of
positive chemotropism. The pollen tube grows towards the sugary stimulus secreted
by the ovary.

2. Nastic Movement: The movement which do not depend on the direction from the stimulus acts
are called nastic movement. For example, when someone touches the leaves of mimosa, the
leaves droop. The drooping is independent of the direction from which the leaves are touched.
Such movements usually happen because of changing water balance in the cells. When leaves of
mimosa are touched, the cells in the leaves lose- water and become flaccid, resulting in drooping
of leaves.

Plant hormones: Plant hormones are chemical which help to co-ordinate growth, development
and responses to the environment.
Type of plant hormones:

• Auxin: (Synthesized at shoot and root tip).

Function: Helps in growth.
Phototropism: more growth of cells towards the light.
• Gibberellin: Helps in the growth of the stem.
• Cytokinins: Promotes cell division.
• Abscisic acid: Inhibits growth, cause wilting of leaves. (Stress hormone)
• Ethylene: Fruit ripening, stress response, flower opening, Leaf abscission,
etc.